U.S.

Border Patrol
Promotional Assessment Process

Preparation Manual for the

Managerial Writing
Skills Exercise

Personnel Research and Assessment Division

Office of Human Resources Management
This guide has been developed to help you prepare for the Wri ting Skills Exercise.

Part I of this guide provides information that will refresh your knowledge of some basic
rules of English grammar, syntax, usage, sentence and paragraph organization, and
punctuation. Only a short summary of each topic is provided. For a more in-depth study,
you may want to refer to English textbooks or writing handbooks. The reference list at the
end of Part I gives you some suggested readings.

Part II of this guide presents a sample of the types of questions you can expect to find on
the Writing Skills Exercise along with the correct answers and the rationale for them.

PART I
Sentence Construction

• A sentence is a grammatically independent group of words that serves as a unit of

expression.

• A sentence normally contains a stated subject (the noun(s) and/or pronoun(s) the sentence
is about), and it must contain a predicate (the part that says something about or directs
the subject) that consists of at least one word, a verb. Even the single-word command
Go! is a sentence because it has an unstated but implied subject − whoever or whatever is
being directed to go − and a verb.

Use of Phrases in Sentences

• A phrase is a group of related words lacking a subject and/or a predicate. A phrase can
be used as a noun, adjective, adverb, or verb. On the basis of their form, phrases are
classified as prepositional, participial, gerund, infinitive, and verb phrases.

Use of Clauses in Sentences

• Clauses are grammatical units containing a subject and a verb. They can be either
dependent or independent. An independent clause expresses the main thought of the
sentence and can stand alone as a sentence (Example: She laughed.). A dependent
clause expresses an idea that is less important than the idea expressed in the main clause
and cannot stand alone as a sentence (Example: As she was laughing…).

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Phrases and Clauses

• A restrictive phrase or clause provides information that is necessary to specifically

identify what is being described. A nonrestrictive phrase or clause provides information
that is incidental to the meaning of the sentence.

• Generally speaking, restrictive phrases and clauses are not separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas. Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses are separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas.

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 Examples: The blue house that he built on a hill is quite large.
The blue house, which he built on a hill, is quite large.

The first sentence is written about a man who built several blue houses but only
one on a hill. Therefore, the phrase that he built on a hill is essential for knowing
which blue house is being referred to. The phrase is therefore restrictive and is
not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

The second example is written about a man who built only one blue house, and it
happens to be on a hill. Therefore, which he built on a hill is not essential for
knowing which house is being referred to. The phrase is therefore nonrestrictive
and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Examples: We should congratulate the student who won the prize.

Pat, who won the prize, deserves our congratulations.

In the first sentence the clause who won the prize is essential for indicating the
person who should be congratulated. The clause is therefore restrictive and is not
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

In the second sentence, the person to be congratulated is identified as Pat, and the
clause who won the prize is not essential for identifying the person. The clause is
therefore nonrestrictive and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Verb

Definition: A word or phrase used to assert an action or state of being.

Verb Voice

• The voice of a verb shows whether the subject performs an action (active voice) or
receives it (passive voice).
Example (active voice): The consultant wrote a proposal.
Example (passive voice): The proposal was written by the consultant.

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Verb Tense

• The tense of a verb shows the time of the action of the verb. There are an active and a
passive form of all tenses in English. The six English verb tenses are:

Tense Examples of Active Voice Examples of Passive Voice

Present she takes; she is taking she is taken; she is being taken
Past she took; she was taking she was ta ken; she was being taken
Future she will take; she will be taking she will be taken

Present perfect she has taken; she has been taking she has been taken
Past perfect she had taken; she had been taking she had been taken
Future perfect she will have taken; she will have been taken
she will have been taking

• The present tense represents action that is taking place now.

Example: She is attending training today.

• The past tense represents action that took place in past time.
Example: He wrote five letters yesterday.

• The future tense places action in future time.

Example: She will attend the meeting later today.

• The present perfect tense represents action completed before the present time.
Example: He has taken training.

• The past perfect tense represents action that occurs before another past action.
Example: She counted the letters he had written.

• The future perfect tense represents action that will be completed before a specific time in
the future.
Example: By next week, he will have completed the analysis.

Verb Mood

• The mood of a verb shows whether an action is fact (indicative mood), something other
than fact, such as a possibility, wish, or supposition (subjunctive mood), or a command
(imperative mood).
Example of indicative mood: They are going to the ball game.
Example of subjunctive mood: I insist that he go to the ball game.
Example of imperative mood: Go now!

• The subjunctive mood is also used to express a condition contrary to fact.

Example: I wish I were president.

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Other Rules Related to Verbs

• Transitive verbs require direct objects to complete their meaning.

Example: The baseball player signed the autographs.

• Intransitive verbs do not require direct objects to complete their meaning.

Example: The boat has docked.

• Linking verbs are not action verbs; rather, they express a state of being or existence. The
various forms of the verb to be are primary linking verbs.

• Linking verbs never take objects but, instead, connect the subject to a word or idea in the
predicate. Examples: It was he who bought the tickets. His proposal is unacceptable.
Some dogs are excitable.

• The verb to be can also be used with another verb as a helping (auxiliary) verb to create a
verb phrase. Examples: Flights have been delayed. The contract will have to be
reviewed.

Infinitive

Definition: An infinitive is the form of a verb that expresses action or existence without reference
to person, number, or tense. Example: To run is relaxing.

• A split infinitive has a word or several words between the to and the verb following it.
Splitting an infinitive is generally considered incorrect, especially if more than one word
intervenes between to and the verb. Incorrect example: You should try to, if you can,
attend the briefing. Correct usage: You should try to attend the briefing, if you can.

• An infinitive may be used as the subject of a sentence. Example: To become champion

has been her lifelong dream.

• An infinitive may be used as an adjectival modifier. Example: He had several papers to

review during the trip.

Gerund

Definition: A gerund is the form of a verb ending in ing that is used as a noun. In fact, another
name for a gerund is a verbal noun.

• A gerund may be used as the subject of a sentence. Example: Drawing was his favorite
personal activity.

• A gerund may be used as the object of a sentence or a prepositional phrase.

Example: She preferred walking over bicycling. Walking is the object of the verb
preferred and bicycling is the object of the preposition over.

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Participle

Definition: A participle is a form of the verb used as an adjective. Simple participle forms end in
ed or ing. Examples: The candidate felt betrayed. The New Year’s Eve party was exciting.

• When a participial phrase seems to modify a word that it cannot sensibly modify, then it
is a dangling phrase. Incorrect example: Sailing on the open sea, many dolphins were
spotted. (Sailing does not modify dolphins.) Correct usage: Sailing on the open sea, we
spotted many dolphins.

Noun

Definition: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, quality, idea, or action.

• A common noun identifies one or more of a class of persons, places, things, qualities,
ideas, or actions that are alike. Examples: The girl chained her bicycle to the fence.

• A proper noun identifies a particular person, place, thing, quality, idea, or action. (Note:
Proper nouns must be capitalized.) Examples: Joe Brown drove his Lincoln Towncar to
the Kennedy Center.

• A collective noun identifies a group of people or things that are related or acting as one.
Examples: The jury arrives at the courthouse each day at nine in the morning. The
platoon travels by night in order to avoid detection. Collective nouns are single in
number; thus, they take a singular verb.

• If the individual members of the group are referred to, then the plural verb can be
used. Example: A group of employees are sharing supplies with each other.

• The possessive of a singular noun is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the noun.
Examples: the boy’s sweater; Alice’s car

• The possessive of a plural noun ending in s is formed by adding an apostrophe only.

Examples: agents’ salaries; workers’ union

Pronoun

Definition: A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun, most frequently to eliminate
monotonous repetition of the noun. There are nine types of pronouns:

• Demonstrative pronouns point out a specific person or thing. Examples: this, that, these,
those

• Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things generally rather than specifically.

Examples: all, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, few, many, most, much, neither, no one, nobody, none, nothing, one, other,
several, some, somebody, someone, something, such

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• Verbs used with indefinite pronouns must agree with the pronoun in number.
Examples: none is; much is; everyone is; many are

• None is generally used in a singular sense. If you think of none as no one person
or thing, then it is easy to see that it is singular in meaning and takes a singular
verb. However, when none is used in the sense of not two or no amount, then a
plural verb is used. Example: None of the team members are in agreement.

• Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. Examples: who, what, which

• Relative pronouns relate a subordinate part of a sentence to the main clause.

Examples: who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, which, whichever, what, that

• Who and whoever are used as subjects in a sentence or phrase, while whom and
whomever are used as objects in a sentence or phrase. Examples: Who will get
the tickets? Whoever is going will buy the tickets. I need to give tickets to whom?
The tickets will be given to whomever I see first.

• Personal pronouns refer to persons or things and change form in three different persons:
first person (the person speaking), second person (the person spoken to), and third person
(person or thing spoken about).

• First person pronouns: I, we (used as subject of sentences and clauses)

me, us (used as objects of verbs and prepositions)

• Second person pronoun: you (used for singular and plural, for subjects and
objects)

• Third person pronouns: he, she, it they (used as subject of sentences and
clauses)
him, her, it, them (used as objects of verbs and
prepositions)

Examples: Bill and I are going. She told Sally and me.

• Possessive pronouns determine ownership or possession without using an apostrophe

followed by an s. Examples: my, mine, our, ours, yours, his, hers, its, their, theirs
(Note: it’s is not a personal pronoun; it is the cont raction of it is.)

• Reflexive pronouns refer back to the pronoun used as the subject of the sentence.
Examples: I burned myself. You are deceiving yourself.

• Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize the first pronoun.

Examples: You yourself must register. I myself do not understand.

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Adjective and Adverb

Definitions: An adjective is a word that modifies a noun. An adverb is a word that modifies a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

• An adjective or an adverb should be placed so that there is no doubt as to which word it

modifies. Example: The angry boy quickly threw the ball. Angry is an adjective
modifying the noun boy. Quickly is an adverb modifying the verb threw.

• Adjectives and adverbs show degrees of quality or quantity by means of the ir positive,
comparative, and superlative forms. The positive form expresses no comparison at all.
The comparative form adds an -er to the positive form of the adjective or adverb or
prefixes the positive form with the word more to express a greater degree or a
comparison between two persons or things. The superlative form adds an -est to the
positive form of the adjective or adverb or prefixes the positive form with the word most
to express the greatest degree of quantity or quality among three or more persons or
things.

Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
short shorter shortest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
big bigger biggest
hard harder hardest

• Many adverbs have the characteristic ly ending. Example: quickly, slowly, angrily

Article

Definition: An article is a word that refers to a noun and gives definiteness or indefiniteness to
the noun.

• The English articles are a, an, and the.

• A and an are the indefinite articles. They are used for general nouns or when the
audience does not know which thing you are referring to. A is used before words
that begin with a consonant, and an is used before words that begin with a vowel.
Examples: An attorney will meet you today. A file is missing from my desk.

• The is the definite article. It is used when the audience knows which thing is
being referred to. Example : The attorney that you met with last week has
returned your call.

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Preposition

Definition: A preposition is a word that connects a noun to some other word in the sentence.
Prepositions usually establish a relationship of time or location. The use of a preposition
automatically creates a prepositional phrase. Examples: in a month; after a year; on the table;
behind the door

• There are over 40 prepositions in English, some of which are: about, around, before, at,
below, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, through, up, upon, and with.

Conjunction

Definition: A conjunction (also known as a connective) is a word that joins together sentences,
clauses, phrases, or words.

• Conjunctions that connect two or more parts of a sentence that are of equal rank
(Example: two nouns or verbs or phrases, etc.) are called coordinating conjunctions.
Examples: and, but, or, nor, for, and sometimes yet

• Subordinating conjunctions connect dependent (subordinate) clauses to independent

(main) clauses. Subordinating conjunctions include though, if, as, when, while, and
since.
Example: Since he took the course for his own advancement, his employer wouldn’t pay
for it.

• Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that connect sentence elements that are of
equal rank. Correlative conjunctions must always appear together in the same sentence.
Examples: either-or, neither-nor, whether-or, both-and, and not only-but also

Examples used in sentences:

Neither the manager nor the employee had a reasonable solution to the problem.
Whether he stayed home or went to work depended on a change in his symptoms.
Both the program office and the budget office agreed on the increase in funding for the
new equipment.
She was outstanding not only in her academic coursework but also in her fitness training.

Avoiding Verb, Noun, and Pronoun Shifts

• Unnecessary shifts in person, number, tense, or voice confuse readers and seriously
weaken communication. The examples below indicate these types of errors.

• A shift in person occurs when a writer shifts back and forth among the first, second, and
third persons. Incorrect example: If you want to pass the physical, a person has to
exercise daily.

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• A shift in number occurs when a plural pronoun is used to refer back to a singular
antecedent or vice versa. Incorrect example: Anyone who shops in that department store
must seriously consider their budget.

• Unnecessary shifts in tense more commonly occur within a paragraph rather than within
an individual sentence. Incorrect example: After the historian spent several hours
describing the armies’ strategies, he gave a horrifying account of the attack. He points
out in great detail what is going on in the minds of each of the soldiers.

• A shift in voice occurs when a writer makes unnecessary shifts between the active and
the passive voice. Incorrect example: I wrote the journal article; the book chapter was
also written by me. (In this example, the first clause is active voice and the second shifts
to passive voice.)

• When two sentence elements are joined by a conjunction, they should have parallel
structure.
Correct example: She was outstanding not only in her academic coursework but also in
her fitness training.
Incorrect example: She was outstanding not only in her academic coursework but also
she excelled in fitness training.

Sentence Organization within Paragraphs

• A paragraph presents a larger unit of thought than a sentence can contain.

A paragraph must meet certain requirements:

• A paragraph should have unity, that is, internal consistency. It should not digress from
the dominant idea expressed in the topic sentence.

• A paragraph should have completeness. It should present enough detailed information

about the topic sentence to answer any general questions the reader may have. More
specific questions would require additional paragraphs with new topic sentences.

• A paragraph should have coherence. Sentences should flow into each other so that the
reader experiences the paragraph as an integrated unit, not as a collection of separate
sentences.

• A paragraph should have order. Like structure in a larger work, order in a paragraph
grows partly out of the material and is partly imposed by the writer. Most paragraphs and
essays follow one of the two patterns that follow.

Ø From the general to the particular: This type of paragraph begins with a topic
sentence that serves as an introductory summary of the topic. The remaining
sentences explain or illustrate this statement, so that the idea becomes
increasingly clear as the paragraph progresses. The topic sentence is usually at or
near the beginning of the paragraph.

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 Ø From the particular to the general: This type of paragraph is the reverse of the
previous pattern. It begins with a series of explanatory or illustrative statements
that lead to a general statement or summary. The topic sentence is usually at or
near the end of the paragraph.

A paragraph can be looked upon as a microcosm, an exact parallel in miniature of the entire
work:

• It has a dominant idea, usually expressed in a topic sentence.

• The dominant idea is developed by examples, comparisons, explanations, or arguments to

make the meaning of the topic sentence clear.

• There may be a concluding restatement of the topic idea.

Capitalization

Definition: Capitalization is the use of capital letters to place special emphasis on particular
letters to set them off from lower-case letters.

• Sentences always begin with a capital letter.

• The first letter of a quotation is always capitalized.

• Proper nouns, that is, nouns that name particular persons, places, or things, must be
capitalized. Examples: Appalachian Mountains, Mississippi River, Brooklyn Bridge

• Titles that precede a proper name are capit alized; those that follow a proper name are not.
Examples: Chairperson John Smith and John Smith, the chairperson

Punctuation

Definition: Punctuation is the use of periods, commas, semicolons, colons, question marks,
exclamation points, dashes, apostrophes, brackets, parentheses, slashes, and quotation marks to
convey the pauses and gestures that we use in speech to clarify and emphasize meaning.

• Use a period to end a sentence. Example: She went to the beach.

• Use a period after abbreviations. Examples: Mr. Ms. U.S. Corp.

• Use a comma to separate independent clauses in a compound sentence.

Example: Suzanne made a presentation at the conference, and then she spent the
remainder of the day touring the city.

• Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase or clause from the main clause of a
sentence. Example: After completing the work, the contractor left the site.

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• Place a comma after every item in a series. Example: The new office is furnished with a
desk, a computer, two chairs, and a supply cabinet.

• Two or more adjectives that modify the noun that they precede are separated by commas.
Example: The cold, windy morning was not a good beginning for their vacation.

• Commas are used to set off the items in a date. Example: On Monday, August 17, 1998,
he became the head of the office. Commas are not used when only the month and year
are given. Example: August 2002

• A semicolon is used to separate elements in a series when some of the elements already
contain commas. Example: Sally wishes us to attend the first, third, and fifth sessions on
Wednesday; the second, fourth, and sixth sessions on Thursday; and the first only on
Friday.

• A semicolon is used to join two closely related independent clauses that are not joined by
a conjunction. Example: The project began slowly; thereafter, additional staff were
assigned to it.

References

The Elements of Style. Strunk, Jr., W. & White, E.B. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon,
2000. ISBN# 020530902X.

Better Sentence Writing in 30 Minutes a Day. Campbell, D. Franklin Lakes, NJ: The Career
Press, Inc., 1995. ISBN# 1564142035.

Business English. Geffner, A. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron’s Educational Services, Inc., 1998.
ISBN# 0764102788.

Business Writing at Work. Davidson, E.J. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin Mirror Press, 1994.
ISBN# 0256142203.

Effective Business Writing. Piotrowski, M. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 1996.

ISBN# 0062733818.

The Business Writer’s Handbook. Brusaw, T., Alred, G. J. & Oliu, W.O. New York, NY: St.
Martin’s Press, 1993. ISBN# 0312198051.

The Classic Guide to Better Writing. Flesch, R. & Lass, A. H. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1996.
ISBN# 0062730487.

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 PART II
The following eight sample questions represent the types of items that you are
likely to find on the actual assessment. The answers can be found on the last
page.

For questions 1-3, choose the one answer that represents a correction that should be
made to the sentence. If no correction is necessary, choose option (E).

1. During the reporting period, this station intercepted three smugglers and
apprehended three principals, none of whom were United States citizens.

(A) change whom to who

(B) change none of whom were to none of whom was
(C) change smugglers and apprehended to smugglers. Apprehended were
(D) change whom were to them being
(E) no correction is necessary

2. The managers from our agency met with the managers from the other agency to
familiarize them with the operation; and to identify training needs.

(A) change managers from our agency to manager’s from our agency
(B) change operation; and to identify to operation; and, to identify
(C) change operation; and to operation and
(D) change them with the operation; to them, with the operation,
(E) no correction is necessary

3. When writing a report on worker’s compensation incidents, it is important to include

dates, times, names, and details associated from the cases for future reference.

(A) change incidents to incedents

(B) change writing to writting
(C) change from to with
(D) change for future reference to for reference in the future
(E) no correction is necessary

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For questions 4 – 6, choose the one answer that is the best revision to the underlined
word(s) or phrase(s) in the paragraph. If no revision to the underlined word(s) or
phrase(s) is necessary, choose option (E).

If there are two underlined sections in the same paragraph, each possible answer will
consist of two revisions, one for each underlined section. The two revisions will be
separated by a slash ( / ). The first revision will be for the first underlined section in the
paragraph, and the second revision will be for the second underlined section in the
paragraph.

4. The tread on the right rear tire of the Border Patrol Agent’s assigned vehicle tore
lose, slamming against the inside tire well and damage was caused for both the
interior and exterior of the vehicle.

(A) was torn lose / damages were caused to both

(B) tore loose / causing damage to both
(C) tore loose / damages were caused to both
(D) tored lose / causing damage to both
(E) no correction is necessary

5. All procurement forms should be produced either by completing the electronic

version of the document nor by printing electronic copies and then completing the
forms manually. The information collected in these reports provides a means of
measuring the impact of Federal contracting between the U.S. economy.

(A) or the printing of / among

(B) or by printing / on
(C) nor the printing of / across
(D) nor by printing / within which
(E) no correction is necessary

6. I was almost finished with the report when the copy machine malfunctioned. It was
then that my co-worker had stepped in to help me with the copier.

(A) It was then that my co-worker stepped in

(B) It was then my co-worker having stepped in
(C) It had been then that my co-worker stepped in
(D) It had been then that my co-worker had stepped in
(E) no correction is necessary

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For questions 7 and 8, select the correct sentence order to form paragraphs that are
well-organized, clear, and coherent. If no correction is necessary, choose option (E).

7. (1) The management function of planning is the foundation and

framework for all of the other management functions.
(2) Even though the planning function is critical for effectively carrying
out the other management functions, it is interesting that managers
vary considerably in their perceptions of the importance of the
planning function.
(3) Although textbooks differ with respect to their use of terminology,
many management textbooks refer to five functions of management.
(4) Without the planning function, however, the other management functions
are likely to be carried out in an aimless manner.
(5) The other functions of management include: (1) organizing, (2)
staffing and staff development, (3) directing and leading, and (4)
evaluating and controlling.

(A) 1–5– 2–4– 3

(B) 1–5– 3–2– 4
(C) 3–4– 5–2– 1
(D) 3–1– 5–4– 2
(E) no correction is necessary

8. (1) Organizations must have competent managers to cope with the

growing complexity of problems affecting their operations.
(2) Managerial competency is acquired as a result of formal education.
(3) Also, managerial competency is acquired as a result of experience
that is gained in using decision-making and other managerial skills
on the job.
(4) Formal developmental programs that enable a manager to gain the
needed learning experiences both on and off the job can contribute
greatly to the growth of this competency.
(5) Consequently, more attention is being given to such programs as a
means of helping managers to perform more effectively and to
realize their potential.

(A) 4–5– 2–3– 1

(B) 2–3– 1–4– 5
(C) 2–3– 4–5– 1
(D) 1–4– 5–2– 3
(E) no correction is necessary

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Answers to the Writing Skills Exercise Sample Questions

1. Correct Answer: E. The sentence is correct as written.

2. Correct Answer: C. Semicolons are used to connect two independent clauses

without a coordinating conjunction. This sentence contains only one independent
clause. The coordinating conjunction "and" is linking two infinitive phrases (not
clauses) that describe the clause, and so a semicolon is inappropriate here.

3. Correct Answer: C. The correct term is “associated with” and not “associated
from.” Objects are “associated with” one another, which means they are related
to each other in some way. The correction in D is not required because “for
future reference” is already succinct and correct.

4. Correct Answer: B. The verb "tore" cannot be modified by another verb, "lose."
The correct word is the adverb, "loose." Also, the sentence begins in the active
voice, and the active voice should be maintained throughout. Therefore,
"causing damage to both" is preferable to "damages were caused to both."

5. Correct Answer: B. The first sentence describes two optional ways of

completing the procurement forms; therefore, the correlative conjunctions
(“either”-“or”) should be used. Correlative conjunctions must be parallel in form.
Also, the preposition “on” should be used to describe the impact of something on
something else (in this case, “the impact of Federal contracting on the U.S.
economy”). Answer A uses the correct correlative conjunction, but changes the
parallelism of the prepositional phrases (“by completing. . . or the printing of”) and
uses the preposition “among” that is used when referring to three or more things.
Answers C, D, and E use the incorrect correlative conjunction “nor.”

6. Correct Answer: A. The first sentence sets the context of the event in the
simple past tense. The content of the second sentence does not warrant a
change in tense, and therefore the simple past tense should be maintained
throughout. "It was then" and "my co-worker stepped in" in answer A are in the
simple past tense, and so answer A is correct. Answers C and D contain other
tenses, and answer B inappropriately replaces the verb with a participial phrase.

7. Correct Answer: D. The most logical order for these sentences is to begin with
the topic of the paragraph, which is the reference of many management
textbooks to five management functions (3). Next is the first reference to the
planning function and the “other management functions” (1). Then, a listing of
the four “other “ functions is provided (5). A reiteration of the importance of the
planning function is presented (4) and is followed by the interesting fact that
managers vary in their perception of the importance of the planning function (2).

8. Correct Answer: E. The topic of the paragraph is the need for organizations to
have competent managers (1). Next, information is provided about how
managerial competencies are acquired, specifically off the job (2) and on the job
(3). The idea of formal developmental programs to gain the needed managerial
competencies is presented next (4). Then, the idea that organizations are giving
more attention to such programs is presented (5).

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