Intelligent Solar Power System For Rural Household Purposes

Submitted to

M/s. ENERRSTO Pvt. Ltd. Chennai

Submitted by

Mr. Karthick R.T. ME (Ph.D)

STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

Solar energy

Energy from sun

Applications
PV Basics
Tilt angles
Latitude
Optimum tilt for winter

Solar Chargers, Batteries/ inverters

Solar Charger
Block Reverse Current
Prevent Over Charging
Low Voltage Disconnect
Over Load Protection
Display/Metering
Types Of Controllers
PWM
Inverters
Sine Wave
Ampere Hour
Cells/Batteries
PV Modules
Output Devices

Solar Power System Design

Future Enhancement
Solar Energy

Solar energy is energy from the Sun in the form of radiated heat and light. It drives
the climate and weather and supports life on Earth. Solar energy technologies make
controlled use of this energy resource.

Solar power is a synonym of solar energy or refers specifically to the conversion of

sunlight into electricity by photovoltaic cells, concentrating solar thermal devices or various
experimental technologies.

Energy from the Sun

About half the incoming solar energy is absorbed by water and land; the rest is
reradiated back into space. Earth continuously receives 340 Wm-2 of incoming solar
radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space
while the rest is absorbed by the atmosphere, oceans and land masses. After passing through
the atmosphere, the insolation spectrum is split between the visible and infrared ranges with a
small part in the ultraviolet.

The absorption of solar energy by atmospheric convection (sensible heat transport)

and evaporation and condensation of water vapour (latent heat transport) powers the water
cycle and drives the winds. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the
surface at an average temperature of 14 C. The conversion of solar energy into chemical
energy via photosynthesis produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are
derived.

Solar radiation, along with secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power,
hydroelectricity and biomass, account for over 99.9% of the available flow of renewable
energy on Earth. The flows and stores of solar energy in the environment are vast in
comparison to human energy needs.

Applications of solar energy technology

Solar energy technologies use solar radiation for practical ends. Solar technologies
such as photo-voltaics and water heaters increase the supply of energy and may be
characterized as supply side technologies. Technologies such as passive design and shading
devices reduce the need for alternate resources and may be characterized as demand side.
Optimizing the performance of solar technologies is often a matter of controlling the resource
rather than simply maximizing its collection.

Photovoltaic Basics

What do we mean by photovoltaics? First used in about 1890, the word has two parts:
photo, derived from the Greek word for light, and volt, relating to the electricity pioneer
Alessandro Volta. So, photovoltaics could literally be translated as light-electricity. And
that's what photovoltaic (PV) materials and devices do they convert light energy into
electrical energy (Photoelectric Effect), as discovered by renowned physicist Albert Einstein.
 Commonly known as solar cells, individual PV cells are electricity-producing devices
made of semiconductor materials. PV cells come in many sizes and shapes from smaller
than a postage stamp to several inches across. They are often connected together to form PV
modules that may be up to several feet long and a few feet wide. Modules, in turn, can be
combined and connected to form PV arrays of different sizes and power output.

The size of an array depends on several factors, such as the amount of sunlight
available in a particular location and the needs of the consumer. The modules of the array
make up the major part of a PV system, which can also include electrical connections,
mounting hardware, power-conditioning equipment, and batteries that store solar energy for
use when the sun isn't shining.

Simple PV systems provide power for many small consumer items, such as
calculators and wristwatches. More complicated systems provide power for communications
satellites, water pumps, and the lights, appliances, and machines in some people's homes and
workplaces. Many road and traffic signs along highways are now powered by PV. In many
cases, PV power is the least expensive form of electricity for performing these tasks.

Tilt angle

To get the most from solar panels, you need to point them in the direction that
captures the most sun. But there are a number of variables in figuring out the best direction.

We assume that the panel is fixed, or has a tilt that can be adjusted seasonally. (Panels
that track the movement of the sun throughout the day can receive 10% (in winter) to 40% (in
summer) more energy than fixed panels Solar panels should always face true south. (If you
are in the southern hemisphere, they should face north.) The question is, At what angle from
horizontal should the panels be tilted? Books and articles on solar energy often give the
advice that the tilt should be equal to your latitude, plus 15 degrees in winter or minus 15
degrees in summer. It turns out that you can do better than this about 4% better.
Latitude

Latitude, usually denoted by the Greek letter phi () gives the location of a place on
Earth (or other planetary body) north or south of the equator. Lines of Latitude are the
imaginary horizontal lines shown running east-to-west (or west to east) on maps (particularly
so in the Mercator projection) that run either north or south of the equator.

Technically, latitude is an angular measurement in degrees (marked with ) ranging

from 0 at the equator (low latitude) to 90 at the poles (90 N or +90 for the North Pole and
90 S or 90 for the South Pole). The latitude is approximately the angle between straight up
at the surface (the zenith) and the sun at an equinox. The complementary angle of latitude is
called the colatitudes.

Optimum Tilt for winter

The winter season has the least sun, so you want to make the most of it. To calculate
the best angle of tilt in the winter, take your latitude, multiply by 0.9, and add 29 degrees.
The result is the angle from the horizontal at which the panel should be tilted.
Solar Chargers, Batteries and Inverters

A standard solar system consists of following components:

Charge controller
Photo-voltaic module
Battery
Inverter
Output Devices

What is a solar charge controller?

A charge controller, or charge regulator is similar to the voltage regulator in your car.
It regulates the voltage and current coming from the solar panels going to the battery. Most
"12 volt" panels put out about 16 to 20 volts, so if there is no regulation the batteries will be
damaged. Most batteries need around 14 to 14.5 volts to get fully charged.

Solar charge controllers are an essential element to any solar electric panel system. At
a most basic level charge controllers prevent batteries from being overcharged and prevent
the batteries from discharging through the solar panel array at night.

The basic functions of a controller are quite simple. Charge Controllers block reverse
current and prevent battery overcharge. Some controllers also prevent battery over
discharge, protect from electrical overload, and/or display battery status and the flow of
power. Let's examine each function individually.

Blocking Reverse Current

Photovoltaic panels work by pumping current through your battery in one direction.
At night, the panels may pass a bit of current in the reverse direction, causing a slight
discharge from the battery. (Our term "battery" represents either a single battery or bank of
batteries.) The potential loss is minor, but it is easy to prevent.

In most controllers, charge current passes through a semiconductor (a transistor)

which acts like a valve to control the current. It is called a "semiconductor" because it passes
current only in one direction. It prevents reverse current without any extra effort or cost. In
some controllers, an electromagnetic coil opens and closes a mechanical switch. This is
called a relay. (You can hear it click on and off.) The relay switches off at night, to block
reverse current.

If you are using a PV array only to trickle-charge a battery (a very small array relative
to the size of the battery), then you may not need a charge controller. This is a rare
application. An example is a tiny maintenance module that prevents battery discharge in a
parked vehicle but will not support significant loads. You can install a simple diode in that
case, to block reverse current. A diode used for this purpose is called a "blocking diode"
Preventing Overcharge

When a battery reaches full charge, it can no longer store incoming energy. If energy
continues to be applied at the full rate, the battery voltage gets too high. Water separates into
hydrogen and oxygen and bubbles out rapidly. (It looks like it's boiling so we sometimes call
it that, although it's not actually hot.) There is excessive loss of water, and a chance that the
gasses can ignite and cause a small explosion. The battery will also degrade rapidly and may
possibly overheat. Excessive voltage can also stress your loads (lights, appliances, etc.) or
cause your inverter to shut off.

Preventing overcharge is simply a matter of reducing the flow of energy to the battery
when the battery reaches a specific voltage. When the voltage drops due to lower sun
intensity or an increase in electrical usage, the controller again allows the maximum possible
charge. This is called "voltage regulating." It is the most essential function of all Charge
Controllers. The controller "looks at" the voltage, and regulates the battery charging in
response.

Some controllers regulate the flow of energy to the battery by switching the current
fully on or fully off. This is called "on/off control." Others reduce the current gradually. This
is called "Pulse Width Modulation" (PWM). Both methods work well when set properly for
your type of battery.

A PWM Type Solar Charge Controllers holds the voltage more constant. If it has two
stage regulations, it will first hold the voltage to a safe maximum for the battery to reach full
charge. Then, it will drop the voltage lower, to sustain a "finish" or "trickle" charge. Two-
stage regulating is important for a system that may experience many days or weeks of excess
energy (or little use of energy). It maintains a full charge but minimizes water loss and stress.

The voltages at which the controller changes the charge rate are called set points.
When determining the ideal set points, there is some compromise between charging quickly
before the sun goes down, and mildly overcharging the battery. The determination of set
points depends on the anticipated patterns of usage, the type of battery, and to some extent,
the experience and philosophy of the system designer or operator. Some controllers have
adjustable set points, while others do not.

Control Set Points v/s Temperature

The ideal set points for charge control vary with a battery's temperature. Some
controllers have a feature called "temperature compensation." When the controller senses a
low battery temperature, it will raise the set points. Otherwise when the battery is cold, it will
reduce the charge too soon. If your batteries are exposed to temperature swings greater than
about 30 F (17 C), compensation is essential.

Some controllers have a temperature sensor built in. Such a controller must be
mounted in a place where the temperature is close to that of the batteries. Better controllers
have a remote temperature probe, on a small cable. The probe should be attached directly to a
battery in order to report its temperature to the controller.
 An alternative to automatic temperature compensation is to manually adjust the set
points (if possible) according to the seasons.

Control Set Points v/s Battery Type

The ideal set points for charge controlling depend on the design of the battery. The
vast majority of RE systems use deep-cycle lead-acid batteries of either the flooded type or
the sealed type. Flooded batteries are filled with liquid. These are the standard, economical
deep cycle batteries.

Sealed batteries use saturated pads between the plates. They are also called "valve
regulated" or "absorbed glass mat," or simply "maintenance-free." They need to be regulated
to a slightly lower voltage than flooded batteries or they will dry out and be ruined. Some
controllers have a means to select the type of battery. Never use a controller that is not
intended for your type of battery.

Typical set points for 12 V lead-acid batteries at 77 F (25 C)

(These are typical, presented here only for example.)

High limit (flooded battery): 14.4 V

High limit (sealed battery): 14.0 V

Resume full charge: 13.0 V

Low voltage disconnect: 10.8 V

Reconnect: 12.5 V

Temperature compensation for 12V battery: -.03 V per C deviation from Standard
25 C

Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD)

The deep-cycle batteries used in renewable energy systems are designed to be

discharged by about 80 percent. If they are discharged 100 percent, they are immediately
damaged. Imagine a pot of water boiling on your kitchen stove. The moment it runs dry, the
pot overheats. If you wait until the steaming stops, it is already too late!

Similarly, if you wait until your lights look dim, some battery damage will have
already occurred. Every time this happens, both the capacity and the life of the battery will be
reduced by a small amount. If the battery sits in this over discharged state for days or weeks
at a time, it can be ruined quickly.

The only way to prevent over-discharge when all else fails, is to disconnect loads
(appliances, lights, etc.), and then to reconnect them only when the voltage has recovered due
to some substantial charging. When over discharge is approaching, a 12 volt battery drops
below 11 volts (a 24 V battery drops below 22 V).
 A low voltage disconnect circuit will disconnect loads at that set point. It will
reconnect the loads only when the battery voltage has substantially recovered due to the
accumulation of some charge. A typical LVD reset point is 13 volts (26 V on a 24 V system).
All modern inverters have LVD built in. The inverter will turn off to protect itself and your
loads as well as your battery. Normally, an inverter is connected directly to the batteries, not
through the charge controller, because its current draw can be very high, and because it does
not require external LVD.

Overload Protection

A circuit is overloaded when the current flowing in it is higher than it can safely
handle. This can cause overheating and can even be a fire hazard. Overload can be caused by
a fault (short circuit) in the wiring, or by a faulty appliance (like a frozen water pump). Some
Charge Controllers have overload protection built in, usually with a push-button reset. Built-
in overload protection can be useful, but most systems require additional protection in the
form of fuses or circuit breakers. If you have a circuit with a wire size for which the safe
carrying capacity (ampacity) is less than the overload limit of the controller, then you must
protect that circuit with a fuse or breaker of a suitably lower amp rating.

Displays and Metering

Charge controllers include a variety of possible displays, ranging from a single red
light to digital displays of voltage and current. These indicators are important and useful.
Imagine driving across the country with no instrument panel in your car! A display system
can indicate the flow of power into and out of the system, the approximate state of charge of
your battery, and when various limits are reached.

Charge Controller Types

Charge controls come in all shapes, sizes, features, and price ranges. They range from
the small 4.5 amp control, up to the 60 to 80 amp MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracker)
programmable controllers with computer interface. Often, if currents over 60 amps are
required, two or more 40 to 80 amp units are wired in parallel. The most common controls
used for all battery based systems are in the 4 to 60 amp range, but some of the new MPPT
controls go up to 80 amps.

Charge controllers come in 3 general types (with some overlap):

Simple 1 or 2 stage controls which rely on relays or shunt transistors to control the
voltage in one or two steps. These essentially just short or disconnect the solar panel
when a certain voltage is reached. Their only real claim to fame is their reliability they
have so few components, there is not much to break.
3-stage and/or PWM these are pretty much the industry standard now, but you will
occasionally still see some of the older shunt/relay types around, such as in the very
cheap systems offered by discounters and mass marketers.
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT). These are the ultimate in controllers, with
prices to match - but with efficiencies in the 94% to 98% range, they can save
 considerable money on larger systems since they provide 15 to 30% more power to
the battery.

What is Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)?

Quite a few charge controls have a "PWM" mode. PWM stands for Pulse Width
Modulation. PWM is often used as one method of float charging. Instead of a steady output
from the controller, it sends out a series of short charging pulses to the battery - a very rapid
"on-off" switch. The controller constantly checks the state of the battery to determine how
fast to send pulses, and how long (wide) the pulses will be. In a fully charged battery with no
load, it may just "tick" every few seconds and send a short pulse to the battery.

In a discharged battery, the pulses would be very long and almost continuous, or the
controller may go into "full on" mode. The controller checks the state of charge on the battery
between pulses and adjusts itself each time.

Inverters and Storage Battery

An inverter is a device that converts battery power (DC) into alternating current (AC)
of a higher voltage. This means that most inverters are installed and used in conjunction with
a battery bank of some sort - a common set up in off grid solar installations. Batteries are the
heart of an inverter powered electrical system, storing power for use on demand. The most
basic way to draw electrical power from a battery is direct current (DC) at the nominal
voltage of the battery. For example, your car radio uses 12 volts DC (12V DC), the same
voltage as your car battery.

A solar inverter is a piece of the solar energy puzzle. Its purpose is to change the
direct current (DC) electricity that is generated from a photovoltaic panel into an alternating
current (AC) that can be used by in-home appliances and the community electricity grid.
Because all photovoltaic panels produce electricity in DC, an inverter is required for all solar
power systems to make the electricity usable.

The solar inverter is often one of the most expensive parts in an alternative energy
system. Because of this, many people fall into the trap of underestimating the structure's
needs for a solar inverter and purchase one that handles a smaller capacity than necessary in
order to save money. One of the recommendations to avoid making this mistake and keep the
up-front costs of a solar energy system down is to initially purchase fewer solar cells and add
more lately rather than skimping on the inverter.

One of the biggest issues of a solar power system is efficiency. The cost of building
and installing a system is often expensive, and those who are willing to make the financial
investment in solar energy want to be sure to get their money's worth. Not only do the solar
cells need to convert the sun's energy to electricity efficiently, but the solar inverter has a
responsibility in efficiency as well.

To explain how solar inverters work, we must start from the basics. The sun shines
down onto photovoltaic PV cells. These cells are made of semiconductor layers of crystalline
silicon or gallium arsenide, and they are arranged into panels.

The semiconductor layers are a combination of both positive and negative layers, and
they are connected through a junction. Basically, as the sun shines down, the semiconductor
material absorbs the light, transferring the lights energy to the PV cell. This energy knocks
electrons loose, and they move from one layer to the other, thereby producing an electric
current. This is a direct current (DC). The energy created is then generally either stored in a
battery bank for later use or sent directly to an inverter, depending on the set up and type of
system.

For regular consumer use, and alternating current (AC) is needed 230 volt AC
powered home appliances require AC electricity. This is where an inverter comes in. The
inverter takes the direct current and, in simplified terms, runs it through a transformer. It is
almost as though the inverter is tricking the transformer into thinking it is getting AC by
forcing the DC to act in a way similar to AC the inverter runs the DC through two or more
transistors that are rapidly turned on and off and feeding two different sides of the
transformer.

Sine Waves

The DC electricity produced in the PV cells does not have a wave form, but is rather a
direct line (hence its name, direct current.) Basically, to become AC, it must become a sine
wave (on an x-y graph, the sine wave rises from 0 to a positive point, then back down through
zero to a negative point and back up to 0. This known as one cycle or a hertz a regular sine
wave has 50 hertz per second [the sine wave continues to repeat itself 50 cycles per second.])

The alternating current used by a city electric grid is a true sine wave. It runs
smoothly up and down in an arced, wave-like motion. Of course, an inverter that produces a
pure sine wave often costs more than other inverters only higher quality solar inverters
produce true sine waves.

A modified sine wave, on the other hand, rises up to the positive point and down to
the negative point in steps it looks like a stepped square wave. While many appliances will
run on this type of sine wave, they may not run as well (e.g. while computers and TVs will
run, certain bread makers, microwaves, washer and dryers, etc. may have problems with the
modified sine wave.) Also, items with motors will end up using more power when using a
modified sine wave versus a true sine wave.

Note that the effectiveness of modified sine wave inverters (also known as quasi-sine
wave inverters and modified square wave inverters) can vary between different inverters and
can vary depending on the load. The least effective modified sine wave inverters are only
useful for very basic appliances like toasters and appliances that use only a heating element.

Solar photovoltaic modules generate direct current (DC) electricity (they take the
suns energy and convert it into DC electricity). However, the vast majority of electric current
used in households is alternating current (AC). This is why an inverter is necessary: it inverts
DC into AC.

Direct current is an electric current that has a constant direction and a constant
magnitude. An example of a source of direct current is batteries. With direct current, it is
difficult to raise the voltage high enough for energy transfer and then lower it so that it is
once again safe for domestic use. This makes it difficult to use for long-distance power
transmission.

Alternating current, on the other hand, reverses direction and has a varying
magnitude. By using transformers, it is easy to raise and also lower the voltage of alternating
current. This means it can be kept at lower levels for both industrial and domestic use, but
raised to high levels for transmission.

Ampere Hour

An ampere-hour or amp-hour (symbol Ah) is a unit of electric charge, with sub-units

milliampere-hour (mAh) and milliampere second (mAs). One ampere-hour is equal to 3,600
coulombs (ampere-seconds), the electric charge transferred by a steady current of one ampere
for one hour.

The ampere-hour is frequently used in measurements of electrochemical systems such

as electroplating and electrical batteries. The commonly seen milliampere-hour (mAh or
mAh) is one-thousandth of an amperehour (i.e., 3.6 coulombs), and is a technical term for
how much electrical charge a particular battery will hold. Small batteries, such as those in
laptops and digital cameras, are often rated in milliampere-hours. As an example, digital
camera batteries with higher mAh values theoretically last longer without requiring a
recharge, allowing one to take more photographs before having to replace the batteries.

Cell & Batteries:

An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to

convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first Voltaic
pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power source for many
household and industrial applications, and is now a multi-billion dollar industry.

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It

consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the anode
or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which
cations (positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode.

In the redox reaction that powers the battery, reduction (addition of electrons) occurs
to cations at the cathode, while oxidation (removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the
anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the
electrolyte. Many cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. In that case each half-
cell is enclosed in a container, and a separator that is porous to ions but not the bulk of the
electrolytes prevents mixing.

Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf ), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. In other words, if
the electrodes have emfs, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the
half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal
voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither
charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one Coulomb then on complete discharge it
would perform 1.5 Joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under
discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and
resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the
curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy
release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbonzinc
cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd
and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On
the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium
compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.

Series Parallel Connection of Solar Panel

In electrical circuits series and parallel are two basic ways of wiring components. The
naming comes after the method of attaching components, i.e. one after the other, or next to
each other. As a demonstration, we have shown both series and parallel connections of the
panels.
PV modules in India

PV modules are usually made from strings of crystalline silicon solar cells. These
cells are made of extremely thin silicon wafers (about 300 m) and hence are extremely
fragile. To protect the cells from damage, a string of cells is hermetically sealed between a
layer of toughened glass and layers of ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA). An insulating tedlar sheet is
placed beneath the EVA layers to give further protection to the cell string. An outer frame is
attached to give strength to the module and to enable easy mounting on structures. A terminal
box is attached to the back of a module; here, the two ends (positive and negative) of the
solar string are welded or soldered to the terminals. This entire assembly constitutes a PV
module. When the PV module is in use, the terminals are connected either directly to a load,
or to another module to form an array. Single PV modules of capacities ranging from 3
Wattpeak (Wp) to 240 Wattpeak (Wp) can provide power for different loads. For large power
applications, a PV array consisting of a number of modules connected in parallel and/or
series is used.

Standard Capacity/Ratings and Specifications

The wattage output of a PV module is rated in terms of wattpeak (Wp) units. The
peak watt output power from a module is defined as the maximum power output that the
module could deliver under standard test conditions (STC). The STC conditions used in a
laboratory are

1000 watts per square metre solar radiation intensity

Air-mass 1.5 reference spectral distribution
25 C ambient temperature.

SPV modules of various capacities are available, and are being used for a variety of
applications. Theoretically, a PV module of any capacity (voltage and current) rating can be
fabricated. However, the standard capacities available in the country range from 3 Wattpeak
(Wp) to 240 Wattpeak (Wp). The voltage output of a PV module depends on the number of
solar cells connected in series inside the module. In India, a crystalline silicon module
generally contains 36 solar cells connected in series. The module provides a usable direct
current (DC) voltage of about 16.5 V, which is normally used to charge a 12-V battery.

In an SPV system, the components other than the PV module are collectively known as
balance of system (BoS), which includes batteries for storage of electricity, electronic
charge controller, inverter, etc. These batteries are charged during the daytime using the DC
power generated by the SPV module. The battery/battery bank supplies power to loads during
the night or non-sunny hours. An inverter is required to convert the DC power from the PV
module or battery to AC power for operating the load. Some loads such as DC pumps do not
require an inverter or even a battery bank.

Compact Fluorescent Lamps (Output Devices)

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) combine the energy efficiency of fluorescent

lighting with the convenience and popularity of incandescent fixtures. CFLs can replace
incandescent that are roughly 34 times their wattage, saving up to 75% of the initial lighting
energy. Although CFLs cost 310 times more than comparable incandescent bulbs, they last
615 times as long (6,00015,000 hours). See How CFLs Compare with Incandescent for
more information.

How They Work

CFLs work much like standard fluorescent lamps. They consist of two parts: a gas-
filled tube, and magnetic or electronic ballast. The gas in the tube glows with ultraviolet light
when electricity from the ballast flows through it. This in turn excites a white phosphor
coating on the inside of the tube, which emits visible light throughout the surface of the tube.

CFLs with magnetic ballasts flicker slightly when they start. They are also heavier
than those with electronic ballasts. This may make them too heavy for some light fixtures.
Electronic ballasts are more expensive, but light immediately (especially at low
temperatures). They are also more efficient than magnetic ballasts. The tubes will last about
10,000 hours and the ballast about 50,000 hours. Most currently available CFLs have
electronic ballasts.

CFLs are designed to operate within a specific temperature range. Temperatures

below the range cause reduced output. Most are for indoor use, but there are models available
for outdoor use. You can find a CFL's temperature range on most lamp packages. You should
install outdoor CFLs in enclosed fixtures to minimize the adverse effects of colder
temperatures.

CFLs are most cost effective and efficient in areas where lights are on for long
periods of time. You'll experience a slower payback in areas where lights are turned on for
short periods of time, such as in closets and pantries. Because CFLs do not need to be
changed often, they are ideal for hard-to-reach areas.

Types of Compact Fluorescent Lamps

CFLs are available in a variety of styles or shapes. Some have two, four, or six tubes.
Others have circular or spiral-shaped tubes. The size or total surface area of the tube(s)
determines how much light it produces.

Some CFLs have the tubes and ballast permanently connected. Other CFLs have
separate tubes and ballasts. This allows you to change the tubes without changing the ballast.
There are also types enclosed in a glass globe. These look somewhat similar to conventional
incandescent light bulbs, except they're larger.

Sub-CFLs fit most fixtures designed for incandescent lamps. Although most CFLs fit
into existing 3-way light sockets, only a few special CFL models can be dimmed.

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) come in a variety of sizes and shapes including

(a) twin tube integral,

(b) (b and c) triple-tube integral,
 (c) (d) integral model with casing that reduces glare,
(d) (e) modular circline and ballast,
(e) (f) modular quad-tube and ballast.

CFLs can be installed in regular incandescent fixtures, and they consume less than one-
third as much electricity as incandescent lamps do.

SOLAR PV SYSTEM DESIGN

A solar PV system design can be done in four steps:
Load estimation
Estimation of number of PV panels
Estimation of battery bank
Cost estimation of the system.
Base condition: 2 CFLs (18 watts each), 2 fans (60 watts each) for 6hrs a day.

The total energy requirement of the system (total load) i.e Total connected load to PV panel
system

= No. of units rating of equipment = 2 18 + 2 60 = 156 watts

Total watt-hours rating of the system

= Total connected load (watts) Operating hours = 156 6 = 936 watt-hours

Actual power output of a PV panel = Peak power rating operating factor

= 40 0.75 = 30 watt

The power used at the end use is less (due to lower combined efficiency of the system

= Actual power output of a panel combined efficiency

= 30 0.81 = 24.3 watts (VA)
= 24.3 watts

Energy produced by one 40 Wp panel in a day

= Actual power output 8 hours/day (peak equivalent)

= 24.3 8 = 194.4 watts-hour

Number of solar panels required to satisfy given estimated daily load:

= (Total watt-hour rating (daily load)/ (Daily energy produced by a panel)

=936/194.4 = 4.81 = 5 (round figure)

Inverter size is to be calculated as :

Total connected load to PV panel system = 156 watts
Inverter are available with rating of 100, 200, 500 VA, etc.
Therefore, the choice of the inverter should be 200 VA.

COST ESTIMATION OF A PV SYSTEM

(a) Cost of arrays = No. of PV modules Cost/Module

= 5 8000 (for a 40 Wp panel @ Rs.200/Wp) = Rs.40000

(b) Cost of batteries = No. of Batteries Cost/Module

=1 7500= Rs.7500
(c) Cost of Inverter = No. of inverters Cost/Inverter

= 1 5000 = Rs.5000
(d) Charge controller = No of controller Cost/Controller

= 1 2500 = Rs.2500
Total cost of system = A + B + C + D= 40000 + 7500 + 5000 + 2500= Rs.55000
[Additional cost of wiring & Misc may be taken as 8% of total system cost]

ASSUMPTIONS TAKEN FOR DESIGN

:
Inverter converts DC into AC power with efficiency of about 90%.

Battery voltage used for operation = 12 volts

The combined efficiency of inverter and battery will be calculated as:

Combined efficiency = inverter efficiency battery efficiency = 0.9 0.9 = 0.81 = 81%

Sunlight available in a day = 8 hours/day (equivalent of peak radiation.

Operation of lights and fan = 6 hours/day of PV panels.

PV panel power rating = 40 Wp (Wp, meaning, watt (peak), gives only peak power output of
a PV panel)

A factor called operating factor is used to estimate the actual output from a PV module.

[The operating factor between 0.60 and 0.90 (implying the output power is 60 to 80% lower than
rated output power) in normal operating conditions, depending on temperature, dust on module,
etc.]

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

Future upgradation of the system

CFL blubs can be replaced with LEDs since it offers high efficiency, long operating
life and low voltage operation which is ideal for solar. As LED efficacy and light output have
improved, they are becoming mainstream.
 MPPT enabled charge controller, it eliminates the need of an expensive
Microcontroller. Controller will find the peak power point and adjust dynamically to meet
changing source characteristics. Controller tracks the maximum power the panel can produce
within -5% errors. MPPT enables lower system cost.

Thus high efficient solutions like LEDs & MPPT controller are required to maximize
the efficiency from solar panels.