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Describing learning
1n-native-
no longer
n the end,
contexts
r teaching

tA The place and means of instruction I

We have already seen that English is studied for a number of reasons (Chapter 1, B4). People
engaged in commerce - or who are hoping to work in a business environment - study
business English. Students who are about go to university- or who are already there - study
EAP (English for Academic Purposes), while others may study English for tourism, science
and technology, medicine, etc.
Schools and language schools: a huge number of students learn English in primary and
~ghly secondary classrooms around the world. They have not chosen to do this themselves,
teacher but learn because English is on the curriculum. Depending on the country, area and the
school itself, they may have the advantage of well-equipped rooms and the latest classroom
equipment and information technology (IT), or they may, as in many parts of the world,
0 (2000),
be sitting in rows in classrooms with a blackboard and no other teaching aid.
context, A
Private language schools, on the other hand, tend to be better equipped than some
iir chance'. government schools (though this is not always the case). They will frequently have smaller
class sizes and, crucially, the students in them may well have chosen to come and study.
,zwaj (1999)
In-school and in-company: the vast majority of language classes in the world take place
in educational institutions such as the schools and language schools we have already
mentioned, and, in addition, colleges and universities. In such situations teachers have to be
aware of school policy and conform to syllabus and curriculum decisions taken by whoever
is responsible for the academic running of the school. There may well be learning outcomes
which students are expected to achieve, and students may be preparing for specific exams.
A number of companies also offer language classes and expect teachers to go to the
company office or factory to teach. Here the 'classroom' may not be quite as appropriate
as those which are specially designed for teaching and learning. But more inJportantly, the
teacher may need to negotiate the class content, not only with the students but also with
whoever is paying for the tuition.

Real and virtual learning environments: language learning has traditionally involved a
teamer and a student or students being in the same physical space. However, the development
of high-speed Internet access has helped to bring about new virtual learning environments
in which students can learn even when they are literally thousands of miles away (and in a
different tinJe zone) from a teacher or other classmates.
Some of the issues for both real and virtual learning environments are the same. Students
still need to be motivated (see pages 98-104) and we still need to offer help i~ that area. As
a result, the best virtual learning sites have online tutors who interact with their students
121
 via email or online.chat forums. It is also possible to create groups of students who are all
following the same online programme, and who can, therefore, 'talk' to each other in the same t
way (i.e. ele~tronically). But despite these interpersonal elements, some students find it more
difficult to sustain their motivation online than they might as part of a real learning group. I
Virtual learning is significantly different from face-to-face learning for a number of
reasons. Firstly, for the most part, students can attend lessons when they want (though
real-time chat forums have to be scheduled), rather than when lessons are timetabled (as in
schools). Secondly, it no longer matters where the students are since they can log on from
any location in the world.
Online learning may have these advantages, but some of the benefits of real learning
environments are Jess easy to replicate electronically. These include the physical reality of
having teachers and students around you when you are learning so that you can see their
expressions and get messages from their gestures, tone of voice, etc. Many learners will
prefer the presence of real people to the sight of a screen, with or without pictures and video.
Of course, some communication software (such as MSN Messenger and Skype) allows users
to see each other on the screen as they communicate, but this is still less attractive - and
considerably more jerky-than being face to face with the teacher and fellow students. And,
of course, whereas in real learning environments learning can tal<e place with very little
technical equipment, virtual learning relies on good hardware and software, and effective
and reliable Internet connections.

a Class size
English language classes vary greatly in size. Some students opt for private lessons, so the
teacher only has to deal with one student at a time. However, some teachers have classes of as
many as 100 (and sometimes even more)! Everything depends on the particular education
system that a teacher is working in. That is why, if you ask a teacher what a 'large class' is, they
might answer 20, 40, 60 or So students.
The techniques we use will depend to some extent on how big our classes are. Whereas
pairwork, for example, is extremely useful for larger groups (see Chapter 10, A4) if we want to
maximise individual student talking time, it is perhaps less necessary in a group of, say, five
students where everyone will have plenty of opportunities to speak during a lesson. Having
students make mini-presentations is clearly less stressful for them in small groups than it
is if they find themselves talking in front of 50 of their peers: Having So students milling
around the classroom presents more extreme logistical problems than it does when there are
14 students in the room.
We will look at the two extremes of the class-size debate, one-to-one teaching and large
classes.

-81; Teaching one-to-one

A special teaching context is that of an individual student working alone with a teacher over
a period of hours or weeks in what are often referred to as 'private classes'. Such one-to-one
teaching is extremely popular, especially for business students. But it is also ideal for students
who cannot fit into normal school schedules or who are keen to have individual attention
rather than being part of a group.
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s who are all One-to-one lessons have considerable advantages over classes with two or more students
~rin the same in the group. In the'first place, whereas in a group an individual student only gets a part of
s find it more the teacher's.attention, in a private lesson the teacher is focused exclusively on one person. In
ninggroup. such circumstances, too, the student has opportunities to do all the student speaking, ratlier
a number of than only receiving a fraction of the total spealdng time. Even more importantly than this,
rnnt (though both teacher and student can tailor tlie course to exactly what is appropriate for that one
etabled (as in student, ratlier than having to reach a compromise based on what is suitable for a group as
ilogon from a whole. This has enormous advantages not only for tlie designing of a programme of study
(where tlie syllabus and content can be matched to a particular student's needs and interests),
real learning but also in terms of the student's learning style and what kind of stinmlus (visual, audio, etc.)
;ical reality of tliey respond to best (see Chapter 5, B4). One-to-one students get greatly enhanced feedback
i can see their from their teachers.
r learners will It is also much easier to be flexible when teaching individual students than it is when
1Ies and video. managing a class. Changing an activity and moving on to something completely different
e) allows users presents less of a problem witli one student than with 30. If appropriate, tlie teacher and the
tractive - and student can, on tlie spur of the moment, agree to leave tlie classroom (to do some language
students.And, research, for example) and tliis does not cause tlie kind of organisational and logistical
with very little problems that moving a whole group around is likely to entail. Above all, one-to-one teaching
,, and effective allows teachers to enter into a genuinely dialogic relationship with tlieir students in a way tliat
is considerably less feasible in a large group situation.
Nevertheless, one-to-one teaching is not without its drawbacks. The intensity of tlie
relationship makes the rapport (or lack of it) between teacher and student vitally important.
Some teachers find individual students difficult to deal with - sometimes simply because
lessons, so the they don't like them very much- and tlie same can be true of a student's feelings towards the
tve classes of as teacher. Some private students are lacking in confidence or untalkative for other reasons. Some
:ular education find tlie teacher's methodological style difficult to deal with because it is unfamiliar to tliem.
Students and teachers can often become tired and sleepy in one-to-one sessions because tlie
dynamic of a crowded classroom is missing. Some individual students can be very demanding
are. Whereas
::".S and constantly expect more and more from their teacher. And some students seem to expect a
4) ifwewantto private teacher to do all tlie work for them, forgetting that one-to-one learning demands just
oup of, say, five as much, if not more, from the student as it does from tlie teacher.
, lesson. Having It is difficult to be prescriptive about one-to-one teaching, especially since so much will
. groups man it depend on exactly who the people involved are, but the following guidelines are almost always
. ~
itudents milling appropriate:
Make a good impression: first impressions count witli groups of any size, but are especially
important when teaching one-to-one. With no group to help create an atmosphere, tlie
way tlie student perceives tlie teacher at their first encounter is of vital importance. This is
especially so since some one-to-one courses are of relatively short duration and there will
be less time to change a student's misconception.
A good impression is created bytlie way we present ourselves (in terms of our appearance)
and how we behave during tlie first lesson.
Be well-prepared: one of the most important ways of creating a good impression is to
show the student that we are well-prepared and tliat we have given tlioughtto what we are
'
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 CHAPTER]

going to do in the lasson. This does not mean we are going to stick to exactly what we have
planned, co.me what may; as with all lessons (but especially with one-to-one teaching), we
must be alert to what happens and respond accordingly, perhaps moving right away from
what we had intended to do. But if the student sees that we come well-prepared and with a
range of possible activities which might suit them, this will greatly boost their confidence
in us.
Be llen"ble: one-to-one lessons provide enormous opportunities for flexibility for the reasons
stated above. If a student is beginning to get tired, for example, it is not difficult to suggest
a two-minute break involving getting up and walking around. If a planned topic is failing
to arouse the student's interest (or the teacher's), it is relatively easy to switch to something
else, or to ask the student whether they would like to approach the topic in another way. If
language work is proving more or less difficult than anticipated, we will not find it impossible
to change the pace, move forwards or go back to something we studied earlier.

Adapt to the student: one of the great benefits of one-to-one lessons is that we can adapt
B:
what we do to suit a particular student's preferences and learning style. Robert E Jones, for
example, had problems with a 60-year-old Japanese student who was convinced she could
not learn. He was at his wits' end about how to help her make progress until, after a cycling
trip with his wife, he published a little magazine with photographs of his travels around
Hokkaido. Suddenly his student perked up. She was extremely interested in his trip, so
interested in fact that she had read the mini-magazine, translating every single word (in
defiance of orthodox wisdom), and she arrived for the next lesson happy, enthusiastic and
without her usual confidence-sapping doubts. Jones (2001) referred to this as 'Machiko's
breakthrough', but in a sense it was his own breakthrough because now he had found a key
to open Machiko's learning door. He could adapt to her interests (she liked to hear about
her teacher's life) and let her influence his methodology (however he might feel about going
through texts in this way).

listen and watch: adapting to students can only take place if we are extremely observant
about how individual students respond to different activities, styles and content. One-to-
one teachers need to listen just as much as they talk- indeed the balance should always be
in favour of listening. But we can also ask students to tell us how they are getting on, what
they need more or less of, and what they would like. Our ability to be flexible means that
getting such feedback (and observing our students) can help us to amend our plans to suit
specific individuals.

Give explanations and guidelines: when we first meet one-to-one students, it is irnportan t
to explain what is going to happen, and how the student can contribute to the programme
they are involved in. It is important to lay down guidelines about what they can expect the
teacher to do and be, and what the teacher expects of them. It is especially important, at this
stage, for students to know that they can influence what happens in the sessions by saying
what they want and need more and less of.

Don't be afraid to say no: one-to-one teachers should not be afraid to say no in two
specific situations. Firstly, the personality match with a student is sometime:;, unfortunately,
completely w1successful Normally we can get over this by being extremHy professional,

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Lat we have maintaining a distance between ourselves and the student, and letting the content of our
,ching), we lessons drive matters forward successfully. Sometimes, however, things just don't work.
away from In such r;uce situations teachers should be prepared to terminate the classes (if they are
and with a working for themselves) or expect that the institution they work for will make alternative
confidence arrangements for themselves and the student.
Some one-to-one teachers feel extremely pressurised when their student appears to want
more and more from them as if this will solve all their problems and teach them English
the reasons effortlessly. We have to be able to tell a student when their demands are excessive and say
t to suggest that we cannot do everything they are asking for. Most students will understand this.
1ic is failing
something One-to-one teaching, just like teaching larger groups, has huge advantages and some
>ther way. If disadvantages. By maximising the former, there is a good chance it can be rewarding for both
:impossible teacher and student.

r,.li!2 Large classes

e can adapt Many commentators talk about large classes as a problem, and it is certainly true that they
E Jones, for present challenges that smaller classes do not. How, for example, can we give students personal
:dshecould attention? How can we get students interacting with each other? What can we do to make
\er a cycling organisation smooth and effective?
vels around However, there are also many benefits to teaching large classes. As Natalie Hess points out
L his trip, so
(Hess 2001: 2-4), in large classes there are always enough students to get interaction going,
ile word (in and there is a rich variety of human resources. Furthermore, there are many possible 'teachers'
lUSiastic and in the class, and, as she says, we will never get bored because the challenge is great!
s 'Machiko's
There are a number of key elements in successful large-group teaching:
found a key
J hear about Be organised: the bigger the group, the more we have to be organised and know what we
about going are going to do before the lesson starts. It is much more difficult to change tack or respond
to individual concerns with a large class than it is with a group of four or five students.

:ly observant Establish routines: the daily management of a large class will be greatly enhanced if we
ent. One-to- establish routines that we and our students recognise straight away. This will make jobs
tld always be like taldng the register, setting and collecting homework, getting into pairs and groups, etc.
:ing on, what far easier. They will be done far more quickly and more efficiently if students know what
e means that is expected because they are routine operations. Part of our job at the start of a course,
plans to suit therefore, will be to establish good routines; this might take some time in the beginning,
but will save time later on.

tis important Use a different pace for different activities: in a small class - or in one-to-one teaching - it
eprogramme is not difficult to vary the pace of what we do on the basis of how the students are reacting.
an expect the Fairly early on in a course we will come to understand the strengths and weaknesses of
ortant, at this individuals. However, this is far more difficult in large groups and, as a result, we will need
ons by saying to be more careful about how we organise different activities with them. If we ask students
to say something in a large class, for example, we need to give them time to respond before
charging ahead. If we are conducting drills, we may be able to work at quite a fast pace, but if
:ay no in two
we are asking students to think about something, we will want to slow the pace right down.
mfortunately,
professional,
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 CHAPTER?-------------------------------

Maximise individual work: the more we can give students individual work, even in a
large class, the more we can mitigate the effects of always working with a large group 'as
a whole'. Perhaps we can get students to use graded readers (see page 283) as part of their
individual reading programme. We will show how this can be done in Chapter 17. When we
get students to build their own portfolio of work (see page 340), we are asking them to work
as individuals, too. We can get students to write individually- offering their own responses
to what they read and hear. We can encourage students to make full use of a school library
or self-access centre (see page 403). We can direct them to language learning websites, or
we can get them to produce their own biogs (see page 193).
Use stndents: we can give students a number of different responsibilities in the class.
For example, we can appoint class monitors whose job it is to collect homework or hand
out worksheets. Students can take the register (under our supervision) or organise their
classmates into groups.
We can ask some of our students to teach the others. This might mean asking individuals
to be in charge of a group who are preparing arguments for a debate, for example, or who
are going through a worksheet It might mean telling individual students that it is their job
.c
to explain some language to their group.
We need to choose our student 'leaders' with care, and we will then monitor their
performance very carefully. However linguistically able a student is, we will not want to use
them if they consistently offend their classmates, or if they panic when we ask them to perform
a task. As far as possible, we will try to give all students some responsibility some of the time.
Even where students are not doing extremely well at their language learning, there may be
tasks they can do, sucli as handing out worksheets. This will not only be useful for us, but may
give them some satisfaction, too, and this may affect their motivation very positively.
Use worksheets: one solution is for teacliers to hand out worksheets for many of the tasks
which they would normally do with the whole class, if the class were smaller. When the
feedback stage is reached, teachers can go through the worksheets with the whole group
- and all the students will get the benefit.

Use pairworkandgroupwork: in large classes, pairwork and groupwor k play an important

part since they maximise student participation. Even where chairs and desks cannot be
moved, there are ways of doing this: first rows turn to face second rows, third rows to
face fourth rows, etc. In more technologically equipped rooms;< students can work round
computer screens.
When using pairwork and groupwork with large groups, it is important to make
instructions especially clear, to agree how to stop the activity (many teachers just raise their
hands until students notice them and gradually quieten down) and to give good feedback.

Use chorus reaction: since it becomes difficult to use a lot of individual repetition and
controlled practice in a big group, it may be more appropriate to use students in chorus.
The class can be divided into two halves - the front five rows and the back five rows, for
example, or the left-hand and right-hand sides of the classroom. Each row/half can then
speak a part in a dialogue, ask or answer a question or repeat sentences or words. This is
especially useful at lower levels.

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k, even in a Take account of vision and acoustics: big classes often (but not always) take place in big
ge group 'as rooms. This has advantages if we want students to move around, but we also have to ensure
Jart of their that what we show or write can be seen and that what we say or play to the whole group
q.Whenwe (from an audio track or film clip) can be heard.
iemtowork Use the size of the group to your advantage: big groups have disadvantages, of course, but
rn responses they also have one main advantage - they are bigger, so humour is funnier, drama is more
:hool library dramatic and a good class feeling is warmer and more enveloping than it is in a small group.
websites, or We should never shy away from the potential that lecturing, acting and joking offer in such
a situation. We can organise activities which allow students to perform in this way, too.
in the class. No one chooses to have a large group: it makes the job of teaching even more challenging
rork or hand than it already is. However, some of the suggestions above will help to turn a potential disaster
rganise their into some kind of a success .

.g individuals
nple,orwho Managing mixed ability
it is their job Many teachers are extremely worried about the fact that they have students in their classes who
are at different levels of proficiency. Indeed, mixed-ability classes are a major preoccupation
1onitor their for most of us because they appear to make plarming - and the execution of plans in lessons
>t want to use - extremely difficult. Many teachers see mixed-ability classes as especially problematic. Yet in
mtoperform a real sense all classes have students with a mixture of different abilities and language levels.
ie of the time. We know this to be true given what we said about multiple intelligences and differing primary
, there may be perceived systems (what stimuli individual students respond best to - see page 90). And it is
Or us, but may inconceivable that any two students will have exactly the same knowledge of English at any
itively. one time. Even if we were able to assemble a class of complete beginners, it would soon be
clear that some were learning faster than others - or learning different things.
ny of the tasks
In private language schools and language institutes, we try to make this situation manageable
ler. When the
by giving students placement tests (see page 379) so thattheycan be put into classes with people
! whole group
who are at roughly the same level as they are. Within other school environments, students are
often streamed - that is re-grouped for language lessons according to their abilities. In other
ran important situations, however, such placement and streaming is not possible and so teachers are faced
!Sks cannot be with individuals who have different language knowledge, different intelligences, different
, third rows to learning speeds, and different learning styles and preferences. There is particular concern for
mworkround the needs not only of students who are having difficulty at the lawer end of the scale, but also
for 'gifted' children (Dinnocenti 1998). And even in placed and streamed groups, as we have
rtant to make suggested, we will still have a range of abilities in front of us.
; just raise their The response to this situation is to view the teacher's role with a group in terms of
>Od feedback. differentiation. In a differentiated classroom there are a variety of learning options designed
around students' different abilities and interests (Tomlinson 1995). We may, for example, give
repetition and
different students different tasks. Perhaps we could give them different things to read or listen
1ents in chorus.
to. We could respond to them differently, too, and group them according their different abilities.
k five rows, for
Of course, there are also times when we don't want to differentiate between individuals. For
IV/half can then
example, if we are giving students instructions or presenting new language, there are very
good reasons for teaching the group as a whole (see page 161). Furthermore, in so.me situations

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(see C4 below) real differentiation is extremely difficult to achieve. Nevertheless, it is clearly

desirablio to respond to the needs of the individual even though they are part of a group.

C1 Working with different content

One way of working with students at different levels and with different needs is to provide
them with different material, tailoring what we give them to their individual needs. Thus, for
example, we might give student A a text from an English language newspaper about a certain
topic. Student B might be directed to a website on the same topic but where the information
is not so dense. Student C might look at a simplified reader on the topic, and we might
provide Student D with a short text that we ourselves have written on the subject, written in
such a way as to be comprehensible to them. In this way, all the students are working at their
own individual levels.
One w~y of offering different content is to allow students to make choices about what
material they are going to work with. For example, we can offer them a range of possible
grammar or vocabulary exercises and they can choose which ones they want to do. If we wish
them to read outside the class, we will encourage them to choose which books they want to
read (in terms not only of topic, but also oflevel), since when they make their choice- rather
than having books chosen for them - they are far more likely to read with enthusiasm (see
Chapter 17,Al).
Giving students different content is an ideal way to differentiate between them. Nevertheless,
it is extremely problematic in large classes as we shall see in C4 below. Not only does it involve
considerably more teacher preparation time than non-differentiated content (because we will
have to search out a range of different exercises and materials for different individuals), but
giving feedback to students in class becomes a lot more complicated when we are responding
to a number of different tasks than it is when we are giving feedback about one. However,
content is only one area where we can differentiate between individuals.

C2 Different student actions

If we cannot (or do not want to) offer students different materials, we can, instead, get them
to do different things in response to the content they are all looking at or listening to.

Give students different tasks: we might ask all students to look at the same reading text,
but make a difference in terms of the tasks we ask them !o do in response to that text. Group
A, for example, might have to interpret the information in the text by reproducing it in
graphic form (say in charts and tables). Group B, on the other hand, might answer a series
of open-ended questions. Group C - the group we perceive as having the greatest need of
support- might be offered a series of multiple-choice questions (see page 382); their task
is to pick the correct response from two or more alternatives because we think this will be
easier for them than having to interpret all the information themselves.
Give stndents different roles: within a task we can give students different roles. If students
are doing a role-play, for example, in which a police officer is questioning a witness, we
might give the student playing the police officer the questions they should ask, whereas
the student playing the witness has to come up with their own way of <>xpressing what they
want to say. We will have done this because the student or students playlng the police officer

128
 I
DESCRl.BING LEARNING CONTEXTS

tis clearly clearly need more guidance than the others. If students are preparing for a debate, we might
~roup.
give Group A a lit of suggested arguments to prepare from whereas Group B (whom we
think nee1 less support) are told to come up with their own arguments.

Reward early finishers: if all the students are doing the same tasks with the same content,
to provide some may well finish earlier than others. We need to be able to offer such students extension
s. Thus, for tasks to reward their efforts and challenge them further (see page 173). However, such tasks
ut a certain should be chosen with care, since asking them to do 'the regular work, plus' inevitably seems
1formation punitive to them (Tomlinson 1995: 1).
I we might
:, written in Encourage different student responses: we can give students exactly the same materials
cing at their and tasks, but expect (and accept) different student responses to them. Seth Lindstromberg
discusses the use of flexible tasks (Lindstromberg 2004). These are tasks which make a
about what virtue out of differences between students. For example, we ask students to. write some true
of possible statements containing the words in, tomorrow, my, hope, the moon and five. Each sentence
J. If we wish must contain one of these words, and the maximum number of sentences is 12. The more
hey want to proficient students have a clear but high target to aim for, but everyone, including those who
:Jice - rather are not so able, have something purposeful to do. In response to a reading text, we can give I
'
II
,,

iusiasm (see students a number of tasks but know tliat not all of tlie students will complete all of tliem. '1
;, I,
Ahnost anytime we ask students to respond creat ivelyto a stimulus, we are allowing for I
I'
'-!evertheless, differences in such a response. For example, we might ask students to complete a sentence
oes it involve such as One of the things I would really like to do before I am 30 is ... ; their completions will
cause we will depend to some extent on how language proficient they are. In a poetry activity we might
viduals), but ask them to describe someone as if they were a kind of weather. Some students might just
e responding write You are sunshine, whereas others might go one step further and write something like
ne. However, You are sunshine after the rain, and yet others whose language level is considerably higher
might come up with You are the gentle breeze of a dreamy summer afternoon, which might
not be great poetry, but it does suggest a degree oflinguistic sophistication.
Many activities are, by their very nature, flexible in the way that Seth Lindstromberg
suggests. Such activities are extremely appropriate when considering students of mixed : I

ing to. ability.

e reading text, Identify student strengths (linguistic or non-linguistic): one of the ways we can make
tat text. Group a virtue of different student abilities is to include tasks which do not necessarily demand
roducing it in linguistic brilliance but instead allow students to show off oth~r talents they have. Students
answer a series who are good artists, for example, can lead the design of a poster or wall chart. A student with
reatest need o developed scientific intelligence may be asked to explain a scientific concept before students
382); their tas are asked read a science-based text. If studeuts have special knowledge of contemporary
ink this will b music, we can ask tliem to select pieces to be played while groupwork takes place. These
examples are ways of giving individual students a chauce to be 'best' at something, even
where they might be weaker, linguistically, than some of their colleagues. , I

What the teacher does

Although there are many occasions when we work with the students in our lessons as one big
group (see C4 below), there are others when we may want to put them in differ<;_nt (smaller)

129
 groups depending on tqeir different abilities. But whether we are working with the whole
class, with small~r groups or with individuals, we will treat different students differently.
Responding to stndents: during lessons we frequently have to respond to students, giving
them feedback about how they are doing (see Chapter 8), or acting as a resource or tutor
(see page no). In such circumstances we always try to tailor our response to the particular G
individual we are dealing with. Some students are more sensitive than others, and so we
will correct them with more care than their more robust colleagues. Some students need to
see things in order to be able to respond to them, whereas others respond better by having
things explained to them orally.
When students are working in pairs or groups and we are monitoring their progress (see
pagei72), we will react to them (or intervene) depending on how well they are getting on.
Students who are experiencing difficulty may need us to help them clear up some problems;
we might have to correct some language use, or help them to organise information logically,
for example. If they are working on a webquest on the Internet (see page i91), we might
have to show them which link to follow or what to do next. But we can also push the
higher achieving groups to go further by asking them how they might say something more
I
I effectively, or suggesting an extension to what they are doing. This kind of flexible response
is one of the main aspects of differentiation. However, we need to malce sure that in spending
time with particular groups we do not ignore or exclude others (see below).
Being inclusive: a big danger for students in mixed-ability classes is that some of them
may get left behind or may become disengaged with what is happening. If we spend a lot
of time with the higher-level students in a class, the students who are less linguistically able
may feel that they are being ignored and become demotivated as a result. If, on the other
hand, we spend all our time with students who we think need our help more than others,
the higher-level students may feel neglected and unchallenged. Such students can quickly
lose interest in the class and develop an attitude which makes them difficult to work with.
The skill of a mixed-ability teacher is to draw all of the students into the lesson. When
setting a task with the whole group (perhaps by asking initial questions to build up
a situation), teachers will want to start by working at a level that all of the students are
comfortable with. She will ask questions that all the students can understand and relate
to so that their interest is aroused and so that they all understand the goal they are ainling
for. Once they are all involved with the topic or the task, she may allow for differentiation
in any of the ways we have discussed above. But her initiai' task is to include and engage
everyone - because students who feel they are excluded will soon start to behave as if they
are excluded!
Flext"ble groupings: we can group students flexibly for a number of tasks. Sometimes we
might put them in different groups so that each group can do different tasks. We might
group them so that different groups can read different texts, depending on the difficulty of
the texts. At other times, however, we might put students at different levels in the same group
because we believe that the weaker students will benefit from working with students at a
higher linguistic level and because, atthe same time, we believe the higher-level students will
gain insights about the language, for example, by having to explain it to th.eir colleagues.

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ti the whole In Chapter 10 we will discuss student groupings in detail since there are many issues to
ferently. be taken into atcount when deciding when and how students should work in pairs, as a
dents, giving whole group or individually.
1rce or tutor
1e particular C4 Realistic mixed-ability teaching
:s, and so we In an ideal classroom we would have tinle and the opportunity to work witli ind:ividuals-as-
lents need to individuals all the time. However, tliis is extremely difficult in large classes, and especially
ter by having problematic when teachers see, for example, up to nine different groups of students in any
one week. Planning for significant differentiation in such a situation is a far more daunting
progress (see prospect than building differentiation into lessons for a group we see all day every day (in a
ce getting on. primary school, for example).
ne problems; The degree to which we are able to differentiate between individuals depends on the
ti on logically, physical situation in which their learning takes place. If we teach in overcrowded classrooms,
11), we might it will be difficult to set up different corners in the room where different students can go to
1so push the perform different tasks. On the other hand, if the school is equipped witli a well-stocked
letliing more self-access centre (see page 403) where students can go and work individually on a range of
:ible response materials which are available there, then it will be much easier to build individual learning
tt iu spending programmes into tlie curriculum. If different students can have access to different computers
in a lesson, tliey can be doing different Internet-based tasks, but with only one computer this
will be more difficult (yet even here, of course, we can have different students going to the
ome of tliem computer at different times).
1e spend a lot While we recognise the need for differentiation, we need to be realistic about how we can
uistically able achieve it - and how much differentiation we can achieve. For example, it is much easier,
, on the other logistically, to gauge our response to individuals based on tlieir ability and who tliey are than
e than others, it is to plan individual schemes of work for nine groups of 30 students each. Responding
ts can quickly differently demands great sensitivity to our students, but it is physically possible, whereas
to work w:itli. handing out 25 different worksheets to different students or pairs of students presents us
lesson. When w:ith greater problems. Perhaps it makes sense, therefore, to concentrate more on the kind of
s to build up flexible tasks we have described above. When considering differentiation, therefore, we need
, students are to work out what is possible and what is not.
nd and relate We need to remember, too, that tliere are tinles when we want to teach the class as a whole.
tey are ainling This may be because we want to build or reinforce the group's identity or it may be because
lifferentiation we believe tliat everyone in tlie group should learn the same t.hing or be offered the same
le and engage information. As with so many otlier areas of learning and teaching, we do tlie best we can in
have as if tliey tlie circumstances in which we find ourselves.
Finally, it is worth pointing out that learner training and the encouragement of learner
~ometimes we autonomy (see Chapterr 23B) is tlie ultimate achievement of differentiation. If we can get
11

sks. We might individual students to take responsibility for ilieir own learning, they are acting as autonomous
1e difficulty of individuals, and differentiation has ilius been achieved. However, ilie need for such autonomy
and ilie way that we promote it to and w:iili our students raises many complex issues, as we I!
he same group I
1 students at a shall see in Chapter 23.
el students will
ir colleagues.

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 CHAPTER? ----------------------~--------

D Monolingual, bilingual and multilingual

At a conferenc1' in Singapore, Peter Martin (2006) quoted an English language teacher from
'1 Brunei whom he had interviewed:

I try not to [use Malay] but sometimes you have to. If we don't use Malay, they won't
understand, especially some of the textbooks. The words are difficult. I don't like
to use Malay if inspectors are here but I sometimes do. Otherwise they [the pupils]
won't understand and they [the inspectors) might consider us as bad teachers.
In one short contribution this teacher encapsulates many of the issues that surround the use
of the students' first language (L1) in an English-language (L2) classroom. Perhaps the most
striking aspect of her contribution is the suggestion that the inspector would frown upon her
use of the students' language in a lesson. Clearly, she would be doing something wrong.
The idea that the only language teachers and students can use in the foreign language
classroom is the one they are learning came about because of the Direct Method (seepage 63).
And it came about, too, because teachers from English-speaking countries were travelling the
world teaching people whose first language they themselves could not speak. Perhaps it was
also the result of a methodology grounded- at least from countries such as Britain, the USA,
Canada and Australia- in the problems and advantages of teaching classes where students had
a mixture of first languages so that English became not only the focus oflearning but also the
medium of instruction. But for whatever reason, there is still a strong body of opinion which
says that the classroom should be an English-only environment. However, this opinion is now
seriously questioned by the majority of methodologists and, instead, a view of how and when
to use the Li in the classroom has become the main subject for debate. This is especially the
case since the teacher above notes that if she doesn't 'use Malay, they won't understand'.

01 Foreign-language students and their first language

There are some powerful arguments in favour of English-only classrooms. Chief of these is
the idea that if English is the medium of communication in a classroom, then students will be
provoked into more and more communication attempts, and in the process language learning
may well 'take care of itself' (a view we questioned in Chapter 3, A3). Furthermore, as we have
suggested, in classes where students have different first-language backgrounds, such a policy
may be the only realistic option. Nevertheless some kind of a ban on the use of a person's
Li seems unfortunate for a number of reasons. In the first place, it seems highly probable
that our identity is shaped to some extent by the language or languages we learn as children.
This is the case when children are brought up monolingually, or more commonly bilingually,
where they often have a home language and a public language. Any of these will help to shape
their way of seeing and, of course, enable them to communicate in the world around them.
And our natural inclination to communicate in our mother tongue is non-negotiable; it is
just part of what makes us 'us', even if this is sometimes politically uncomfortable. Why else,
after all, would dictators try to suppress the use of languages whose speakers they come into
conflict with, as they have done countless times in history?
And so, whether we like it or not, students in our classrooms are going to be operating botli
in their first language and in the language they are studying. They may do this because we
encourage it. They may use their Li in the classroom to communicate with each other (whether
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we want them to or not- Harbord 1992), or they may be translating what they are learning in
their heads. Indeed,'this latter process is a natural part of any language learner's behaviour. We
eacher from
are bound to try to make sense of a new linguistic (and conceptual) world through a linguistic
world we are already familiar with. This kind of code-switching between Li and L2 is naturally
y won't developmental (Eldridge 1996: 310 ), and not some example of misguided behaviour.
ike Lastly, it is worth pointing out that irrespective of whether students grow up mono- or
1pilsl bilingually, the likelihood is that, especially in urban areas and on the Internet, they are likely
to be operating in more than one language. That is the way the world is.
For all of these reasons it seems possible to make a strong case either for the careful and
mnd the use
measured use of the students' first language or, at least, for an aclmowledgement of the place
aps the most
of a first language in the learning of a second.
wn upon her
wrong.
02 The benefits of using the L1 in the L2 classroom
cgn language
There are many occasions when using the students'Ll in the classroom has obvious advantages.
(see page 63).
For example, D Jabr Dajani (2002) suggests its use in planning, self-evaluation and learner
travelling the
training, where, if the teacher speaks the students' Li, these topics can be discussed fluently
erhaps it was
instead of in the halting English of a beginner or elementary student. Sheelagh Deller (2003)
ain, the USA,
suggests that, among oilier things, it is useful for students to notice differences between their
students had
Li and die target language, that when students use tlieir Ll between themselves and witli the
g but also the
teacher, it has a positive effect on group dynamics, and that it allows students to give ongoing
pinion which
feedback about the course and their experiences of learning much more fluently than they
pinion is now
would if they were only using English. Daniel Linder (2002) suggests a number of translation
Low and when
activities for use in the general classroom. These include straight translation of short texts and
especially the
a translation summary of a longer text. His recommendation is that these activities should
>erstand'.
be done in groups because a discussion of the issues they raise is likely to be more revealing
with two or more people tlian when we just tliink about it ourselves. Boris Naimushin (2002),
echoing our earlier comments about language use in the modern world, sees translation as
tief of these is
die 'fifth skill' after reading, writing, speaking and listening.
:udents will be
There seem to be tliree strands operating here: in the fust place, many commentators
5uage learning
recognise die desirability of using die students' Li when talking about learning. So, for
Jre, as we have
example, if teachers want to discuss making a learning contract (see page 156) witli their
, such a policy
students, or to ask students what they want or need (a needs analysis), then they will get more
;: of a person's
from lower-level students if they do it in die students' Li tlian if they try to struggle through
cghly probable
with English. If we want to explain things, help students with learner training or discuss
rn as children.
matters personally with students, tlien again, we will have more success at lower levels if we
nly bilingually,
can use die students' Li.
l help to shape
Secondly, tliere is clearly a lot to be gained from a comparison between die Ll and die
I around them.
L2. Students will make tliese comparisons anyway, so we may as well help diem do it more
1egotiable; it is
effectively. It will help diem to understand certain classes of error (see page 137) if we are able
:able. Why else,
to show diem such differences. The kind of translation activities suggested above will also help
they come into
in tliis respect, making a virtue out of die students' natural language-processing behaviour.
Translation can also be a very good way of reviewing how well students have understood
operating both
grammar and lexis at die end of a unit of study.
his because we
Finally, students (and their teachers) can use die Li to keep the social atmosphere of die
other (whether
'
133
 class in good repair. TMre is a case for saying that rapport is enhanced when teachers can o.
exchange jokes with students or talk to them about aspects of their lives.

03 The disadvantages of using the L 1 in the L2 classroom

There are problems with an unquestioning use of the students' LI in the L2 classroom, just as
there were with the idea of a total ban on its appearance. The first, of course, is that as we have
pointed out, the teacher may not always share the students' LI - or at least the LI of all the
students in the classroom. This does not mean that students will no longer make comparisons
between their LI and English; as we have said, they will do this consciously or subconsciously
anyway. Nor does it mean that the teacher is unable to ask students questions such as Do you
have an expression for this in your language? Is it literally the same? Can you translate it back into
English? This is extremely rich territory when discussing idioms or metaphorical usage. For
example, colours have different metaphorical meanings and uses in different languages and
cultures, and the variety of idiomatic ways of saying that something is obvious (as plain as the
nose on your face in some varieties of British English) in different languages that have been
reported to me (translated here into English) - as straight as a wire (Polish); if it's a dog, it bites
(Cuban Spanish); when you can see the village, you don't have to ask for directions (Turkey);
there's an elephant in the field (Burma-Myanmar) - is breathtaking. But we can encourage
students to translate grammatical concepts aud lexical items, too, and draw their attention to
different writing conventions and genres (see Chapter i9 ). However, our interaction with the
students' LI is obviously limited when we do not, for whatever reason, share it.
A more serious objection to the use (especially the over-use) of the students' Li is that it
restricts the students' exposure to English. It is possible, for example, to make a good case
for the use of their Li when we give instructions, but this reduces their exposure to a type of
English that is 'an ideal source oflanguage for student acquisition' (Harbord i992: 353). Indeed
if, as we said in Chapter 6, D3, the teacher is a principal source of useful comprehensible
input, then the more time we spend speaking English, the better.
Teachers can sometimes find themselves using the Li more than they intended. When Linda
Bawcom transcribed her lessons with two students in Spain, she found that the three of them
were speaking Spanish 33 per cent of the time (2002: 50 ). While she speculated that this might
have contributed to the good atmosphere and relaxed setting of the lessons, nevertheless she
felt that there was just too much LI being used and set out, with the students' agreement, to
ration its occurrence more judiciously.
When visiting a secondary class in the Czech Republic, Simon Gill (2005) found that a
particular teacher he observed only used English 5 per cent of the time, and I have encountered
similar situations in classrooms in a number of countries. In such situations the students'
exposure to the English language has been unnecessarily restricted; the balance has tipped
too far.
There is one other situation in which the use of the Li seems counter-productive and this
is when we are encouraging students to use English in communicative speaking tasks, whose
purpose, after all, is to give students chances to try out speaking in English. We may understand
their natural inclination to communicate in the best way they can (i.e. in their Ll), but it will not
be useful for the purposes of the activity we have asked them to engage in.
 DESRIBING LEARNING CONTEXTS

:eachers can 04 Taking a stand

In the light of the previous discussion, we need to come to some conclusions about how and
when to us (or allow the use of) the students' Li in the classroom. There are a number of
points we can make:
:oom) just as Acknowledge the Li: it makes no sense to deny the importance of the students' Li in their
at as we have L2 learning. Even where we do not share the students' language or languages, we can show
Li of all the our understanding of the learning process and discuss Li and L2 issues with the class.
:omparisons
bconsciously Use appropriate Li, L2 activities: we can use sensible activities which maximise the benefits
ch as Do you of using the students' Li. These may include translation exercises of the kind we have
te it back into mentioned, or specific contrasts between the two languages in areas of grammar, vocabulary,
:al usage. For pronunciation or discourse. We might also use the students' Li to discuss learning matters
mguages and such as the establishment of a code of conduct, or the best ways of keeping vocabulary
"plain as the notebooks or the giving of announcements. However, this will be done in the context of a
tat have been largely English-use classroom.
'a dog, it bites Differentiate between levels: while it may make sense to use the students' Li for explanations
ans (Turkey); and rapport-enhancement at lower levels, this becomes less appropriate as the students'
an encourage English improves. The more they work in English, the better their English will get, and the
.r attention to better their English is, the less need we have of the Li for reasons of rapport-enhancement
:tion with the or discussion and explanation of learning matters. However, we may still want to make
comparisons between Li and L2 and encourage the 'fifth skill' of translation.
ts' Li is that it
.e a good case Agree clear guidelines: students need to know when mother-tongue use is productive
re to a type of and when it is not. While, for example, we may not worry about it when they are discussing
2: 353). Indeed
answers to a reading comprehension in pairs, we will be less happy (as we have said) if they
miprehensible speak in the LI for an oral communicative activity.
We will discuss the issue of Li use with our class either as the subject comes up or when
cl. When Linda establishing some kind of code of conduct (see page i56). We will ask the students for their
: three of them opinions on Li use and give our own guidelines, too, so that we can mal<e some kind of a
that this might bargain (see page 77). Students will have then agreed about when LI use is appropriate and
evertheless she when, on the contrary, it is counter-productive.
' agreement, to We have seen how some teachers over-use the students' Li, often unintentionally. But if
we agree clear guidelines with the. class, then we should follow them ourselves if we want
) found that a our students to adhere to them. .;
\le encountered Use encouragement and persnasion: teachers all over the world spend a lot of their time
1s the students' going round to students, especially during speaking activities, saying things like, Please
nee has tipped speak English! or Why not try to stop using Turkish/Arabic/Portuguese/Greek? etc. and it often
works, especially if students have discussed the issue of Li use with the teacher previously.
luctive and this If such encouragement doesn't work, we can temporarily stop the activity and explain
ng tasks, whose to students that since the activity is designed to give them practice in speaking English, it
nay understand makes little sense if they do it in another language. This sometimes changes the atmosphere
1), but it will not so that they go back to the activity with a new determination.

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Chapter notes and further reading

,,
,, Mixed ability
See CA Tomlinson (1999), j Tice (1999), B Bowler and S Parminter (2000) and SAinslie and
,,
S Purcell (2001). j Harmer (2002) describes a dictogloss writing activity in a mixed-ability
,,
gronp.AArtusi (2002) shows how putting differentiated tasks up on the board can be
'

helpful.
One-to-one teaching

I
See P Osborne (2005).
Dialogic teachers and students
Scott Thornbury argues for a dialogic relationship between teacher and student
(Thornbury 2001b ), a view discussed by Angeles Clemente (2001).

Using the Li/mother tongue

S Deller and M Rinvolucri (2002) have written a book of activities to take advantage of/
enhance the use of the mother tongue.