2. How far ?

Entropy
S)
Entropy change (

A SPONTANEOUS PROCESS (e.g. diffusion) will proceed on its

own without any external influence.
Activation
Energy:

Energy
A problem with H EA
reactants
A reaction that is exothermic will result in products that
are more thermodynamically stable than the reactants.
This is a driving force behind many reactions and causes H
them to be spontaneous (occur without any external products
influence).

Some spontaneous reactions, however, are endothermic. Progress of Reaction

How can this be explained?
We need to consider something called entropy
Entropy is a description of the number of
Entropy, S
ways atoms can share quanta of energy.
If number of ways of arranging the energy
(W) is high, then system is disordered
Substances with more ways of arranging their atoms and
and entropy (S) is high.
energy (more disordered) have a higher entropy.

System and Surroundings

When considering entropy it is useful to split the system

(the chemicals) from the surroundings. matter

A system will consist of reactants and then products. It does not change system
energy
temperature or pressure, and mass cannot be transferred to the
surroundings. Energy can be transferred to the surroundings.
surroundings

Entropy of the System, Ssystem

Elements Compounds
Entropy

tend to have lower gas

Simpler compounds Complex compounds
entropies than
Pure substances Mixtures boiling
Liquid
Solids have lower entropies than liquids which are lower than gases. solid melting
When a solid increases in Temperature its entropy increases as the
particles vibrate more. Temperature
There is a bigger jump in entropy with boiling than that with melting.
Gases have large entropies as they are much more disordered At 0K substances have zero
entropy. There is no disorder
as particles are stationary

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Predicting Change in entropy Ssystem Qualitatively

An increase in disorder and entropy will lead to a positive entropy change Ssystem = +ve

In general, a significant increase in the entropy will occur if:

Balanced chemical equations can
-there is a change of state from solid or liquid to gas
often be used to predict if Ssystem is
- there is a significant increase in number of molecules
positive or negative.
between products and reactants.

NH4Cl (s) HCl (g) + NH3 (g) Na s + Cl2 g NaCl s

Ssystem = +ve Ssystem = -ve
change from solid reactant to gaseous products change from gaseous and solid reactant to solid
increase in number of molecules decrease in number of molecules
both will increase disorder both will decrease disorder

Calculating Ssystem quantitatively

Data books lists standard entropies (S) per mole for a Elements in their standard states do not have zero
variety of substances. It is not possible for a substance entropy. Only perfect crystals at absolute zero
to have a standard entropy of less than zero. (T = 0 K) will have zero entropy:

The unit of entropy is J K-1 mol-1 Ssystem = Sproducts - Sreactants

Example
Calculate S for the following reaction at 25C:
S [Fe2O3] = 87.4 J K-1 mol-1
2Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g) Note: the entropy
S [C] = 5.7 J K-1 mol-1
change is very positive
Ssystem = Sproducts - Sreactants S [Fe] = 27.3 J K-1 mol-1 as a large amount of
= (3 x 213.6 + 4 x 27.3) (2 x 87.4 + 3 x 5.7) gas is being created
S [CO2] = 213.6 J K-1 mol-1
increasing disorder
= + 558.1 J K-1 mol-1 = + 558 J K-1 mol-1 (3 S.F.)

Entropy of the Surroundings Ssurrounding

The surroundings are the container, air, solvent.
In an endothermic reaction energy is transferred
In an exothermic reaction energy is given out into from the surroundings. The number of ways of
the surroundings. The number of ways of arranging the energy in the surroundings therefore
arranging the energy therefore increases and so decreases and so Ssurrounding decreases and is
Ssurrounding increases and is positive. negative.

converted into Jmol-1 by x1000

Ssurrounding = - H reaction
T in K
Convert oC into K
by +273

Total Entropy change Stotal

Stotal = Ssystem + Ssurrounding

For any reaction to be spontaneous then Stotal must be positive. If a reaction is not spontaneous
i.e. it doesnt go, then Stotal will be negative.

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Example : Data for the following reaction, which represents the
reduction of aluminium oxide by carbon, are shown in the table. Substance Hf / S /
Al2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Al(s) + 3CO(g) kJmol1 JK1mol1
Calculate the values of Ssystem, H , Ssurroundings and STotal for the
above reaction at 298 K Al2O3(s) -1669 51

1. Calculate Ssystem 2. Calculate H C(s) 0 6

S = Sproducts - Sreactants H = Hf [products] - Hf [reactants] Al(s) 0 28

= (2 x 28 + 3x198) (51 + 3 x 6) = (3 x -111) -1669 CO(g) -111 198

= +581 J K-1 mol-1 (3 S.F.) = +1336 kJ mol-1

3. Calculate Ssurroundings 4. Calculate STotal

Ssurrounding = - H reaction Stotal = Ssystem + Ssurrounding
T = 581 -4483
= -1336000/298 = -3902J K-1 mol-1
= - 4483 J K-1 mol-1
STotal is negative. The reaction is not feasible

Calculating the temperature a reaction will become

feasible
STotal during phase changes
Calculate the temperature range that this reaction will be As physical phase changes like melting and boiling are
feasible equilibria, the STotal for such changes is zero.
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
H = 180 kJ mol-1 Ssystem = 25 J K-1 mol-1 What temperature would methane melt at?

The reaction will be feasible when STotal 0 CH4(s) CH4 (l) H = 0.94 kJmol-1 S = 10.3 Jmol-1K-1
Make STotal = 0 in the following equation Make STotal = 0 in the following equation
Stotal = Ssystem + Ssurrounding Stotal = Ssystem + Ssurrounding
0 = -H/T + Ssystem 0 = -H/T + Ssystem
So T= H / Ssystem So T= H / Ssystem
T = 180/ (25/1000)
T= 0.94 / (10.31000)
= 7200K
The T must be >7200K which is a high Temp! T= 91K

Effect of Temperature on feasibility If the reaction involves an increase in entropy of the system
(Ssystem is +ve) then increasing Temperature will make the
Stotal = -H/T + Ssystem -H/T have a smaller magnitude and it will more likely that
Stotal will be positive and more likely that the reaction
Changing Temperature will change the occurs e.g. NaCl + aq Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
value of - H/T in the above equation

If the reaction involves an decrease in entropy If the reaction has a H close to zero then
(Ssystem is -ve) then increasing Temperature will temperature will not have a large effect on the
make it more less likely that Stotal will be positive feasibility of the reaction as - H/T will be
because the -H/T will have a smaller magnitude and small and Stotal wont change much
will be less likely to compensate for the negative Ssystem
It will be less likely for the reaction to occur. E.g.
HCl(g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl(s)

3
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 Solubility of ionic substances
Enthalpy of lattice formation Enthalpy of Hydration Hhyd
The Enthalpy of lattice formation is the standard enthalpy Enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous ions
change when 1 mole of an ionic crystal lattice is formed become hydrated such that further dilution causes no
from its constituent ions in gaseous form. further heat change
Na+ (g) + Cl- (g) NaCl (s) [H Latt = -787 kJ mol-1]
X+ (g) + aq X+ (aq) For Li+ Hhyd = -519 kJ mol-1
or
Enthalpy of solution
X- (g) + aq X- (aq) For F- Hhyd = -506 kJ mol-1
The enthalpy of solution is the standard enthalpy change
when one mole of an ionic solid dissolves in an large
This always gives out energy (exothermic, -ve) because
enough amount of water to ensure that the dissolved ions
bonds are made between the ions and the water molecules
are well separated and do not interact with one another

NaCl (s) + aq Na+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)

Trends in Lattice Enthalpies

The lattice enthalpies become
The strength of a enthalpy of lattice formation depends on the following less negative down any group.
factors e.g. LiCl, NaCl, KCl, RbCl
1. The sizes of the ions:
e.g group 1 halides (eg NaF KI) have
The larger the ions, the less negative the enthalpies of lattice lattice enthalpies of around 700 to -
formation (i.e. a weaker lattice). As the ions are larger the charges 1000
become further apart and so have a weaker attractive force group 2 halides (eg MgCl2) have lattice
between them. enthalpies of around 2000 to 3500
2. The charges on the ion: group 2 oxides eg MgO have lattice
The bigger the charge of the ion, the greater the attraction between enthalpies of around 3000 to 4500
the ions so the stronger the lattice enthalpy (more negative values). kJmol-1

Enthalpies of solution Using Hesss law to determine enthalpy changes of solution

When an ionic lattice dissolves in water it involves breaking up the bonds in the lattice and forming new
bonds between the metal ions and water molecules.

For MgCl2 the ionic equation for the dissolving is MgCl2 (s) + aq Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)

Mg2+ (g) + 2Cl- (g) When an ionic substance dissolves the lattice must be
broken up. The enthalpy of lattice dissociation is equal
H hyd Mg2+ to the energy needed to break up the lattice (to gaseous
H lattice formation
ions). This step is endothermic.
(MgCl2) Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (g)
The size of the lattice enthalpy depends on the size and
2 x H hyd Cl- charge on the ion. The smaller the ion and the higher its
MgCl2 (s)
charge the stronger the lattice
Hsolution
Mg2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)

H solution = - HL formation + Hhyd

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Example . Calculate the enthalpy of solution of NaCl Hydration enthalpies are exothermic as energy is given
given that the lattice enthalpy of formation of out as water molecules bond to the metal ions.
NaCl is -771 kJmol-1 and the enthalpies of
hydration of sodium and chloride ions are -406 The negative ions are attracted to the + hydrogens on
and -364 kJmol-1 respectively the polar water molecules and the positive ions are
attracted to the - oxygen on the polar water molecules.
H sol = - HLatt formation + Hhyd
= - (-771) + (-406-364)
= + 1 kJmol-1

H solution endothermic.

Ba2+ (g) + SO42- (g)

H hyd Ba2+
The higher the charge density the greater the hydration
H lattice formation Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (g) enthalpy (e.g. smaller ions or ions with larger charges)
(BaSO4) H hyd SO42- as the ions attract the water molecules more strongly.
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) e.g. Fluoride ions have more negative hydration
Hsolution enthalpies than chloride ions
BaSO4 (s) INSOLUBLE
Magnesium ions have a more negative hydration enthalpy
than barium ions

What does HSolution tell us?

Generally H solution is not very exo or endothermic so the hydration enthalpy is about the same as lattice
enthalpy.
In general the substance is more likely to be soluble if the H solution is exothermic.
If a substance is insoluble it is often because the lattice enthalpy is much larger than the hydration enthalpy and
it is not energetically favourable to break up the lattice, making H solution endothermic.

We must consider entropy, however, to give us the full picture about solubility.
When a solid dissolves into ions the entropy increases as there is more disorder as solid changes to solution
and number of particles increases.
This positive Ssystem can make STotal positive even if H solution is endothermic, especially at higher
temperatures.

For salts where H solution is exothermic For salts where H solution is endothermic
the salt will always dissolve at all Temperatures the salt may dissolve depending on whether the
S value is more positive than -H/T is negative
Stotal = -H/T + Ssystem
Stotal = -H/T + Ssystem
Stotal is Ssystem is positive
always H is negative due to the Will dissolve
Ssystem is
positive so -H/T will increased disorder if Stotal is H is positive positive due to
always be as more particles negative so -H/T will the increased
positive
be negative disorder

Increasing the Temperature will make it more

likely that STotal will become positive, making
the reaction feasible and the salt dissolve

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11. Equilibrium II
Many reactions are reversible All reversible reactions reach an
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 dynamic equilibrium state.

Dynamic equilibrium occurs when forward and backward reactions are occurring at equal rates. The
concentrations of reactants and products stays constant and the reaction is continuous.

Writing an expression for Equilibrium constant Kc

Kc = equilibrium constant
For a generalised reaction Example 1
mA + nB pC + qD
[ C]p [D]q N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g)
m,n,p,q are the stoichiometric balancing Kc=
numbers [ A]m [B]n [NH3 (g)]2
Kc=
A,B,C,D stand for the chemical formula
[N2 (g)] [H2 (g)]3
[ ] means the equilibrium concentration

The unit of Kc changes and depends on the equation.

Working out the unit of Kc

Put the unit of concentration (mol dm-3) into the Kc equation

Cancel out
[NH3 (g)]2 units 1
Kc= [mol dm-3]2 Unit = [mol dm-3]-2
Unit = Unit =
[N2 (g) ] [H2 (g)]3 [mol dm-3]2
[mol dm-3] [mol dm-3]3
Unit = mol-2 dm+6

Example 2: writing Kc expression

Working out the unit
H2 (g) +Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g) [HCl (g)]2
Kc= [mol dm-3]2
Unit Kc= = no unit
[H2 (g) ] [Cl2 (g)]
[mol dm-3] [mol dm-3]

Calculating Kc

Most questions first involve having to work out the equilibrium moles and then concentrations
of the reactants and products.
Usually the question will give the initial amounts (moles) of the reactants, and some data that
will help you work out the equilibrium amounts.

Calculating the moles at equilibrium

moles of reactant at equilibrium = initial moles moles reacted

moles of product at equilibrium = initial moles + moles formed

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Example 3
H2 (g) +Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)
For the following equilibrium
In a container of volume 600cm3 there were initially 0.5mol of H2 and 0.6 mol of Cl2.
At equilibrium there were 0.2 moles of HCl. Calculate Kc

H2 Cl2 HCl
It is often useful Using the balanced equation if 0.2 moles of
Initial moles 0.5 0.6 0
to put the mole HCl has been formed it must have used up
data in a table. 0.1 of Cl2 and 0.1 moles of H2 (as 1:2 ratio)
Equilibrium moles 0.2

Work out the moles at equilibrium for the reactants moles of reactant at equilibrium = initial moles moles reacted

moles of hydrogen at equilibrium = 0.5 0.1 = 0.4 moles of chlorine at equilibrium = 0.6 0.1 = 0.5

H2 Cl2 HCl If the Kc has no unit then there are equal numbers of
reactants and products. In this case you do not have to
Initial moles 0.5 0.6 0 divide by volume to work out concentration and equilibrium
moles could be put straight into the kc expression
Equilibrium moles 0.4 0.5 0.2
Equilibrium 0.4/0.6 0.5/0.6 0.2/0.6
[HCl (g)]2
concentration (M) =0.67 =0.83 =0.33 Kc=
[H2 (g) ] [Cl2 (g)]

Work out the

Finally put
Kc
= 0.332 = 0.196 no unit
concentrations into 0.67x0.83
equilibrium
conc = moles/ vol (in dm3) Kc expression
concentrations

Example 4
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g ) 2 NH3 (g)
For the following equilibrium
Initially there were 1.5 moles of N2 and 4 mole of H2, in a 1.5 dm3 container. At
equilibrium 30% of the Nitrogen had reacted. Calculate Kc

N2 H2 NH3
30% of the nitrogen had reacted = 0.3 x1.5 = 0.45 moles reacted.
Initial moles 1.5 4.0 0 Using the balanced equation 3 x 0.45 moles of H2 must have
reacted and 2x 0.45 moles of NH3 must have formed
Equilibrium moles

Work out the moles at equilibrium for the reactants and products
moles of reactant at equilibrium = initial moles moles reacted

moles of nitrogen at equilibrium = 1.5 0.45 = 1.05 moles of hydrogen at equilibrium =4.0 0.45 x3 = 2.65

moles of product at equilibrium = initial moles + moles formed

moles of ammonia at equilibrium = 0 + (0.45 x 2) = 0.9

N2 H2 NH3
Finally put concentrations into Kc expression
Initial moles 1.5 4.0 0

Equilibrium moles 1.05 2.65 0.9 [NH3 (g)]2

Kc=
Equilibrium 1.05/1.5 2.65/1.5 0.9/1.5 [N2 (g) ] [H2 (g)]3
concentration (M) =0.7 =1.77 =0.6

Kc = 0.62 = 0.0927 mol-2 dm+6

Work out the 0.7x1.773
equilibrium
conc = moles/ vol (in dm3)
concentrations

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 Partial Pressures and Kp

If a reaction contains gases an alternative equilibrium expression can be

set up using the partial pressures of the gases instead of concentrations

Partial Pressure

The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is the pressure

that the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume partial pressure = mole fraction x total pressure
occupied by the whole mixture. of gas 1 of gas 1

If a mixture of gases contains 3 different gases then the p1 = x1 P

total pressure will equal the 3 partial pressure added
together
P =p1 + p2 + p3

mole fraction
mole fraction = number of moles of a gas
total number of moles of all gases

For a 3 part mixture

x1 = y1
y1+y2 +y3

Example : A mixture contains 0.2 moles N2, 0.5 moles O2 and 1.2 moles of CO2. If the total pressure is 3atm.
What are the partial pressures of the 3 gases?

Total moles of gas = 0.5 + 1.2+ 0.2

= 1.9

mole fraction = 0.2/1.9 mole fraction = 0.5/1.9 mole fraction = 1.2/1.9

of N2 =0.105 of O2 =0.263 of CO2 =0.632

Partial pressure =0.105x 3 Partial pressure = 0.263 x 3 Partial pressure = 0.632 x 3

of N2 =0.315 of O2 =0.789 of CO2 =1.896

Writing an expression for Kp

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) p means the partial pressure of that gas

p 2 NH3 Kp = equilibrium constant

Kp=
p N2 p 3 H2 Only include gases in the Kp expression. Ignore
solids, liquids, and aqueous substances.

Working out the unit of Kp

Put the unit of pressure(atm) into the Kp equation

atm2
Unit = However, if the equation is
p 2 NH
Kp= 3 (g) atm atm3 written the other way round, the
pN2 (g) p 3H2 (g) value of Kp will be the inverse of
1 above and the units will be atm2.
Cancel out units Unit =
It is important therefore to write
atm2
an equation when quoting
Unit = atm-2 values of Kp.

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Example 4
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g ) 2 NH3 (g)
For the following equilibrium

1 mole of N2 and 3 moles of H2 are added together and the mixture is allowed to reach equilibrium. At
equilibrium 20% of the N2 has reacted. If the total pressure is 2atm what is the value of Kp?

N2 H2 NH3
20% of the nitrogen had reacted = 0.2 x1.0 = 0.2 moles reacted.
Initial moles 1.0 3.0 0 Using the balanced equation 3 x 0.2 moles of H2 must have
reacted and 2x 0.2 moles of NH3 must have formed
Equilibrium moles

Work out the moles at equilibrium for the reactants and products
moles of reactant at equilibrium = initial moles moles reacted

moles of nitrogen at equilibrium = 1.0 0.2 = 0.8 moles of hydrogen at equilibrium =3.0 0.20 x3 = 2.40

moles of product at equilibrium = initial moles + moles formed

moles of ammonia at equilibrium = 0 + (0.2 x 2) = 0.4

N2 H2 NH3
Finally put concentrations into Kp expression
Initial moles 1.0 3.0 0

Equilibrium moles 0.80 2.40 0.40 p 2 NH3 (g)

Kp=
Mole fractions 0.8/3.6 2.40/3.6 0.40/3.6 pN2 (g) p 3H2 (g)
=0.222 =0.667 =0.111

Partial pressure 0.222 0.667 x2 0.111 x2

Kc
= 0.2222 = 0.0469 atm-2
x2 = =1.33 = 0.222 0.444x1.333
0.444

Heterogeneous equilibria for Kp

Kp expressions only contain gaseous substances. Any substance with another state is left out
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Kp =p CO2
Unit atm

Equilibrium constants and feasibility

Values of equilibrium constants can all be used to predict the extent a reaction might occur.
Reaction Reactants equal amounts Products Reaction goes
does not predominate in of products and predominate in to completion
go an equilibrium reactants an equilibrium

Kc < 10-10 Kc 0.1 Kc = 1 Kc 10 Kc > 1010

Stotal increases the magnitude of the equilibrium constant increases since S = R lnK
Where K is equilibrium constant Kc or Kp

This equation shows a reaction with a Kc >1 will therefore have a positive Stotal

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Application of rates and equilibrium
Effect of changing conditions on value of Kc or Kp Kc and Kp only change with
temperature.
The larger the Kc the greater the amount of products.
It does not change if pressure or
If Kc is small we say the equilibrium favours the reactants
concentration is altered.
A catalyst also has no effect on Kc or Kp
Effect of Temperature on position of equilibrium and Kc

In this equilibrium which is exothermic in the forward direction

Both the position of equilibrium
and the value of Kc or Kp will N2 (g) + 3H2 (g ) 2 NH3 (g)
change it temperature is altered
If temperature is increased the reaction will shift to oppose the change and
move in the backwards endothermic direction. The position of equilibrium
shifts left. The value of Kc gets smaller as there are fewer products.

Effect of Temperature on rate

As the temperature increases a significantly bigger proportion of particles have energy greater than the
activation energy, so the frequency of successful collisions increases

Effect of Concentration on position of equilibrium and Kc

Changing concentration would H2 (g) +Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

shift the position of
equilibrium but the value of
Kc would not change. Increasing concentration of H2 would move equilibrium to
the right lowering concentration of H2 and Cl2 and
increasing concentration of HCl. The new concentrations
would restore the equilibrium to the same value of Kc

Effect of Concentration and pressure on rate

At higher concentrations(and pressures) there are more particles per unit volume and so the particles
collide with a greater frequency and there will be a higher frequency of effective collisions.

Effect of Pressure on position of equilibrium and Kp

In this equilibrium which has fewer moles of gas on the product side
The position of equilibrium will
change it pressure is altered N2 (g) + 3H2 (g ) 2 NH3 (g)
but the value of Kp stays If pressure is increased the reaction will shift to oppose the change
constant as Kp only varies with and move in the forward direction to the side with fewer moles of gas.
temperature The position of equilibrium shifts right. The value of Kp stays the
same though as only temperature changes the value of Kp.

Increasing pressure does not change Kp.

The increased pressure increases the pressure terms p 2 NH3
Kp=
on bottom of Kp expression more than the top. The p N2 p 3 H2
system is now no longer in equilibrium so the
equilibrium shifts to the right increasing mole fractions x 2 NH3 . P2 Where P is total
of products and decreases the mole fractions of Kp=
x N2.P x3 H 3 pressure and x
reactants. The top of Kp expression therefore 2.P
mole fraction
increases and the bottom decreases until the original
value of Kp is restored x 2 NH3 . P2
Kp=
x N2 x3 H2. P4

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 Effect of catalysts on position of equilibrium and Kc

A catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium or values of Kc and Kp, but it will speed
up the rate at which the equilibrium is achieved.

It does not effect the position of equilibrium because it speeds up the rates of the forward and
backward reactions by the same amount.

Catalysts speeds up the rate allowing lower temperatures to be used (and hence lower energy costs) but
have no effect on equilibrium.

Importance of equilibrium to industrial processes

Common examples
Contact process
Haber process
Stage 1 S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 H = -ve exo
Stage 2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) SO3 (g) H = -98 kJ mol-1
T= 450oC, P= 200 1000 atm, catalyst = iron
T= 450oC, P= 10 atm, catalyst = V2O5
Low temp gives good yield but slow rate:
Low temp gives good yield but slow rate: compromise
compromise temp used
moderate temp used
High pressure gives good yield and high rate:
High pressure gives slightly better yield and high rate: too
too high a pressure would lead to too high
high a pressure would lead to too high energy costs for
energy costs for pumps to produce the pressure
pumps to produce the pressure

In all cases high pressure leads to too high energy costs for pumps to produce the pressure and
too high equipment costs to have equipment that can withstand high pressures.

Recycling unreacted reactants back into the reactor can improve the overall yields of all these processes and
improve their atom economy

Industrial processes cannot be in equilibrium since the products are removed as they are formed
to improve conversion of reactants. They are not closed systems

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12. Acid Base Equilibria
Bronsted-Lowry Definition of acid Base behaviour

A Bronsted-Lowry acid is defined as a substance that can donate a proton.

A Bronsted-Lowry base is defined as a substance that can accept a proton.

HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Each acid is linked to a conjugate base on
acid base acid base the other side of the equation.

HNO3 + HNO2 NO3 + H2NO2+ HCOOH + CH3(CH2)2COOH HCOO + CH3(CH2)2COOH2+

Acid 1 Base 2 Base 1 Acid 2 Acid 1 Base 2 Base 1 Acid 2

In these reactions the substance with bigger Ka will act as

the acid

Calculating pH

pH = - log [H+] Where [H+] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution

Calculating pH of strong acids

The concentration of hydrogen ions in a monoprotic strong acid
Strong acids completely dissociate
will be the same as the concentration of the acid.

For HCl and HNO3 the [H+(aq)] will be the same as the
original concentration of the acid. Always give pH values to 2d.p. In the exam
For 0.1M HCl the pH will be log[0.1] =1.00

Finding [H+] from pH

On most calculators this is Example 1
[H+] = 1x 10-pH done by pressing What is the concentration of HCl with a pH of
Inv (or 2nd function) log 1.35?
- number(pH) [H ] = 1 x 10-1.35 = 0.045M
+

Ionic Product for water

In all aqueous solutions and pure water the following equilibrium occurs: H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

This equilibrium has the following Because [H2O (l)] is much bigger than the
equilibrium expression concentrations of the ions, we assume its
value is constant and make a new
Rearrange to constant Kw
[H+ ][OH- (aq)]
Kc= (aq) Kc x [H2O (l)] = [H+ (aq) ][OH- (aq)]
Kw = [H+ (aq) ][OH- (aq) ]
[H2O(l)]
Learn this expression

At 25oC the value of Kw for all aqueous solutions is 1x10-14 mol2dm-6 The Kw expression can be used to
calculate [H+ (aq)] ions if we know
pKw the [OH- (aq)] ions and vice versa.
Sometimes Kw is quoted as pKw values
pKw = -log Kw so Kw = 10-pKw
If Kw = 1x10-14 then pKw =14

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 Finding pH of pure water

Pure water/ neutral solutions are neutral because the [H+ (aq) ] = [OH-(aq)]
Using Kw = [H+ (aq) ][OH- (aq) ] then when neutral Kw = [H+ (aq) ]2
and [H+(aq) ] = Kw
At 25oC [H+(aq) ] = 1x10-14 = 1x10-7 so pH = 7

At different temperatures to 25oC the pH of

Example 2 : Calculate the pH of water at 50C given that Kw =
pure water changes. Le Chateliers
5.476 x 10-14 mol2 dm-6 at 50C
principle can predict the change. The
[H+(aq) ] = Kw = 5.476 x 10-14 =2.34 x 10-7 mol dm-3
dissociation of water is endothermic so
pH = - log 2.34 x 10-7 = 6.6
increasing the temperature would push the
It is still neutral though as [H+ (aq) ] = [OH- (aq)]
equilibrium to the right giving a bigger
concentration of H+ ions and a lower pH.

Calculating pH of Strong Base

For bases we are normally given the Example 3: What is the pH of the strong base 0.1M NaOH
concentration of the hydroxide ion.
Assume complete dissociation.
To work out the pH we need to work out [H+(aq)]
Kw = [H+ (aq)][OH- (aq)] = 1x10-14
using the kw expression.
[H+(aq)] = kw/ [OH- (aq)] = 1x10-14 / 0.1 = 1x10-13 M
Strong bases completely dissociate into their ions. pH = - log[1x10-13 ] =13.00
NaOH Na+ + OH-

Weak acids
Weak acids only slightly dissociate when dissolved in water, giving an equilibrium mixture

We can simplify this to

HA + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq) HA (aq) H+ (aq) + A- (aq)

Weak acids dissociation expression Example 4 Write an equation for dissociation of propanoic acid
and its ka expression
[H+ (aq)][A- (aq)]
Ka= CH3CH2CO2H(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3CH2CO2- (aq)
[HA (aq)]
[H+ (aq)][CH3CH2CO2-(aq)]
Ka=
The Ka for ethanoic acid is 1.7 x 10-5 mol [CH3CH2CO2H(aq)]
dm-3.
pKa
The larger ka the stronger the acid Sometimes Ka values are quoted as pKa values
pKa = -log Ka so Ka = 10-pKa

Calculating pH of a weak acid

To make the calculation easier two assumptions are made to [H+ (aq)][A- (aq)]
simplify the Ka expression: Ka=
[HA (aq)]
1) [H+ (aq)]eqm = [A- (aq)] eqm because they have dissociated
according to a 1:1 ratio. Simplifies to
2) As the amount of dissociation is small we assume that the initial [H+ (aq)]2
concentration of the undissociated acid has remained constant. Ka=
[HA (aq)]initial
So [HA (aq) ] eqm = [HA(aq) ] initial

N Goalby chemrevise.org 2
 Example 5 What is the pH of a solution of 0.01M ethanoic acid (ka is 1.7 x 10-5 mol dm-3)?
CH3CO2H(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3CO2- (aq)

[H+ (aq)]2 [H+ (aq)]2

[H+ (aq)][CH3CO2-(aq)]
Ka= Ka= 1.7x 10-5 =
[CH3CO2H(aq)]initial 0.01
[CH3CO2H(aq)]

[H+ (aq)]2 = 1.7 x 10-5 x 0.01 pH = - log [H+] = -log (4.12 x10-4)
pH =3.38
[H+ (aq)] = 1.7 x 10-7 = 4.12 x 10-4

Example 6 What is the concentration of propanoic acid with a pH of 3.52 (ka is 1.35 x 10-5 mol dm-3)?

CH3CH2CO2H(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3CH2CO2- (aq)

[H+] = 1 x 10-3.52 = 0.000302M

[H+ (aq)]2 [0.000302]2
[H+ (aq)][CH3CH2CO2-(aq)]
Ka= Ka= 1.35 x 10-5 =
[CH3CH2CO2H(aq)]initial [CH3CH2CO2H(aq)]initial
[CH3CH2CO2H(aq)]

[CH3CH2CO2H(aq)] = 9.12 x 10-8 /1.35 x 10-5 [CH3CH2CO2H(aq)] = 6.75 x 10-3 M

Working out pH of a weak acid at half equivalence

Example 7
When a weak acid has been reacted with exactly half the
What is the pH of the resulting solution when
neutralisation volume of alkali, the above calculation can be
25cm3 of 0.1M NaOH is added to 50cm3 of
simplified considerably.
0.1M CH3COOH (ka 1.7 x 10-5 )
ka = [H+] [CH3CO2- ] At half neutralisation we can make From the volumes and concentrations spot it
[ CH3CO2H ] the assumption that [HA] = [A-] is half neutralisation (or calculate)

So [H+(aq)] = ka pH = pka = -log (1.7 x 10-5 ) = 4.77

And pH = pka

Diluting an acid or alkali

pH of diluted base
pH of diluted strong acid [OH] = [OH]old x old volume
new volume
[H+] = [H+]old x old volume
[H+] = Kw
new volume [OH ]
pH = log [H+] pH = log [H+]

Example 8 Calculate the new pH when 50.0 cm3 of 0.150 mol dm-3 HCl is mixed with 500 cm3 of water.
[H+(aq)] = 0.0136
[H+] = [H+]old x old volume 0.05
[H+(aq)] = 0.150 x
new volume 0.55 pH = log [H+]
= -log 0.0136
= 1.87

Comparing the pH of a strong acid and a weak acid after dilution 10, 100 and 1000 times
Because pH is a logarithmic scale, diluting a strong acid 10 times will increase its pH
by one unit, and diluting it 100 times would increase its pH by two units
Weak acids would not change in the same way as when they are diluted. They increase by less than 1 unit
CH3CH2CO2H +H2O H3O+ + CH3CH2CO2-
Diluting the weak acid pushes the equilibrium to the right so the degree of dissociation increases and
more H+ ions are produced meaning pH increases less than expected

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 Buffer Solutions
A Buffer solution is one where the pH does not change
significantly if small amounts of acid or alkali are added to it. A basic buffer solution is made from a weak
base and a salt of that weak base ( made
An acidic buffer solution is made from a weak acid and a salt from reacting the weak base with a strong
of that weak acid ( made from reacting the weak acid with a acid).
strong base). Example :ammonia and ammonium chloride
Example : ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate NH3 and NH4+Cl-

CH3CO2H (aq) and CH3CO2- Na+

How Buffer solutions work

In an ethanoic acid buffer
In a buffer solution there is a much
CH3CO2H (aq) CH3CO2- (aq) + H+ (aq) higher concentration of the salt
CH3CO2- ion than in the pure acid.
Acid conjugate base

The buffer contains a reservoir of HA and A ions

If small amounts of acid is added to the buffer: Then the above equilibrium
will shift to the left removing nearly all the H+ ions added, CH3CO2- (aq) + H+ [CH3CO2H (aq)]
[H+(aq)] = Ka
(aq) CH3CO2H (aq)
[CH3CO2-(aq) ]
As there is a large concentration of the salt ion in the buffer the ratio
[CH3CO2H]/ [CH3CO2-] stays almost constant, so the pH stays fairly
constant.

If small amounts of alkali is added to the buffer. The OH- ions will react with H+ ions to
form water.
Learn these
H+ + OH - H2O explanations carefully
and be able to write
The Equilibrium will then shift to the right to produce more H+ ions. the equilibrium to
illustrate your
CH3CO2H (aq) CH3CO2- (aq) + H+ (aq)
answer.
Some ethanoic acid molecules are changed to ethanoate ions but as there is a large
concentration of the salt ion in the buffer the ratio [CH3CO2H]/ [CH3CO2-] stays almost
constant, so the pH stays fairly constant.

Calculating the pH of buffer solutions

We still use the weak acids dissociation expression

Normally we
[H+ (aq)][A- (aq)] But here we assume the [A-] [H+(aq)] = Ka
[HA(aq)]
Ka= rearrange to
concentration is due to the
[HA (aq)] [A- (aq) ]
added salt only

We also assume the Initial concentration of

the acid has remained constant, because
amount that has dissociated or reacted is
The salt content can be added in several ways: a salt solution
small.
could be added to the acid or some solid salt added. A buffer can
also be made by partially neutralising a weak acid with alkali and
therefore producing salt.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 4
 Example 9: making a buffer by adding a salt solution
We can enter moles of
What would be the pH of a buffer made from 45cm 3 of 0.1M ethanoic acid acid and salt straight
and 50cm3 of 0.15 M sodium ethanoate (Ka = 1.7 x 10 -5) ? into the equation as
they both have the
Work out the moles of both solutions same new final volume
Moles ethanoic = conc x vol = 0.1 x 0.045 = 0.0045mol [HA(aq)]
[H+(aq)] = Ka
Moles sodium ethanoate = conc x vol = 0.15 x 0.050 = 0.0075 [A- (aq) ]

0.0045
[H+(aq)] = 1.7 x 10-5 x [H+(aq)] = 1.02x 10-5 pH = log [H+]
0.0075 = -log 1.02x 10-5
= 4.99

Example 10 : making a buffer by adding a solid salt

We can enter moles of
A buffer solution is made by adding 1.1g of sodium ethanoate into 100 cm 3 acid and salt straight
of 0.4M ethanoic acid. What is its pH? Ka =1.7 x10 -5 into the equation as
they both have the
Work out the moles of both solutions same new final volume
Moles ethanoic = conc x vol = 0.4 x 0.1 = 0.04mol [HA(aq)]
[H+(aq)] = Ka
Moles sodium ethanoate = mass/Mr= 1.1/82 = 0.0134 [A- (aq) ]

0.04
[H+(aq)] = 1.7 x 10-5 x [H+(aq)] = 5.07x 10-5 pH = log [H+]
0.0134 = -log 5.07x 10-5
= 4.29

If a buffer is made by adding sodium hydroxide to partially neutralise a weak acid then follow the method below

Example 11 55cm3 of 0.5M CH3CO2H is reacted with 25cm3 of 0.35M NaOH. What will be the pH of the resulting buffer
solution?
CH3CO2H+ NaOH CH3CO2Na + H2O
Moles CH3CO2H = conc x vol =0.5x 0.055 = 0.0275mol
ka is 1.7 x 10-5 mol dm-3
Moles NaOH = conc x vol = 0.35 x 0.025 = 0.00875

Moles of CH3CO2H in excess = 0.0275-0.00875 = 0.01875 (as 1:1 ratio)

[CH3CO2H ] = moles excess CH3CO2H [CH3CO2- ] = moles OH- added

total volume (dm3) total volume (dm3)
= 0.01875/ 0.08 = 0.234M = 0.00875/ 0.08 = 0.109M

ka = [H+] [CH3CO2- ]
[H+] = ka x[ CH3CO2H ] / [CH3CO2- ]
[ CH3CO2H ] pH = log [H+]
= 1.7 x 10-5x 0.234 / 0.109 = -log 3.64 x 10-5
= 3.64 x 10-5 = 4.44

Buffering action in blood

Equilibrium
A carbonic acid hydrogencarbonate equilibrium acts H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
as a buffer in the control of blood pH
Adding alkali reacts with H+ so the above Equilibrium
The H2CO3/HCO3 buffer is present in would shift right forming new H+ and more HCO3
blood plasma, maintaining a pH between
7.35 and 7.45.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 5
Calculating change in pH of buffer on addition of small amount of acid or alkali

If a small amount of alkali is added to a buffer then the moles of the buffer acid would reduce by the
number of moles of alkali added and the moles of salt would increase by the same amount so a new
calculation of pH can be done with the new values
CH3CO2H (aq) +OH- CH3CO2- (aq) + H2O (l)

If a small amount of acid is added to a buffer then the moles of the buffer salt would reduce by the
number of moles of acid added and the moles of buffer acid would increase by the same amount so a
new calculation of pH can be done with the new values
CH3CO2- (aq) + H + CH3CO2H (aq)

Example 12: 0.005 mol of NaOH is added to 500cm3 of a buffer where the concentration of ethanoic
acid is 0.200 mol dm-3 and the concentration of sodium ethanoate is 0.250 mol dm-3 . (Ka = 1.7 x 10-5)

Calculate the pH of the buffer solution after the NaOH has been added.

Work out the moles of acid and salt in the initial buffer solution
Moles ethanoic acid= conc x vol = 0.200 x 0.500 = 0.100mol
Moles sodium ethanoate = conc x vol = 0.25 x 0.500 = 0.125mol

Work out the moles of acid and salt in buffer after the addition of 0.005mol NaOH
Moles ethanoic acid = 0.100 - 0.005 = 0.095 mol
Moles sodium ethanoate = 0.125 +0.005 = 0.130 mol
We can enter moles of
[CH3COOH (aq)] acid and salt straight
[H+(aq)] = Ka into the equation as
[CH3COO- (aq) ] they both have the
same new final volume

0.095
[H+(aq)] = 1.7 x 10-5 x [H+(aq)] = 1.24x 10-5 pH = log [H+]
0.130 = -log 1.24x 10-5
= 4.91

N Goalby chemrevise.org 6
Titration curves
Constructing a PH curve
Measure initial pH of the acid Calibrate meter first by measuring known pH of a
Add alkali in small amounts noting the volume added buffer solution. This is necessary because pH
Stir mixture to equalise the pH meters can lose accuracy on storage
Measure and record the pH to 1 dp
When approaching endpoint add in smaller volumes of Can improve accuracy by maintaining
alkali constant temperature
Add until alkali in excess

Strong acid Strong base

e.g. HCl and NaOH There are 4 main types of curve
1. Strong acid and strong base
pH
2. Weak acid and strong base
13 3. Strong acid and weak base
Long vertical part 4. Weak acid and weak base
from around 3 to 9
7
pH at equivalence point = 7

25 cm3 of base

You may also have to work out the

neutralisation volume from titration
data given in the question. These
are done by standard titration The equivalence point lies at the
calculations from module 1. mid point of the extrapolated
vertical portion of the curve.

The Key points to sketching a curve:

Initial and final pH
Volume at neutralisation
General Shape (pH at neutralisation)

Weak acid Strong base e.g. CH3CO2H and NaOH

Half neutralisation volume
At the start the pH rises quickly and then For weak acids
levels off. The flattened part is called the
buffer region and is formed because a buffer [H+ (aq)][A- (aq)]
solution is made Ka=
[HA (aq)]
pH
At the neutralisation
13 volume the [HA] = [A-]

Equivalence point >7 So Ka= [H+] and pKa = pH

7 If we know the Ka we can then work

Steep part of curve >7 out the pH at V or vice versa
(around 7 to 9)
pH
starts 1

near 3 V cm3 of base

V

N Goalby chemrevise.org 7
 Weak acid Weak base
Strong acid Weak base
e.g. HCl and NH3
e.g. CH3CO2H and NH3
pH
pH
13
13
No vertical part of the curve

Vertical part of curve

7 7
<7 (around 4 to 7)

Equivalence point < 7

1
1
25 cm3 of base
25 cm3 of base

Choosing an Indicator
HIn (aq) In- (aq) + H+ (aq)
Indicators can be considered as weak acids. The acid colour A colour B
must have a different colour to its conjugate base
We can apply Le Chatelier to give us the
An indicator changes colour from HIn to In- over a colour.
narrow range. Different indicators change colours
In an acid solution the H+ ions present will
over a different ranges
push this equilibrium towards the reactants.
Therefore colour A is the acidic colour.
The end-point of a titration is reached when [HIn] = In an alkaline solution the OH- ions will
[In-]. To choose a correct indicator for a titration one react and remove H+ ions causing the
should pick an indicator whose end-point coincides equilibrium to shift to the products. Colour B
with the equivalence point for the titration is the alkaline colour.

An indicator will work if the pH range of the indicator lies on the vertical part of the titration curve. In this case
the indicator will change colour rapidly and the colour change will correspond to the neutralisation point.

pH
Only use phenolphthalein in titrations with strong strong base
13
bases but not weak bases-
Colour change: colourless acid pink alkali pH range for
weak base phenolphthalein
7

Use methyl orange with titrations with weak acid pH range for
strong acids but not weak acids methyl orange
Colour change: red acid yellow alkali 1
strong acid
(orange end point)
3
25 cm of base

Enthalpy change of Neutralisation

The standard enthalpy change of neutralisation is the enthalpy change when solutions of an
acid and an alkali react together under standard conditions to produce 1 mole of water.

Enthalpy changes of neutralisation are always exothermic. For reactions involving strong acids and
alkalis, the values are similar, with values between -56 and -58 kJ mol-1 because the same reaction is
occurring H+ + OH- H2O

Weak acids have a less exothermic enthalpy change of neutralisation because energy is absorbed to
ionise the acid and break the bond to the hydrogen in the un-dissociated acid.

8
N Goalby chemrevise.org
16. Kinetics II
The rate of reaction is defined as the change in concentration of a substance in unit time
Its usual unit is mol dm-3s-1

When a graph of concentration of reactant is plotted vs Initial rate =

time, the gradient of the curve is the rate of reaction. gradient of

concentration
tangent
The initial rate is the rate at the start of the
reaction where it is fastest

Reaction rates can be calculated from graphs of

concentration of reactants or products
time
Techniques to investigate rates of reaction
There are several different methods for measuring reactions rates. Some reactions can be measured
in several ways
measurement of the change in volume of a gas
This works if there is a change in the number of moles of
gas in the reaction. Using a gas syringe is a common
way of following this. If drawing a gas syringe make
sure you draw it with some
(CH3)2C=CH2(g) + HI(g) (CH3)3CI(g) measurement markings on the
barrel to show measurements
HCOOH(aq) + Br2(aq) 2H+(aq) + 2Br - (aq) + CO2(g) can be made.

Measurement of change of mass

This works if there is a gas produced which is allowed to

escape. Works better with heavy gases such as CO2
HCOOH(aq) + Br2(aq) 2H+(aq) + 2Br - (aq) + CO2(g)

Titrating samples of reaction mixture with acid, alkali, sodium thiosulphate etc
Small samples are removed from the reaction mixture, quenched (which
stops the reaction) and the titrated with a suitable reagent.

HCOOCH3(aq) + NaOH(aq) HCOONa(aq) + CH3OH(aq) The NaOH could be titrated with an acid

BrO3 (aq) + 5Br (aq) + 6H+(aq) 3Br2(aq) + 3H2O(l) The H+ could be titrated with an alkali

CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) CH3COCH2I(aq) + H+(aq) + I(aq) The I2 could be titrated with sodium
thiosulphate
Colorimetry.

If one of the reactants or products is coloured H2O2(aq) + 2I- (aq) + 2H+(aq) 2H2O(l) + I2(aq)
then colorimetry can be used to measure the
change in colour of the reacting mixtures The I2 produced is a brown solution

Measuring change in electrical conductivity

Can be used if there is a change in the number HCOOH(aq) + Br2(aq) 2H+(aq) + 2Br - (aq) + CO2(g)
of ions in the reaction mixture

Measurement of optical activity.

If there is a change in the optical activity through
the reaction this could be followed in a CH3CHBrCH3 (l) + OH(aq) CH3CH(OH)CH3 (l) + Br(aq)
polarimeter
N Goalby chemrevise.org 1
 Rate Equations
The rate equation relates mathematically the rate of reaction to the concentration of the reactants.

For the following reaction, aA + bB r is used as symbol for rate

products, the generalised rate equation is: r = k[A]m[B]n
The unit of r is usually mol dm-3 s-1

The square brackets [A] means

m, n are called reaction orders the concentration of A
Orders are usually integers 0,1,2 (unit mol dm-3)

0 means the reaction is zero order with respect to that reactant k is called the rate constant
1 means first order
2 means second order
The total order for a reaction is worked
NOTE: the orders have nothing to do with the stoichiometric out by adding all the individual orders
coefficients in the balanced equation. They are worked out together (m+n)
experimentally

Calculating orders from initial rate data

For zero order: the concentration of A has no effect on the

initial

rate of reaction r = k[A]0 = k

For first order: the rate of reaction is directly proportional

to the concentration of A r = k[A]1

For second order: the rate of reaction is proportional to the

concentration of A squared r = k[A]2

For a rate concentration graph to show the

Graphs of initial rate against concentration show the
order of a particular reactant the
different orders. The initial rate may have been
concentration of that reactant must be varied
calculated from taking gradients from concentration
whilst the concentrations of the other
/time graphs
reactants should be kept constant.

Continuous rate experiments

Continuous rate data

0.060 This is data from one experiment where the concentration

of one substance is followed throughout the experiment.
If half-lives are constant
[A]

then the order is 1st order

For this method to work the concentrations of the
0.030 reactants not being followed must be in large excess in
the experiment so their concentrations stay virtually
constant and do not affect rate.
0.015
0.0075
This data is processed by plotting the data and calculating
successive half-lives.
t t t
Time (min) The half-life of a first-order reaction
is independent of the concentration and is constant

N Goalby chemrevise.org 2
 Second order zero order
0.060
0.060 If zero order the rate
stays constant as the
reactant is used up.
This means the

[A]
If half-lives rapidly increase
concentration has no
[A]

0.030 then the order is 2nd order

0.030 effect on rate

0.015
0.015
0.0075
0.0075

t t t
Time (min) Time (min)

The rate constant (k)

1. The units of k depend on the overall order of For a 1st order overall reaction the unit of k is
reaction. It must be worked out from the rate s-1
equation For a 2nd order overall reaction the unit of k is
2. The value of k is independent of concentration and mol-1dm3s-1
time. It is constant at a fixed temperature. For a 3rd order overall reaction the unit of k is
3. The value of k refers to a specific temperature and mol-2dm6s-1
it increases if we increase temperature

Example (first order overall)

Rate = k[A][B]0 m = 1 and n = 0 Remember: the values of the reaction orders must
- reaction is first order in A and zero order in B be determined from experiment; they cannot be
- overall order = 1 + 0 = 1 found by looking at the balanced reaction equation
- usually written: Rate = k[A]
Calculating units of k

1. Rearrange rate equation 2. Insert units and

to give k as subject cancel

k = Rate k = mol dm-3s-1

Unit of k = s-1
[A] mol dm-3

Example: Write rate equation for reaction between A and B

where A is 1st order and B is 2nd order.

r = k[A][B]2 overall order is 3

Calculate the unit of k

1. Rearrange rate equation to 2. Insert units and 3. Simplify fraction

give k as subject cancel
k= s-1
k = Rate k = mol dm-3s-1 Unit of k = mol-2dm6s-1
mol2dm-6
[A][B]2 mol dm-3.(moldm-3)2

N Goalby chemrevise.org 3
 Rate Equations
The rate equation relates mathematically the rate of reaction to the concentration of the reactants.

For the following reaction, aA + bB r is used as symbol for rate

products, the generalised rate equation is: r = k[A]m[B]n
The unit of r is usually mol dm-3 s-1

The square brackets [A] means

m, n are called reaction orders the concentration of A
Orders are usually integers 0,1,2 (unit mol dm-3)

0 means the reaction is zero order with respect to that reactant k is called the rate constant
1 means first order
2 means second order
The total order for a reaction is worked
NOTE: the orders have nothing to do with the stoichiometric out by adding all the individual orders
coefficients in the balanced equation. They are worked out together (m+n)
experimentally

For zero order: the concentration of A has no effect on the

rate of reaction r = k[A]0 = k

For first order: the rate of reaction is directly proportional

to the concentration of A r = k[A]1

For second order: the rate of reaction is proportional to the

concentration of A squared r = k[A]2

The rate constant (k)

1. The units of k depend on the overall order of For a 1st order overall reaction the unit of k is
reaction. It must be worked out from the rate s-1
equation For a 2nd order overall reaction the unit of k is
2. The value of k is independent of concentration and mol-1dm3s-1
time. It is constant at a fixed temperature. For a 3rd order overall reaction the unit of k is
3. The value of k refers to a specific temperature and mol-2dm6s-1
it increases if we increase temperature

Example (first order overall)

Rate = k[A][B]0 m = 1 and n = 0 Remember: the values of the reaction orders must
- reaction is first order in A and zero order in B be determined from experiment; they cannot be
- overall order = 1 + 0 = 1 found by looking at the balanced reaction equation
- usually written: Rate = k[A]
Calculating units of k

1. Rearrange rate equation 2. Insert units and

to give k as subject cancel

k = Rate k = mol dm-3s-1

Unit of k = s-1
[A] mol dm-3

N Goalby chemrevise.org 4
 Example: Write rate equation for reaction between A and B
where A is 1st order and B is 2nd order.

r = k[A][B]2 overall order is 3

Calculate the unit of k

1. Rearrange rate equation to 2. Insert units and 3. Simplify fraction

give k as subject cancel
k= s-1
k = Rate k = mol dm-3s-1 Unit of k = mol-2dm6s-1
mol2dm-6
[A][B]2 mol dm-3.(moldm-3)2

Working out orders from experimental initial rate data

The initial rate is the rate at the start of the reaction, where it is fastest. It is
often obtained by taking the gradient of the conc vs time graph.

Normally to work out the rate equation we do a series of

experiments where the initial concentrations of reactants are
changed (one at a time) and measure the initial rate each time.
This data is normally presented in a table.

Example: work out the rate equation for the following reaction, A+ B+ 2C D + 2E, using the initial rate
data in the table

Experiment [A] [B] [C] Rate In order to calculate the order for a particular
mol dm- mol dm-3 mol dm-3 mol dm-3 s-1 reactant it is easiest to compare two
3
experiments where only that reactant is
1 0.1 0.5 0.25 0.1 being changed
2 0.2 0.5 0.25 0.2
If conc is doubled and rate stays the same: order= 0
3 0.1 1.0 0.25 0.4
If conc is doubled and rate doubles: order= 1
4 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1
If conc is doubled and rate quadruples : order= 2

For reactant A compare between experiments 1 and 2

For reactant A as the concentration doubles (B and C staying constant) so does the
rate. Therefore the order with respect to reactant A is first order

For reactant B compare between experiments 1 and 3 :

As the concentration of B doubles (A and C staying constant) the rate quadruples.
Therefore the order with respect to B is 2nd order

For reactant C compare between experiments 1 and 4 :

As the concentration of C doubles (A and B staying constant) the rate stays the same.
Therefore the order with respect to C is zero order

The reaction is 3rd order overall and the unit of the

The overall rate equation is r = k [A] [B]2
rate constant =mol-2dm6s-1

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Working out orders when two reactant concentrations are changed simultaneously

In most questions it is possible to compare between two experiments where only one reactant has its initial
concentration changed. If, however, both reactants are changed then the effect of both individual changes on
concentration are multiplied together to give the effect on rate.

In a reaction where the rate equation is r = k [A] [B]2

If the [A] is x2 that rate would x2
If the [B] is x3 that rate would x32= x9
If these changes happened at the same time then the rate would x2x9= x 18

Example work out the rate equation for the reaction, between X and Y, using the initial rate data in the table

Experiment Initial concentration of Initial concentration Initial

X/ mol dm3 of Y/ mol dm3 rate/ mol dm3 s1

1 0.05 0.1 0.15 x 106

2 0.10 0.1 0.30 x 106

3 0.20 0.2 2.40 x 106

For reactant X compare between experiments 1 and 2

For reactant X as the concentration doubles (Y staying constant) so does the rate.
Therefore the order with respect to reactant X is first order

Comparing between experiments 2 and 3 :

Both X and Y double and the rate goes up by 8

We know X is first order so that will have doubled rate

The overall rate equation is r = k [X] [Y]2
The effect of Y, therefore, on rate is to have quadrupled it.
The reaction is 3rd order overall and the unit of
Y must be second order
the rate constant =mol-2dm6s-1

Calculating a value for k using initial rate data

Using the above example, choose any one of the experiments and put the values into the rate equation that
has been rearranged to give k. Using experiment 3:

r = k [X] [Y]2 k= r k = 2.40 x 106 k = 3.0 x 10-4 mol-2dm6s-1

[X] [Y]2
0.2 x 0.22

Remember k is the same for all experiments done at the same temperature.
Increasing the temperature increases the value of the rate constant k

6
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 Effect of Temperature on rate constant

Increasing the temperature increases the value of the

rate constant k
k
Increasing temperature increases the rate constant k. The
relationship is given by the Arrhenius equation k = Ae-Ea/RT
where A is a constant R is gas constant and Ea is activation
energy. temperature

The Arrhenius equation can be rearranged 1/T

ln (Rate)
ln k = constant Ea/(RT)
k is proportional to the rate of reaction so ln k can be
replaced by ln(rate) Gradient = - Ea/ R
From plotting a graph of ln(rate) or ln k against 1/T the
activation energy can be calculated from measuring Ea = - gradient x R
the gradient of the line

1/T
Example
0.0029 0.003 0.0031 0.0032 0.0033 0.0034
Temperature time t -1.6
T (K) 1/T (s) 1/t Ln (1/t) x1,y1
297.3 0.003364 53 0.018868 -3.9703 -2.1
310.6 0.00322 24 0.041667 -3.1781
ln (Rate)

317.2 0.003153 16 0.0625 -2.7726 -2.6

323.9 0.003087 12 0.083333 -2.4849

-3.1
335.6 0.00298 6 0.166667 -1.7918

-3.6
x2,y2
gradient = y2-y1 The gradient should
x2-x1 always be -ve -4.1

In above example gradient =-5680 use a line of best fit

use all graph paper
Ea = - gradient x R (8.31) choose points far apart on the graph to
= - -5680 x8.31 calculate the gradient
= 47200 J mol-1
The unit of Ea using this equation will be J mol-1 .
Convert into kJ mol-1 by dividing 1000
Ea = +47.2 kJ mol-1

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Rate Equations and mechanisms

A mechanism is a series of steps through which the reaction Each step can have a different rate of
progresses, often forming intermediate compounds. If all the reaction. The slowest step will control the
steps are added together they will add up to the overall overall rate of reaction. The slowest step
equation for the reaction is called the rate-determining step.

The molecularity (number of moles of each substance) of the molecules in the slowest
step will be the same as the order of reaction for each substance.
e.g. 0 moles of A in slow step would mean A is zero order.
1 mole of A in the slow step would mean A is first order

Example 2 overall reaction

Example 1 A + 2B + C D + E
overall reaction Mechanism
A + 2B + C D + E Step 1 A + B X + D fast
Mechanism Step 2 X+CY slow
Step 1 A + B X + D slow Step 3 Y+BE fast
Step 2 X+CY fast
Step 3 Y+BE fast r = k [X]1[C]1
r = k [A]1[B]1[C]o The intermediate X is not one of the reactants so
must be replaced with the substances that make
C is zero order as it appears in the up the intermediate in a previous step
mechanism in a fast step after the slow step A+BX+D
r = k[A]1[B]1[C]1

Investigating the rate of reaction between Iodine and propanone

Propanone reacts with iodine in acidic solution (the acid is a catalyst) as shown in the equation
below.
CH3COCH3(aq) + I2(aq) CH3COCH2I(aq) + H+(aq) + I(aq)

This reaction can be followed by removing small samples from the reaction mixture with a
volumetric pipette. The sample is then quenched by adding excess sodium hydrogencarbonate to
neutralize acid catalyst which stops the reaction. Then the sample can be titrated with sodium
thiosulphate using a starch catalyst

2S2O32-(aq) + I2 (aq) 2I- (aq) + S4O62-(aq)

yellow/brown sol colourless sol

[I2] This reaction is zero order with respect to I2 but 1st order
with respect to the propanone and acid catalyst

The rate equation for the reaction is

Rate = k[CH3COCH3(aq)][H+(aq)]

If there is a zero order reactant there must

be at least two steps in the mechanism
because the rate determining step will not
involve the zero order reactant
Time (min)

The rate determining step of this reaction must therefore contain one propanone molecule and one H+ ion
forming an intermediate. The iodine will be involved in a subsequent faster step.

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 Example 3: SN1 or SN2?

Remember the nucleophilic substitution reaction of halogenoalkanes and hydroxide ions.

This is a one step mechanism

H CH3 H - H
+ -
H3C
-HO:
C Br HO C Br
H3C C OH + :Br -

H
H H

CH3CH2Br + OH- CH3CH2OH + Br- slow step

Primary halogenalkanes tend to
The rate equation is This is called SN2.
Substitution, Nucleophilic, react via the SN2 mechanism
r = k [CH3CH2Br] [OH-] 2 molecules in rate
determining step

SN1 nucleophilic substitution mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes

Tertiary halogenoalkanes
CH3 CH3 CH3 undergo this mechanism as the
+
tertiary carbocation is made
H3C C Br H3C C :OH- H3C C OH stabilised by the electron
releasing methyl groups around it.
CH3 CH3 CH3
(see alkenes topic for another
example of this).
The Br first breaks away The hydroxide
Also the bulky methyl groups
from the haloalkane to nucleophile then attacks
the positive carbon prevent the hydroxide ion from
form a carbocation attacking the halogenoalkane in
intermediate
the same way as the mechanism
above
Overall Reaction
The rate equation is This is called SN1.
(CH3)3CBr + OH (CH3)3COH + Br Substitution, Nucleophilic,
r = k [(CH3)3CBr] 1 molecule in rate
Mechanism: determining step

(CH3)3CBr (CH3)3C+ + Br slow Primary halogenoalkanes dont do the SN1 mechanism

because they would only form an unstable primary
(CH3)3C+ + OH (CH3)3COH fast
carbocation.

Example 4
Example 5
Overall Reaction
Using the rate equation rate = k[NO]2[H2] and
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g)
the overall equation 2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g), the
following three-step mechanism for the reaction was
Mechanism:
suggested. X and Y are intermediate species.
Step 1 NO2 + NO2 NO + NO3 slow
Step 1 NO + NO X
Step 2 NO3 + CO NO2 + CO2 fast
Step 2 X + H2 Y
NO3 is a reaction intermediate
Step 3 Y + H2 N2 + 2H2O
NO2 appears twice in the slow steps so it
is second order. CO does not appear in Which one of the three steps is the rate-determining step?
the slow step so is zero order. Step 2 as H2 appears in rate equation and
r=k [NO2]2 combination of step 1 and 2 is the ratio that
appears in the rate equation.

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17. Organic Chemistry II
A2 Organic naming
Basic definitions
Hydrocarbon is a compound consisting of hydrogen and carbon only to know

Saturated: Contain single carbon-carbon bonds only Unsaturated : Contains a C=C double bond
Molecular formula: The formula which shows the actual number of each type of atom

Empirical formula: shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the compound

General formula: algebraic formula for a homologous series e.g. CnH2n

Displayed formula: shows all the covalent bonds present in a molecule

Homologous series are families of organic compounds with the same functional
group and same general formula.
They show a gradual change in physical properties (e.g. boiling point).
Each member differs by CH2 from the last.
same chemical properties.

Functional group is an atom or group of atoms which when present in different molecules
causes them to have similar chemical properties.

Drawing Displayed formulae

Remember that the shape around the
H H H H carbon atom is tetrahedral and the bond
When drawing organic
angle is 109.5o
H C C C C H compounds add the
hydrogen atoms so that H H
H H H
H C H each carbon has 4 bonds
H C C H
H

General rules for naming carbon chains H H

Count the longest carbon chain and name appropriately code
no of
carbons
Find any branched chains and count how many carbons they contain meth 1
Add the appropriate prefix for each branch chain eth 2
Eg -CH3 methyl or -C2H5 ethyl C3H7 propyl prop 3

CH3 but 4

pent 5
2 CH2
hex 6
5
3,5-dimethylheptane hept 7
H3 C CH CH2 CH CH3
3
4 oct 8
CH2 6 non 9

CH3 7 dec 10

When compounds contain more than one functional group, the order of precedence determines which groups are
named with prefix or suffix forms. The highest precedence group takes the suffix, with all others taking the prefix
form. However, double and triple C-Cbonds only take suffix form.
Order of priority highest first:
Carboxylic acids >carboxylic acid derivative>nitriles>aldehydes>ketones>alcohols>amines

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 prefix / suffix
homologous functional group example
(* = usual use)
series
H H

alkenes C C suffix -ene C C ethene

H H

suffix* -ol H H H
alcohols C OH
prefix hydroxy-
H C C C O H Propan-1-ol
H H H

H H H
halogenoalkane C halogen
prefix chloro- H C C C Cl
bromo- 1-chloropropane
H H H
iodo-

O H O
suffix -al
aldehydes C H H C C H
prefix formyl- ethanal
H

H O H
O suffix* -one
ketones prefix oxo- H C C C H
C Propanone
H H

O H O
suffix -oic acid
carboxylic acids C OH H C C OH
Ethanoic acid
H

H H
suffix -nitrile
nitriles H C C C N
prefix cyano- Propanenitrile
C N
H H

suffix* -amine H H H
amines C NH2 prefix amino- Propylamine
H C C C NH2
Or propan-1-amine
H H H

H O H
O
esters H C C O C H Methyl ethanoate
C O
-yl oate
H H
O
O
Acyl chloride CH 3 C ethanoylchloride
C -oyl chloride
Cl Cl

O
O
Amide
C -amide CH3 C ethanamide
NH2 NH2

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General rules for naming functional groups
The functional group is indicated by a prefix or suffix. e.g. chloroethane

When using a suffix, add in the following way :

If the suffix starts with a vowel- remove the e from the stem alkane name
e.g. Propan-1-ol, butan-1-amine, ethanoic acid, ethanoylchloride, butanamide

If the suffix starts with a consonant or there are two or more of a functional group meaning di, or tri needs to be
used then do not remove the the e from the stem alkane name
e.g. Propanenitrile, ethane-1,2-diol, propanedioic acid, propane-1,2,3-triol, Pentane-2,4-dione.

The position of the functional group on the carbon H H H O H

chain is given by a number counting from the end of
the molecule that gives the functional group the lowest H C C 3 C2 C1 H Butan-1-ol
4
number. For aldehydes, carboxylic acids & nitriles, the
functional group is always on carbon 1. H H H H
H H H

We only include numbers, H C C C H

methylpropane CHCl3 trichloromethane
however, if they are needed to
H H
avoid ambiguity. H C H

The functional groups take precedence over branched 3-methylbut-1-ene is correct and not 2-methylbut-3-ene
chains in giving the lowest number
H H H H H
Where there are two or more of the same groups, di-, tri- or 2,3-dibromopentane.
H C C C C C H
tetra are used. Note the point made above about the addition of
H H Br H
e to the stem Br

Words are separated by numbers with dashes

CH2FCCl2CH2CH3 2,2-dichloro-1-fluorobutane.
numbers are separated by commas
If there is more than one functional group or side chain, the 3-bromo-1-fluoropentane
CH2FCH2CHBrCH2CH3
groups are listed in alphabetical order (ignoring any di, tri).

The suffix for alkenes can go in front of other suffixes. CH2OHCHBrCH=CH2 2-bromobut-3-en-1-ol

Halogenoalkanes
H H Br H
Class the halogen as a substituent on the C chain and use the
H C C C C H 2-bromobutane
suffix -fluoro, -chloro, -bromo, or iodo. (Give the position
number if necessary)
H H H H

Alcohols
OH
These have the ending -ol and if necessary the position
Butan-2-ol
number for the OH group is added between the name stem CH3 CH CH2 CH3
and the ol 1 2 3 4

O
If the compound has an OH group in addition to other H3C CH C 2-hydroxypropanoic acid
functional groups that need a suffix ending then the OH can be
named with the prefix hydroxy-): OH OH

HO CH2 CH2 OH Ethane-1,2-diol

If there are two or more -OH groups then di, tri are used. H2C OH
Add the e on to the stem name though
propane-1,2,3-triol
HC OH

H2C OH

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 H
Aldehydes O
Ketones H O H
An aldehydes name ends in al
It always has the C=O bond on the H C C
Ketones end in -one H C C C H
first carbon of the chain so it does
When ketones have 5Cs or more
not need an extra number. It is by H H
H
in a chain then it needs a number
default number one on the chain H Propanone
to show the position of the double
Ethanal bond. E.g. pentan-2-one
H O H O H
If two ketone groups then
Carboxylic acids H H di is put before one and H C C C C C H
O
These have the ending -oic an an e is added to the H H H
acid but no number is stem
H C C C
necessary for the acid group Pentane-2,4-dione
as it must always be at the
end of the chain. The H H
O H O
The prefix oxo- should be
numbering always starts used for compounds that H3C C C
from the carboxylic acid end propanoic acid
contain a ketone group in O OH
addition to a carboxylic acid
If there are carboxylic acid groups on both ends of the or aldehyde 2-oxopropanoic acid
chain then it is called a - dioic acid
O O
Ethanedioic acid
C C
HO OH Note the e in this name

Nitriles H H H OH
These end in nitrile, but the C of the H3C
CN group counts as the first carbon of H C C C CN C
the chain. Note the stem of the name is C
H3C N
different : butanenitrile and not H H H
butannitrile. butanenitrile 2-hydroxy-2-methylpropanenitrile

Carboxylic acid derivatives

Esters H
H H O
Esters have two parts to their names
H C C C O C H
The bit ending in yl comes from the alcohol that has
formed it and is next to the single bonded oxygen.
H H H
The bit ending in anoate comes from the carboxylic acid.
(This is the chain including the C=O bond) Methyl propanoate

Acyl Chlorides H3C O O

O O
add oyl chloride to the stem CH3 C CH C C (CH2)3 C
name Cl
Cl H3C Cl Cl
ethanoyl chloride 2-methylpropanoyl chloride Pentanedioyl dichloride

Amides O Secondary and tertiary amides O

are named differently to show the
Add amide to the stem CH3 C two (or three) carbon chains.
H3C CH2 C NH CH3
name NH2 The smaller alkyl group is
ethanamide preceded by an N which plays N-methylpropanamide
the same role as a number in
positioning a side alkyl chain CH3 O CH3
O CH3
H3C CH C N CH3
H3C CH2 C N CH3 N,N,2-trimethylpropanamide
N,N-dimethylpropanamide

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Isomers
Structural isomerism can arise from
Structural isomers: same molecular formula different
structures (or structural formulae)
Chain isomerism
Position isomerism
Functional group isomerism

Chain isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures of the carbon skeleton
H H H H H
H H H H H
H C C C C H H C H
H C C C C C H H H
H H H
H C H H C C C H
H H H H H
H H
H H C H
pentane
2-methylbutane H

2,2-dimethylpropane

position isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures due to
different positions of the same functional group on the same carbon skeleton

H H H H H H

H C C C H 1-bromopropane H C C C H 2-bromopropane

Br H H H Br H

Functional group isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula but with atoms arranges to give different
functional groups

H H H H

H C O C H Methoxymethane: an ether
H C C O H
ethanol: an alcohol
H H
H H
H H
H H
C
H C C H

Cyclohexane- cyclo alkane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH=CH2 hexene- alkene

H C C H
C
H H
H H
Aldehydes and ketones of the same chain length would be classed as functional
group isomers- e.g. Propanal and propanone (both C3H6O)
Stereoisomerism
Definition: Stereoisomers have the same structural formulae There are two types of stereoisomerism:
but have a different spatial arrangement of atoms geometrical (E- Z isomerism) and optical
isomerism

Alkenes can exhibit a type of isomerism called E-Z stereoisomerism

E-Z isomers exist due to restricted

rotation about the C=C bond

Single carbon-carbon covalent

bonds can easily rotate

E-Z stereoisomers arise when:

(a) There is restricted rotation around the C=C double bond.
(b) There are two different groups/atoms attached both ends of
the restricted double bond

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 H H
two different groups H H
H C C H attached either end of
the restricted double H C C H But-1-ene
C C
bond- leads to EZ C C
H H H H isomers H H
H H
two identical groups attached to
Z- but-2-ene
one end of the restricted double
H
H These are two bond no E-Z isomers
C H isomers as the lack
H of rotation around But-1-ene is a structural isomer of But-2-
C C the double bonds
H ene but does not show E-Z isomerism
means one cannot
H C
H
be switched to the Naming E-Z stereoisomers
H other
On both sides of the double bond determine the
E -but-2-ene priority group
PRIORITY Group: The atom with the bigger
Ar is classed as the priority atom
Priority Priority
Cl Cl Cl H
group group
side 1 side 2
C C C C
Z-1,2-dichloroethene
H H E-1,2-dichloroethene
H Cl
If the priority atom is on the same side of the If the priority atom is on the opposite side of
double bond it is labelled Z from the german the double bond it is labelled E from the
zusammen (The Zame Zide!) german entgegen (The Epposite side!)

17A Optical Isomerism

A carbon atom that has
Optical isomerism occurs in carbon compounds with 4 H H H H
four different groups
different groups of atoms attached to a carbon (called
attached is called a chiral
an asymmetric carbon). H C C C C H
(asymmetric) carbon
H H O H atom
These four groups are arranged H
tetrahedrally around the carbon.

OH OH This causes two

A mixture containing a 50/50 mixture of the
different isomers that
C C two isomers (enantiomers) is described as
are not superimposable
CH3 H3C being a racemate or racemic mixture.
H5 C2 C2 H5 to be formed. They are
H H mirror images
Many naturally occurring molecules
contain chiral C atoms, but are usually
Two compounds that are optical isomers of
found in nature as a pure enantiomer
each other are called enantiomers.
Different systems of nomenclature are is
Optical isomers have similar physical and chemical properties, existence for optical isomers. D/L or +/- are
but they rotate plane polarised light in different directions. commonly used, but both have been
superseded by the more useful and informative
One enantiomer rotates it in one direction and the other enantiomer R/S system (this is not on the syllabus for
rotates it by the same amount in the opposite direction. information only).

One optical isomer will rotate light clockwise (+)(called

dextrorotatory). The other will rotate it anticlockwise(-)(called
laevorotatory).
Racemate
A racemic mixture (a mixture of equal amounts of the two -ve enantiomer +ve enantiomer
no rotation
optical isomers) will not rotate plane-polarised light. Anticlockwise clockwise
rotation rotation

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Chemical Reactions and Optical Isomers
Formation of a racemate
CH3
A racemate will be formed in a reaction H
mechanism when a trigonal planar reactant or C
intermediate is approached from both sides by NC:
:CN
an attacking species
O
Nucleophilic addition of HCN to aldehydes
H
and ketones (unsymmetrical) when the H H3 C CN
trigonal planar carbonyl is approached from NC CH3
both sides by the HCN attacking species: There is an equal chance of C
C
results in the formation of a racemate either enantiomer forming so
a racemate forms. No
OH OH
optical activity is seen

Formation of a racemate with SN1 mechanism H

Br CH C
H3C + CH2 3
H3C C CH2 CH3 C H3C C2H5
H H :OH- OH
H
The Br first breaks Because a
The OH- ion can then attack C racemate forms
away from the
from either side resulting in there will be no
haloalkane to form a H5C2 CH3
different enantiomers and a optical activity in
planar carbocation
racemate forms HO the products
intermediate

Comparison with SN2 mechanism

In the SN2 mechanism no intermediates are formed and the reaction occurs via a transition state.
-
CH3 H
Br OH
H3C C CH2 CH3 HO C Br H3C C CH2 CH3
H :OH- CH 2CH 3 H

If the reactant was chiral then during the reaction the opposite enantiomer would form.
The product will rotate light in the opposite direction to the reactant

A racemate can also be formed in the AS reaction of the

electrophilic addition of HBr to an unsymmetrical alkene

:Br - H
H The bromide can H
+ attack this planar
+ - C CH2 carbocation from C
C
H Br both sides leading to CH2 Br CH2
H3C CH3 a racemate H3C Br
CH3 CH3
CH3
H2C CH CH2 CH3
:Br - Major product s 90%
If the alkene is H H
unsymmetrical, addition of +
hydrogen bromide can C C CH2 CH3
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 Minor
lead to isomeric products. H product
H
Br 10%

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Compounds with C=O group
Carbonyls are compounds with a C=O bond.
17B Carbonyls: Aldehydes and Ketones They can be either aldehydes or ketones

H O H O H If the C=O is in the middle of

If the C=O is on the end of the
H. C C chain with an H attached it is an H C C C H the chain it is a ketone
The name will end in -one
aldehyde. H H
H H The name will end in al
CH3COCH3 propanone
CH3CHO ethanal

Solubility in water
CH3
The smaller carbonyls are soluble Pure carbonyls cannot hydrogen bond, but
in water because they can form O H O C bond instead by permanent dipole bonding.
hydrogen bonds with water.
H CH3

-
Reactions of carbonyls O
In comparison to the C=C bond in
The C=O bond is polarised because alkenes, the C=O is stronger and does
O is more electronegative than + not undergo addition reactions easily.
C
carbon. The positive carbon atom
attracts nucleophiles. H3C CH3
This is in contrast to the electrophiles
that are attracted to the C=C .
nucleophile
Oxidation Reactions

Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 is Key point: Aldehydes

Primary alcohol aldehydes carboxylic acid
an oxidising agent that causes can be oxidised to
alcohols and aldehydes to Secondary alcohol ketones carboxylic acids, but
oxidise. Tertiary alcohols do not oxidise ketones cannot be
oxidised.
Oxidation of Aldehydes

Reaction: aldehyde carboxylic acid H H O H H O

Reagent: potassium dichromate (VI) solution and H C C C + [O] H C C C
dilute sulphuric acid.
Conditions: heat under reflux H H H H H O H

Full Equation for oxidation RCHO + [O] RCO2H

3CH3CHO + Cr2O72- + 8H+ 3 CH3CO2H + 4H2O + 2Cr3+
Aldehydes can also be oxidised using Fehlings
Observation: the orange dichromate ion solution or Tollens Reagent. These are used
(Cr2O72-) reduces to the green Cr 3+ ion as tests for the presence of aldehyde groups

Tollens Reagent
Fehlings solution
Reagent: Tollens Reagent formed by mixing
aqueous ammonia and silver nitrate. The
active substance is the complex ion of Reagent: Fehlings Solution containing blue Cu 2+ ions.
[Ag(NH3)2]+ . Conditions: heat gently
Conditions: heat gently Reaction: aldehydes only are oxidised by Fehlings
Solution into a carboxylic acid and the copper ions
Reaction: aldehydes only are oxidised by are reduced to copper(I) oxide . .
Tollens reagent into a carboxylic acid and Observation: Aldehydes :Blue Cu 2+ ions in solution
the silver(I) ions are reduced to silver atoms change to a red precipitate of Cu 2O. Ketones do
Observation: with aldehydes, a silver mirror forms not react.
coating the inside of the test tube. Ketones
result in no change. CH3CHO + 2Cu2+ + 2H2O CH3COOH + Cu2O + 4H+

CH3CHO + 2Ag+ + H2O CH3COOH + 2Ag + 2H+

8
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Reduction of carbonyls Reducing agents such as NaBH4 (sodium tetrahydridoborate)
Reagents: LiAlH4 In dry ether or LiAlH4 (lithium tetrahydridoaluminate) will reduce carbonyls
Conditions: Room temperature and pressure to alcohols.
Type of reaction: Reduction
Role of reagent: Reducing agent

Aldehydes will be reduced to primary alcohols Ketones will be reduced to secondary alcohols.
H H O H H H H O H H H H

H C C C + 2[H] H C C C O H H C C C H + 2[H] H C C C H

H H H H H H H O H
H H
propanal Propan-1-ol propanone H
Propan-2-ol

Addition of hydrogen cyanide to carbonyls to form hydroxynitriles

R
Reaction: carbonyl hydroxynitrile
When naming hydroxy
Reagent: HCN in presence of KCN NC C OH
nitriles the CN becomes
Conditions: Room temperature and pressure
part of the main chain
Mechanism: nucleophilic addition
H
hydroxynitrile
CH3COCH3+ HCN CH3C(OH)(CN)CH3 CH3
NC C OH
2-hydroxy-2-methylpropanenitrile The extra KCN increases the
CH3 concentration of the CN- ion
CH3
CH3CHO + HCN CH3CH(OH)CN nucleophile needed for the
NC C OH first step of the mechanism
2-hydroxypropanenitrile H

Nucleophilic Addition Mechanism

-
O
O:
- -
H CN O H
+ H3C C CH3
C H3C C CH3
H3C CH3
CN CN
:CN-

Reaction of carbonyls with iodine in presence of alkali

Reagents: Iodine and sodium hydroxide Only carbonyls with a methyl group next to O
Conditions: warm very gently the C=O bond will do this reaction. Ethanal
is the only aldehyde that reacts. More H3C C H
The product CHI3 is a yellow crystalline commonly is methyl ketones.
precipitate with an antiseptic smell

This reaction is called the Iodoform test

CH3COCH3 + 3I2 + 4NaOH CHI3 + CH3COONa + 3NaI +3H2O

CH3COCH2CH3+ 3I2 + 4NaOH CHI3 + CH3CH2COONa + 3NaI +3H2O

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Reaction with 2,4-dinitro phenylhydrazine
2,4-DNP reacts with both aldehydes and ketones. The Use 2,4-DNP to identify if the compound is a
product is an orange precipitate, It can be used as a test carbonyl. Then to differentiate an aldehyde
for a carbonyl group in a compound. from a ketone use Tollens reagent.

The melting point of the crystal formed can be used to help identify which carbonyl was used. Take the melting
point of orange crystals product from 2,4-DNP. Compare melting point with known values in database

H O 2N You dont need to

learn these equations

H3C C
..
H2N NH NO2
for the exam

+
O 2,4-DNP
addition

O 2N H O 2N
H
elimination of
water
H3C C NH NH NO2 H3C C N NH NO2

orange precipitate
OH

17C Carboxylic Acids

Solubility in Water

Acidity The smaller carboxylic (up to C4) H

The carboxylic acid are only weak acids acids dissolve in water in all O H O
in water and only slightly dissociate, but proportions but after this the solubility
H3C C
they are strong enough to displace rapidly reduces. They dissolve H
carbon dioxide from carbonates. because they can hydrogen bond to
O H O
the water molecules.
H
CH3CO2H(aq) CH3CO2-(aq)+ H+(aq)

Hydrogen bonding in solid ethanoic acid

- Hydrogen bonding
- between dimer in
+
solid ethanoic acid
O H O
C CH3
H3C C -
Solid Ethanoic
- +
O H O appears to have Mr
of 120

Delocalisation
The delocalised ion has equal C-O bond lengths. If
The carboxylic acid salts are stabilised by delocalisation, delocalisation did not occur, the C=O bond would be
which makes the dissociation more likely. shorter than the C-O bond.

O O The pi charge cloud has O

delocalised H3C C delocalised and spread out. The
H3C C delocalisation makes the ion C
H3C
OH O more stable and therefore more
likely to form.
O

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Strength of carboxylic acids

O O Increasing chain length pushes

delocalised electron density on to the COO-
H3C CH2 C H3C CH2 C
ion, making it more negative and
OH O less stable. This make the acid
less strong.
Alkyl groups electron releasing
Propanoic acid less acidic than ethanoic acid

Cl O Cl O Electronegative chlorine atoms

H C C delocalised withdraw electron density from
H C C the COO- ion, making it less
OH negative and more stable. This
H O
H make the acid more strong.
Chlorine electron withdrawing
chloroethanoic acid more acidic than ethanoic acid
Methods of preparing carboxylic acids
Full Oxidation of Primary Alcohols

Reaction: primary alcohol carboxylic acid Observation: the

Reagent: potassium dichromate(VI) solution and dilute sulphuric acid orange dichromate
Conditions: use an excess of dichromate, and heat under reflux: (distill off ion (Cr2O72-) reduces
product after the reaction has finished) to the green Cr 3+ ion

H H H H H
O

H C C C O H + 2 [O] H C C C + H2O

H H H O H
H H

CH3CH2CH2OH + 2[O] CH3CH2COOH + H2O

propan-1-ol Propanoic acid

Oxidation of Aldehydes

Reaction: aldehyde carboxylic acid H H O H H O

Reagent: potassium dichromate (VI) solution and H C C C + [O] H C C C
dilute sulphuric acid.
Conditions: heat under reflux H H H H H O H

Full Equation for oxidation RCHO + [O] RCOOH

3CH3CHO + Cr2O72- + 8H+ 3 CH3COOH + 4H2O + 2Cr3+

Hydrolysis of Nitriles
Reaction: Nitrile carboxylic acid
Reagent: dilute hydrochloric/ sulphuric acid.
Conditions: heat under reflux

CH3CH2CN + H+ + 2H2O CH3CH2COOH + NH4+

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 The Reactions of Carboxylic Acids

Reduction of carboxylic acids to alcohols

Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (LiAlH4) is a
Carboxylic acids will be reduced to primary alcohols
strong reducing agent
H H O H H H
Reagents: LiAlH4 In dry ether
Conditions: Room temperature and pressure H C C C + 4[H] H C C C O H + H2O

Type of reaction: Reduction H H O H H H H

Propanoic acid Propan-1-ol
Role of reagent: Reducing agent

Salt formation reactions of carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids can form salts with metals, alkalis and
carbonates.
acid + metal (Na) salt + hydrogen The effervescence caused by production of CO2
2CH3CO2H + 2Na 2CH3CO2-Na+ + H2 with carboxylic acids with solid Na2CO3 or
aqueous NaHCO3 can be used as a functional
acid + alkali (NaOH) salt + water group test for carboxylic acids
CH3CO2H + NaOH CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O

acid + carbonate (Na2CO3) salt + water + CO2

2CH3CO2H + Na2CO3 2CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O + CO2

Oxidation of methanoic acid O O It forms carbonic acid

Carboxylic acids cannot be oxidised by using (H2 CO3 ) which can
oxidising agents but methanoic acid is an H C + [O] H O C decompose to give
exception as its structure has effectively an O H O H CO2
aldehyde group

Reaction of carboxylic acid with phosphorous (V) chloride

Reaction: carboxylic acid acyl chloride This reaction with PCl5 (phosphorous(v)chloride)
Reagent: PCl5 phosphorous(v)chloride can be used as a test for carboxylic acids. You would
Conditions: room temp observe misty fumes of HCl produced.

CH3COOH + PCl5 CH3COCl + POCl3 + HCl

O O
+ PCl5 + POCl3 + HCl
H3C C H3C C
OH Cl

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Esterification
H H O H Esters have two parts
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols, in the to their names, eg
presence of a strong acid catalyst, to form H C C C O C H methyl propanoate.
esters and water. H H H
H+ The bit ending in anoate The bit ending in yl comes from
Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol Ester + water comes from the carboxylic the alcohol that has formed it
acid and includes the C in and is next to the single bonded
the C=O bond. oxygen.

H H H O H H
O The reaction is reversible. The
H+ reaction is quite slow and needs
+ H C C O H H C C O C C H + H2O
H3C C heating under reflux, (often for
OH H H H H H several hours or days). Low yields
(50% ish) are achieved. An acid
CH3CO2H + CH3CH2OH CH3CO2CH2CH3 + H2O catalyst (H2SO4) is needed.
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl Ethanoate

Uses of Esters
Esters can have pleasant smells
Esters are sweet smelling
For use in perfumes they need to be non toxic, soluble in solvent such as
compounds that can be used in
ethanol, volatile (turns into gas easily), and not react with water.
perfumes and flavourings.

Esters can be used as solvents Although polar, they do not form hydrogen bonds (reason: there is no
for polar organic substances hydrogen bonded to a highly electronegative atom)
thus, they have much lower b.p. than the hydrogen-bonded carboxylic
Ethyl ethanoate is used as a acids they came from. They are also almost insoluble in water
solvent in glues and printing inks

Hydrolysis of esters Esters can be hydrolysed and split up by either heating with acid or with sodium hydroxide.

i) with acid
This reaction is the reverse reaction of ester formation. When an
reagents: dilute acid (HCl)
ester is hydrolysed a carboxylic acid and an alcohol are formed.
conditions: heat under reflux
H+
This reaction is reversible and does
CH3CH2CO2CH2CH3 + H2O CH3CH2CO2H + CH3CH2OH
not give a good yield of the products.
ethyl propanoate

ii) with sodium hydroxide

reagents: dilute sodium hydroxide CH3CH2CO2CH3 + NaOH CH3CH2CO2- Na+ + CH3OH
conditions: heat under reflux methyl propanoate sodium propanoate methanol

The carboxylic acid salt product is the anion of the carboxylic acid.
This reaction goes to completion. The anion is resistant to attack by weak nucleophiles such as alcohols,
so the reaction is not reversible.

13
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Carboxylic acid derivatives: Acyl Chlorides and Acid Anhydrides

Acyl Chlorides
O Acyl chlorides are The Cl group is classed as a good leaving
much more reactive groups (to do with less effective delocalisation.)
CH3 C
than carboxylic acids This makes acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides
Cl much more reactive than carboxylic acids and
ethanoyl chloride esters

Reaction with water Reaction with alcohol

Change in functional group: acyl chloride Change in functional group: acyl chloride ester
carboxylic acid Reagent: alcohol
Reagent: water Conditions: room temp.
Conditions: room temp.
RCOCl (l) + CH3CH2OH RCO2CH2CH3 + HCl (g)
RCOCl (l) + H2O RCO2H + HCl (g)
O H O H H
O O CH 3 C + CH3CH2OH H C C O C C H + HCl
CH3 C + H2O CH3 C + HCl (g) Cl H H H
Cl OH
Observation: Steamy white fumes of HCl are
Observation: Steamy white fumes of HCl
given off
are given off

This reaction for making esters is much better than using

carboxylic acids as the reaction is much quicker and it is
not a reversible reaction

Reaction with ammonia Reaction with primary amines

Change in functional group: acyl chloride
Change in functional group: acyl chloride
primary amide
secondary amide
Reagent: ammonia
Reagent: primary amine
Conditions: room temp.
Conditions: room temp.

RCOCl (l) +2NH3 RCONH2 + NH4Cl (s) RCOCl +2CH3NH2 RCONHCH3 + CH3NH3+Cl-
O O
O
O + CH3NH3+Cl-
CH3 C + 2NH3 CH3 C + NH4Cl (s) CH3 C + 2CH3NH2 CH3 C NH CH3
Cl NH2
Cl
N-methylethanamide
Observation: white smoke of NH4Cl is given off

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Polyesters
There are two types of polymerisation: addition and condensation

Condensation Polymerisation
In condensation polymerisation there are two different monomers
The two most common types of that add together and a small molecule is usually given off as a
condensation polymers are side-product e.g. H2O or HCl.
polyesters and polyamides which
involve the formation of an ester The monomers usually have the same functional group on both ends
linkage or an amide linkage. of the molecule e.g. di-amine, di carboxylic acid, diol, diacyl chloride.

Forming polyesters uses these reactions we met earlier in the course

Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol Ester + water Acyl chloride + Alcohol Ester + HCl

If we have the same functional group on each end of molecule we can make polymers so we have the
analogous equations:
dicarboxylic acid + diol poly(ester) + water diacyl dichloride + diol poly(ester) + HCl

Using the carboxylic acid to make the ester or amide would need an acid catalyst and would only give an
equilibrium mixture. The more reactive acyl chloride goes to completion and does not need a catalyst but does
produce hazardous HCl fumes.

Terylene- a common polyester

O O
O O
n + n HO CH CH OH C C O CH2 CH2 O + 2n-1 H2O
C C 2 2
n
HO OH Ethane-1,2-diol
The -1 here is because at
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid
each end of the chain the H
Terylene fabric is used in clothing, tire cords and OH are still present

O O O O
n C (CH2)3 C + n HO OH + 2n-1 HCl
C (CH2)3 C O O
Cl Cl n
Pentanedioyl dichloride Benzene-1,4-diol

It is also possible for polyamides and polyesters to form from one monomer, if that monomer
contains both the functional groups needed to react
H O H O H O
HO O
CH C HO C C O C C O C C OH

H 3C OH CH3 CH3 CH3

3 repeating units poly(lactic acid)
2-hydroxypropanoic acid

Chemical reactivity of condensation polymers

The reactivity can be explained by the presence of
polyesters can be broken down by hydrolysis and polar bonds which can attract attacking species
are, therefore, biodegradable such as nucleophiles and acids

Polyesters can be hydrolysed by acid and alkali

With HCl a polyester will be hydrolysed and split up in to the original dicarboxylic acid and diol
With NaOH an polyester will be hydrolysed and split up into the diol and dicarboxylic acid salt.

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18: Organic Chemistry III
18A. Arenes
All of the organic substances we have
There are two major classes of organic chemicals
looked at so far have been aliphatic
aliphatic : straight or branched chain organic substances
aromatic or arene: includes one or more ring of six carbon Benzene belongs to the aromatic class.
atoms with delocalised bonding.

Benzenes Structure In 1865 Kekule suggested the following

The simplest arene is benzene. It has the molecular formula C6H6 structure for Benzene consisting of
Its basic structure is six C atoms in a hexagonal ring, with one H alternate single and double covalent
atom bonded to each C atom bonds between the carbon atoms
Each C atom is bonded to two other C atoms and one H atom by H
single covalent -bonds. This leaves one unused electron on each
C atom in a p orbital, perpendicular to the plane of the ring. H C H
The Six p electrons are delocalised in a ring structure above and C C
below the plane of carbon atoms
C C
H C H
H H H H
H
H H H H
This structure is not correct. Evidence
suggests that all the C-C bonds are the
H H H H
same length.

In formulae we draw a circle to show

this delocalised system The six electrons in the pi bonds are delocalised and spread out
over the whole ring. Delocalised means not attached to a particular
atom.

Benzene is a planar molecule.The evidence suggests all the C-C

Abbreviated bonds are the same and have a length and bond energy between a
formula C-C single and C=C double bond

Displayed formula The H-C-C bond angle is 120o in Benzene

Enthalpies of Hydrogenation
Theoretically because there
+ H2 H = -120 kJ/mol are 3 double bonds one might
enthalpy

expect the amount of energy H = -152kJ/mol

cyclohexene cyclohexane x3 to be 3 times as much. delocalisation
energy
-360 kJ/mol
+ 3H2 H = -360 kJ/mol Theoretical
However, the real amount of value
Non delocalised energy is less. The 6 pi
structure electrons are delocalised and H = -208kJ/mol
not arranged in 3 double bonds actual value
+ 3H2 H = -208kJ/mol
This when represented on an energy level
delocalised diagram shows that the delocalised benzene
structure is more thermodynamically stable.

The increase in stability connected to delocalisation is called

the delocalisation energy

Reactions of Benzene
Benzene does not generally undergo addition reactions because these would involve breaking up the delocalised
system. Most of Benzenes reactions involve substituting one H for another atom or group of atoms. Benzene has
a high electron density and so attracts electrophiles. It reactions are usually electrophilic substitutions

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Naming aromatic molecules

Naming aromatic compounds can be complicated. The simplest molecules are derivatives of benzene and have
benzene at the root of the name

CH3 C2H5 Cl Br NO 2 CO2H CHO

Methylbenzene ethylbenzene chlorobenzene bromobenzene nitrobenzene benzenecarboxylic benzaldehyde

acid

If two or more substituents are present on the benzene ring, their positions must be indicated by the use of
numbers. This should be done to give the lowest possible numbers to the substituents. When two or more
different substituents are present, they are listed in alphabetical order and di, tri prefixes should be used.
CH3 CH3
CH3
COOH
O 2N NO2

CH3
Cl NO2
OH
1,3-dimethylbenzene
1-chloro- 4-methylbenzene 4-hydroxybenzenecarboxylic acid 2,4,6-trinitromethylbenzene

In other molecules the benzene ring can be regarded as a substituent side group on another molecule, like
alkyl groups are. The C6H5- group is known as the phenyl group.
O
NH2 CH CH2 CH3
H3C CH CH2 CH3 O
C
H3C C O

phenylamine phenylethene
2-phenylbutane
phenylethanone phenylethanoate

Toxicity of Benzene
Benzene is a carcinogen (cancers causing molecule) and is banned for use in schools.

Methylbenzene is less toxic and also reacts more readily than benzene as the methyl side group releases
electrons into the delocalised system making it more attractive to electrophiles

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Reactions of Benzene
Combustion
Benzene will combust with a very sooty flame.
Benzene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water The lower the carbon to hydrogen ratio the
C6H6 (l) + 7.5 O2 6 CO2 + 3 H20 sootier the flame.
Halogenation of Benzene
Change in functional group: benzene Bromobenzene This reaction can be done with chlorine.
Reagents: Bromine The catalyst can be AlCl3 or FeCl3
Conditions: iron(III) bromide catalyst FeBr3
It is possible to create the iron(III)
Mechanism: Electrophillic Substitution
bromide in situ by reacting iron with
bromine
Overall Equation for reaction Br
Equation for Formation of electrophiles:
+ HBr (Learn!)
+ Br2 AlCl3 + Cl2 AlCl4 + Cl+
FeBr3 + Br2 FeBr4 + Br+

Mechanism Cl
Cl+
H Cl
+

The H+ ion reacts with the AlCl4- to H+ + AlCl4- AlCl3 + HCl

reform AlCl3 catalyst and HCl.

Nitration of Benzene
Change in functional group: benzene nitrobenzene
Reagents: conc nitric acid in the presence of concentrated Importance of this reaction
sulphuric acid (catalyst) Nitration of benzene and other arenes is
Mechanism: Electrophilic Substitution an important step in synthesising useful
Electrophile: NO2+ compounds
e.g. explosive manufacture (like TNT,
Overall Equation for reaction trinitrotoluene/ 2,4,6-
NO2
trinitromethylbenzene)
+ NO2 + + H+ and formation of amines from which
dyestuffs are manufactured. (The reaction
for this is covered in the amines section.)
Equation for Formation of electrophile: (Learn!)
HNO3 + 2H2SO4 NO2+ + 2HSO4- + H3O+

Mechanism This reaction is done at 60oC.

NO 2 On using higher temperatures
HSO4-
NO2+ NO 2 a second nitro group can be
H substituted onto different
+ positions on the ring

If the benzene ring already has

The horseshoe shape of the a side group e.g. methyl then
intermediate must not extend the Nitro group can also join on
beyond Cs 2 to 6 different positions. A-level does
not require knowledge of what
The H+ ion rejoins with the HSO4- to H+ + HSO4- H2SO4 positions the groups go on.
reform H2SO4 catalyst.

3
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Hydrogenation of Benzene

Reaction: benzene cyclohexane Ni

Reagents: Hydrogen Catalyst
+ 3H2
Conditons: Nickel catalyst at 200C and 30 atm
Type of reaction: Addition and reduction

Friedel Crafts Alkylation

Change in functional group: benzene alkylbenzene

Reagents: chloroalkane in the presence of anhydrous Any chloroalkane can be used RCl where
aluminium chloride catalyst R is any alkyl group Eg CH3 , -C2H5.
Conditions: heat under reflux The electrophile is the R+.
Mechanism: Electrophilic Substitution

Formation of the electrophile.

AlCl3 + CH3CH2Cl CH3CH2+ AlCl4-

Overall Equation for reaction

CH2CH3
CH3CH2+ AlCl4- + + AlCl3 + HCl

ethylbenzene

Mechanism
+CH CH
2 3 CH 2CH 3
CH2CH3
H
+

The H+ ion reacts with the AlCl4- to

H+ + AlCl4- AlCl3 + HCl
reform AlCl3 catalyst and HCl.

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Friedel Crafts Acylation
Change in functional group: benzene phenyl ketone
Reagents: acyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous Any acyl chloride can be used RCOCl where
aluminium chloride catalyst R is any alkyl group e.g. CH3 , -C2H5. The
Conditions: heat under reflux (50OC) electrophile is the RCO+.
Mechanism: Electrophilic Substitution

Equation for Formation of the electrophile.

AlCl3 + CH3COCl CH3CO+ AlCl4-

Overall Equation for reaction These are important

O
reactions in organic
C synthesis because they
CH3CO+ AlCl4- + CH3 + AlCl3 + HCl introduce a reactive
functional group on to the
benzene ring
phenylethanone

Mechanism O O
+ O
C CH3 C CH3
C
CH3
H
+
The H+ ion reacts with the AlCl4- to
H+ + AlCl4- AlCl3 + HCl
reform AlCl3 catalyst and HCl.

Effect of side groups on benzene ring

Electron releasing side groups such as alkyl groups, phenols and amines releases electrons into the
delocalised system making a higher electron density in the ring and it more attractive to electrophiles.
They will therefore carry out the substitution reactions more readily with milder conditions

Effect of delocalisation on side groups with lone pairs

If a OH group, a Cl atom or an NH2 group is directly attached to a benzene ring the

delocalisation in the benzene ring will extend to include the lone pairs on the N,O and Cl. This
changes the properties and reactions of the side group
Cl NH2
OH

chlorobenzene
phenylamine
phenol
The C-Cl bond is made stronger.
Typical halogenoalkane Delocalisation makes the C-O Less basic than aliphatic
substitution and elimination bond stronger and the O-H bond amines as lone pair is
reactions do not occur. Also the weaker. Phenol does not act like delocalised and less
electron rich benzene ring will an alcohol- it is more acidic and available for accepting a
repel nucleophiles does not oxidise proton

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Phenols

In a phenol the OH group is directly attached to the CH2OH

benzene ring.
OH
In a phenol the lone pair of electrons on the
oxygen is delocalised with the electron
charge cloud of the arene ring.
The delocalised bonding changes the
This is not a phenol, but is
reactivity of the OH group and the arene ring.
an alcohol because the
OH group is attached to an
alkyl group rather than the
Phenols are very weakly acidic. They are weaker acids than carboxylic acids. benzene ring.
Both phenols and carboxylic acids will react with sodium metal and sodium
hydroxide. Only carboxylic acids will react with sodium carbonate as a phenol
is not strong enough an acid to react.

-
OH + Na O Na+ + H2

The sodium phenoxide

- compound is more soluble
OH + NaOH O Na+ + H2O
than the original phenol. So
the solid phenol dissolves on
sodium phenoxide addition of NaOH

Reaction of phenol with Bromine

Reagents: Bromine water

Conditions: room temp
OH Phenol does not need a FeBr3
OH
catalyst like benzene and
Br Br undergoes multiple
substitution whereas benzene
+ 3 Br2 + 3 HBr will only add one Br.

The product in this reaction is a

Br white solid
2,4,6 tribromophenol

In phenol the lone pair of electrons on the oxygen (p- orbital) is

partially delocalised into the ring. The electron density increases
and the Br2 is more polarised

Phenols are used in the production of plastics,

antiseptics, disinfectants and resins for paints.

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18B. Amines, Amides and Amino Acids
Naming

H H H
Amines H2N O
These end in amine. H C C C NH2 If there is another
There is, however, rather confusingly CH C
priority functional group
two ways of using this suffix. H H H
as well as the amine H3C O H
The exam board tend to use the propylamine group then the prefix
common version where the name Or propan-1-amine 2-aminopropanoic acid.
amino is used.
stem ends in -yl propylamine.
The IUPAC version of the same
chemical is propan-1-amine. (This is
used in the same way as naming
alcohols)

If the amine is secondary and has two alkyl CH3CH2CH2NHCH3

groups attached to the nitrogen, then each N-methylpropylamine (common name)
chain is named and the smaller alkyl group N-methylpropan-1-amine (IUPAC name)
is preceded by an N which plays the same
role as a number in positioning a side alkyl CH2 CH2
chain H3C NH CH3

Diethylamine (common name- does not use N if

In the common naming version if the chains are same length)
chain lengths are the same an N is N-ethylethanamine (IUPAC name does still use N)
not used

CH3CH2 CH2 N CH3

If a tertiary amine similar rules apply,
and each alkyl side group is given an CH3
N N,N-dimethylpropylamine (common name)
N,N-dimethylpropan-1-amine (IUPAC name)

H H
N (CH2)6 N It could also be named
1,6-diaminohexane
H H
hexane-1,6-diamine

Amides

O Secondary and tertiary amides

Add amide to the stem are named differently to show the O
name CH3 C two (or three) carbon chains.
NH2 The smaller alkyl group is
preceded by an N which plays H3C CH2 C NH CH3
ethanamide the same role as a number in
N-methylpropanamide
positioning a side alkyl chain

O CH3
CH3 O CH3
H3C CH2 C N CH3
H3C CH C N CH3
N,N-dimethylpropanamide N,N,2-trimethylpropanamide

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Properties of Amines
Amines have a characteristic fishy smell H +
- + -

Small amines can form hydrogen bonds with water

CH3 N H O
+
and therefore can dissolve readily in water.
H
Base Properties
H +
Primary aliphatic amines act as Bronsted-Lowry Bases because the
lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen is readily available for forming a CH3NH2 +H2O CH3NH3+ +OH-
dative covalent bond with a H+ and so accepting a proton.

Primary aliphatic amines are stronger bases than ammonia as the

alkyl groups are electron releasing and push electrons towards the NH3 (aq) +H2O (l) NH4+(aq) +OH-(aq)
nitrogen atom and so make it a stronger base.

Secondary amines are stronger bases than primary amines because they have more alkyl groups that are
substituted onto the N atom in place of H atoms. Therefore more electron density is pushed onto the N atom (as
the inductive effect of alkyl groups is greater than that of H atoms).
One might expect using the same trend that tertiary amine would be the strongest amine base but the trend does
not hold. The tertiary amines and corresponding ammonium salts are less soluble in water and this makes them
less strong bases than the secondary amines. (This point will not be examined)

Base strength of aromatic amines NH2

Primary aromatic amines such as Phenylamine do not form basic solutions because the
lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen delocalise with the ring of electrons in the benzene
ring. This means the N is less able to accept protons. phenylamine

Reactions with acids

Amines as bases react with acids to form ammonium salts.

CH3NH2 (aq) +HCl (aq) CH3NH3+Cl-(aq) Addition of NaOH to an ammonium salt
Methylamine methylammonium chloride will convert it back to the amine
2CH3NH2 (aq) +H2SO4 (aq) (CH3NH3+)2 SO42- (aq)
These ionic salts will be solid crystals, if
the water is evaporated, because of the
The ionic salts formed in this reaction means that the strong ionic interactions.
compounds are soluble in the acid.
e.g. Phenylamine is not very soluble in water but
phenylammonium chloride is soluble

Making a basic buffer from an amine

Basic buffers can be made from combining a weak base with a salt of that weak base
e.g. Ammonia and ammonium chloride
Methylamine and methylammonium chloride
Ethylamine and ethylammonium chloride
Formation of complex ions
The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen enable amines to act as ligands and form dative covalent bonds
into transition metal ions to form coloured complex ions.

4 CH3CH2NH2 + Cu(H2O)62+ [Cu(CH3CH2NH2)4(H2O)2] 2+ +4H2O

This is a similar ligand exchange reaction to the one where ammonia acts as the ligand

4NH3 + Cu(H2O)62+ [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2] 2+ + 4H2O

light blue solution deep blue solution
N Goalby chemrevise.org 8
Reaction of primary Amines with halogenoalkanes forming secondary amines

Amines will react with halogenoalkanes in a similar way to the reaction of ammonia with
halogenoalkanes via a nucleophilic substitution reaction

2CH3CH2NH2+ CH3CH2Br CH3CH2NH2CH2CH3+ CH3CH2NH3Br

H
+
H3C C Br H3C CH2 NH2 CH2 CH3 Br -
H
:

CH3CH2NH2
+
H3C CH2 NH CH2 CH3 H3C CH2 NH CH2 CH3 + CH3CH2NH3Br
:NH2CH2CH3
Diethylamine
H

The secondary amine formed can also then react with more halogenoalkane to form a tertiary
amine and subsequently on to what is called a quaternary ammonium salt
Where RX is the haloalkane

H R R
H
RX RX RX
+
H N: R N: R N: R N R

R R R R

Reaction with primary amines with acyl chlorides

Change in functional group: acyl chloride secondary amide

Reagent: primary amine
Conditions: room temp.

RCOCl +2CH3NH2 RCONHCH3 + CH3NH3+Cl-

O O

CH3 C + 2CH3NH2 CH 3 C NH CH 3 + CH3NH3+Cl-

Cl N-methylethanamide

Paracetamol is made by the reaction of an aromatic amine with

an acyl chloride to produce an amide
O
CH3 C
Cl O
HO NH2 HO NH C CH3

Paracetamol

N Goalby chemrevise.org 9
 Preparing Amines from Nitriles
Using the method above of reacting halogenoalkanes and ammonia is not an efficient method for
preparing a high yield of the primary amine because of the further substitution reactions that occur.
A better method is to use the following reactions
Step 1. convert halogenoalkane to nitrile by using KCN in ethanol (heat under
reflux)
CH3CH2Br + CN- CH3CH2CN + Br -
Step 2. reduce nitrile to amine by using LiAlH4 in ether or by reducing with H2 using a Ni catalyst

CH3CH2CN + 4[H] CH3CH2CH2NH2

A disadvantage of this method is that it is a two step reaction that may therefore have a low yield.
Also KCN is toxic.

Reducing nitroarenes to aromatic amines

The nitro group on an arene can be reduced an amine group as follows

Reagent: Sn and HCl or Fe and HCl NO 2 NH2

Conditions: Heating + 6[H] + 2H2O
Mechanism:reduction

phenylamine
nitrobenzene

As the reaction is carried out in HCl the salt C6H5NH3+Cl- will be formed.
Reacting this salt with NaOH will give phenylamine.

The phenylamine formed in this reaction is best

separated from the reaction mixture by steam distillation.

Forming Amides
Aliphatic amines and phenylamine can react with acyl chlorides to form amides in a nucleophilic
addition-elimination reaction- see chapter 17C for more details.

Change in functional group: acyl chloride

secondary amide
Reagent: primary amine
Conditions: room temp.

RCOCl +2CH3NH2 RCONHCH3 + CH3NH3+Cl-

O
O + CH3NH3+Cl-
CH3 C + 2CH3NH2 CH3 C NH CH3
Cl
N-methylethanamide

N Goalby chemrevise.org 10
Condensation Polymerisation
In condensation polymerisation there are two different monomers
The two most common types of that add together and a small molecule is usually given off as a
condensation polymers are side-product e.g. H2O or HCl.
polyesters and polyamides which
involve the formation of an ester The monomers usually have the same functional group on both ends
linkage or an amide linkage. of the molecule e.g. di-amine, di carboxylic acid, diol, diacyl chloride.

Forming polyesters and polyamide uses these reactions we met earlier in the course

Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol Ester + water Carboxylic Acid + Amine amide + water
Acyl chloride + Alcohol Ester + HCl Acyl chloride + Amine amide + HCl

If we have the same functional group on each end of molecule we can make polymers so we have the
analogous equations:
dicarboxylic acid + diol poly(ester) + water dicarboxylic acid + diamine poly(amide) + water
diacyl dichloride + diol poly(ester) + HCl diacyl dichloride + diamine poly(amide) + HCl

Using the carboxylic acid to make the ester or amide would need an acid catalyst and would only give an
equilibrium mixture. The more reactive acyl chloride goes to completion and does not need a catalyst but does
produce hazardous HCl fumes.

Terylene- a common polyester

O O
O O
n + n HO CH CH OH C C O CH2 CH2 O + 2n-1 H2O
C C 2 2
n
HO OH Ethane-1,2-diol
The -1 here is because at
Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid
each end of the chain the H
Terylene fabric is used in clothing, tire cords and OH are still present

O O O O
n C (CH2)3 C + n HO OH + 2n-1 HCl
C (CH2)3 C O O
Cl Cl n
Pentanedioyl dichloride Benzene-1,4-diol

Nylon 6,6 - a common polyamide

O O
O O H H
N (CH2)6 N
n C (CH2)4 C +n C (CH2)4 C N (CH2)6 N + 2n-1 H2O
H H
HO OH
hexanedioic acid Hexane-1,6-diamine H H
n
The 6,6 stands for 6 carbons in each of the monomers. Different length carbon chains produce different
polyamides
Kevlar- a common polyamide

O O
n HO2C CO2H + n H2N NH2 + 2n-1 H2O
N N C C
H H n

N Goalby chemrevise.org 11
Note on classification for condensation polymers
If asked for type of polymer: It is polyamide or polyester
Whereas type of polymerisation is condensation
It is also possible for polyamides and polyesters to form from one monomer, if that monomer
contains both the functional groups needed to react

O O O O
HO (CH2)3 C O (CH2)3 C O (CH2)3 C O (CH2)3 C
Cl
3 repeating units

O O O O
H2N C
N C N C N C
OH
H H H
3 repeating units

Chemical reactivity of condensation polymers The reactivity can be explained by the presence of
polyesters and polyamides can be broken down by polar bonds which can attract attacking species
hydrolysis and are, therefore, biodegradable such as nucleophiles and acids

Polyesters can be hydrolysed by acid and alkali

With HCl a polyester will be hydrolysed and split up in to the original dicarboxylic acid and diol
With NaOH an polyester will be hydrolysed and split up into the diol and dicarboxylic acid salt.

Polyamides can be hydrolysed by aqueous acids or alkalis.

With HCl an polyamide will be hydrolysed and split up in to the original dicarboxylic acid and diamine salt
With NaOH an polyamide will be hydrolysed and split up into the diamine and dicarboxylic acid salt

Intermolecular bonding between condensation polymers chains

Polyesters have permanent dipole bonding between the C+=O- groups in the different chains in
addition to the London forces between the chains.

Polyamides (and proteins) have hydrogen -

:

O O- O
bonding between the lone pairs on oxygen in -
N C N C N- C
C+=O- groups and the H in the N- H+ + +
H H + H +
groups in the different chains.
There are also Permanent dipole-permanent
dipole forces because the polar C=O
:

O - O- O
bond and polar C-N bond - -
N C N C N C
There are also London forces which are large + +
because there are many electrons in the H H H+
+
molecule
Polyamides will therefore have higher melting
points than polyesters.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 12
Amino Acids

The simplest amino acid is

General structure of an amino acid NH2 CH2 CO2H
glycine, where the R is an H
NH2 CH CO2H

R
The R group can be a variety of
different things depending on what
amino acid it is.

Naming amino acids

CO2H Some amino acids have an extra CO2H
You do not need to know any carboxylic acid or an amine
CH2 CH2
common names for the 20 group on the R group. These are
essential amino acids. We NH2 C CO2H classed as acidic or basic NH2 C CO2H
should, however, be able to H 2-aminobutanedioic acid (respectively) amino acids H
name given amino acids using Aspartic acid
IUPAC organic naming OH
CO2H
CH2
H C (CH2)4 NH2
NH2 CH2 CO2H NH2 C CO2H Lycine (basic)
H 2-amino-3-
H2N 2,6-diaminohexanoic acid
(2-)aminoethanoic acid
hydroxypropanoic acid

Zwitterions
R R
The no charge form of an amino acid never occurs. + -
The amino acid exists as a dipolar zwitterion. H2N C CO2H H3N C CO2
H H
Amino acids are often solids Zwitterion
The ionic interaction between zwitterions explains the relatively high melting points of amino acids as
opposed to the weaker hydrogen bonding that would occur in the no charge form.

Acidity and Basicity

The amine group is basic and the carboxylic acid group is acidic. Amino acids act as weak buffers and will
only gradually change pH if small
R OH- R H+ R amounts of acid or alkali are added to the
- + - +
H2N C CO2 H3N C CO2 H3N C CO2H amino acids.
+NH -CH -CO - + HCl Cl- NH3+-CH2-CO2H
H H H 3 2 2
H+ OH-
+NH -CH -CO - + NaOH NH2-CH2-CO2-Na+ +H2O
Species in Species in Species in 3 2 2
alkaline solution neutral solution acidic solution
High pH Low pH

-
The extra carboxylic acid or amine groups COO
on the R group will also react and change CH2 Aspartic acid in high pH
form in alkaline and acid conditions -
NH 2 C COO
H

N Goalby chemrevise.org 13
Chromatography of Amino Acids
A mixture of amino acids can be separated by Method
chromatography and identified from the amount Take chromatography paper
they have moved. and draw a pencil line 1.5cm
from bottom.
With a capillary tube put a small
Rf value = distance moved by amino acid
drop of amino acid on pencil line
distance moved by the solvent Roll up paper and stand it in a
large beaker.
Each amino acid has its own Rf value. The solvent in the beaker
Compare an unknown amino acids Rf should be below the pencil line.
value with known values in a data book to Allow to stand for 20 mins and
identify the amino acid mark final solvent level
Spray paper with ninhydrin and
put in oven

If ninhydrin is sprayed on an amino acid and then heated for 10 minutes then red to blue spots appear.
This is done because amino acids are transparent and cannot be seen.

Optical Activity Optical isomers have similar

All amino acids, except H H
physical and chemical
glycine, are chiral because properties, but they rotate
there are four different groups C C
H2N CO2H HO2C plane polarised light in
around the C NH2 different directions.
CH3 CH3
They rotate plane polarised light.

Proteins CH3

Proteins are polymers made from H3C CH3 S

combinations of amino acids. CH HS CH2
The amino acids are linked by peptide links,
CH3 O CH2 O CH2 O CH2 O
which are the amide functional group.
H N CH C N CH C N CH C N CH C O H
O O O H H H H
NH CH C NH CH C NH CH C

R R R

Dipeptides
Dipeptides are simple combination molecules of For any two different amino acids there are two possible
two amino acids with one amide (peptide) link. combinations of the amino acids in the dipeptide.

HO HO
HO
CH3 H
Can make CH3 H CH2 CH2 CH3
CH2 or
H2N C CO2H +
H2N C C N C CO2H H2N C C N C CO2H
H H2N C CO2H
H H H O H
O
H

N Goalby chemrevise.org 14
 O - O
Importance of hydrogen bonding in proteins

:
-
N CH C N CH C
The 3D arrangement of amino acids with the +
polypeptide chain in a corkscrew shape is held in +
H R H R
place by Hydrogen bonds between the H of N-

:
H+ group and the O of C+=O- -
O O
-
N CH + C N CH C

H R H R

Hydrolysis of di-peptides/proteins
If proteins are heated with dilute acid or alkali they can be The composition of the protein
hydrolysed and split back in to their constituent amino acids. molecule may then be deduced by
using paper chromatography
H3C CH3
CH H3C CH3
CH
CH3 O CH2 O CH3 O
H+
H N CH C N CH C O H + CH2 O
H3N CH C O H + +
H3N CH C O H
H H

Other reactions of amino acids

The carboxylic acid group and amine group in amino acids can undergo the usual reactions of these functional groups met
in earlier topics. Sometimes questions refer to these.
e.g. Esterification reaction
CH3
CH3 O
H+ +
H2N C CO2H + CH3OH H3N C C O CH3 + H2O

H H

N Goalby chemrevise.org 15
 18C. Synthetic Routes
KOH aqueous
dihalogenoalkane heat under reflux
Nucleophilic substitution

poly(alkene) diol
Br2, Cl2 KMnO4
room temp oxidation
Electrophilic addition

high pressure
alkane
Catalyst Br2, Cl2
H2, Nickel Catalyst
polymerization UV light
addition/reduction
alkene HBr, HCl
Free radical Substitution
room temp
Electrophilic addition
KOH alcoholic heat
halogenoalkane
conc. H3PO4 under reflux
H2O (g) Elimination
Catalyst: Elimination,
dehydration
Conc H3PO4 CN and
PCl5, NaBr/H2SO4 P + I2
,
ethanol
Heat under reflux Nucleophilic
substitution KOH aqueous Alcoholic NH3 substitution
heat under reflux heat under pressure
Nucleophilic substitution Nucleophilic

LiAlH4
alcohol substitution

Reduction Caboxylic acid + H2SO4

heat amine LiAlH4
nitrile
LiAlH4 K2Cr2O7/H+ esterification
Reduction
Reduction
LiAlH4
If primary If secondary Reduction haloalkane
heat gently and distill heat under reflux NuSub
partial oxidation oxidation
Acyl chloride
2o amine room temp
3o amine Nu add/elim
aldehyde ketone
HCN + KCN secondary
Nucleophilic addition amide
K2Cr2O7/H+
heat under reflux + Esters and amides
excess oxidising agent can be hydrolysed
Oxidation hydroxynitrile by NaOH and acids

1o amine
Alcohol + H2SO4 room temp Primary
heat ester amide
carboxylic acid esterification

Alcohol
PCl5 room temp NH3 room temp
H2O room
temp Acyl chloride
Acid hydrolysis
Heat with HCl

N Goalby chemrevise.org 16
 Aromatic synthetic routes

Br

CH2CH3

chloroalkane and
anhydrous AlC3
Hydrogen Electrophilic catalyst
Nickel substitution
catalyst Br2
FeBr3

conc nitric acid +

conc sulphuric acid
Electrophilic NO2
substitution
Sn and HCl NH2
NH CH3
reduction CH3Cl
Nu sub
acyl chloride in the presence
of anhydrous aluminium
chloride catalyst
Electrophilic substitution
O CH3COCl

C
CH3 O
NaCN + H2SO4 NH C CH3
Nu Add

LiAlH4 H
Red Nu Add
O
H
C CN
O
CH CH 3
CH3

HCl/heat
H
O O
CH3CO2H + H2SO4
heat C C
esterification OH
CH3
O
H3C CH O C CH3

N Goalby chemrevise.org 17
Grignard Reactions
Grignard Reagent is used to increase the length of the carbon chain in a molecule

Preparing Grignard Reagent

A halogenoalkane is dissolved in dry ether and reacted with magnesium to
produce the reactive Grignard Reagent

This Grignard reagent is highly reactive and the

CH3CH2I + Mg CH3CH2MgI
alkyl group can be considered to have a
Ethyl magnesium iodide negative charge. The R- [+MgI] and so contains
Grignard Reagent
a nucleophilic carbon atom

Reactions of Grignard Reagent

Reactions with carbonyls

With methanal will produce a primary alcohol
H2O
CH3CH2MgI + HCHO CH3CH2CH2OH + Mg(OH)I

RMgI + HCHO RCH2OH + Mg(OH)I

With other aldehydes will produce secondary alcohols

CH3
H2O
CH3CH2MgI + CH3CHO H3C CH2 C OH + Mg(OH)I
H
H2O
RMgI + RCHO RCH(OH)R + Mg(OH)I

With ketones will produce tertiary alcohols

CH3
H3C CH3 H2O
CH3CH2MgI + C H3C CH2 C OH + Mg(OH)I

O CH3
H2O
RMgI + RCOR RRC(OH)R + Mg(OH)I

Reaction with carbon dioxide

With CO2 will produce a carboxylic acid

H2O
CH3CH2MgI + CO2 CH3CH2CO2H + Mg(OH)I

The carbon chain can also be increased by the introduction of a nitrile group into a compound by either
reacting a halogenoalkane with KCN (see chapter 6D) or producing hydroxynitriles from carbonyls (see
chapter 17B)

N Goalby chemrevise.org 18
 Organic techniques
Its important to be able to
draw and label this
Distillation apparatus accurately.
thermometer Dont draw lines between
In general used as separation technique to separate an flask, adaptor and
organic product from its reacting mixture. Need to condenser.
collect the distillate of the approximate boiling point
range of the desired liquid.

Classic AS reaction using distillation Liebig condenser

Reaction: primary alcohol aldehyde
Reagent: potassium dichromate (VI) solution and
dilute sulphuric acid.
Conditions: use a limited amount of dichromate
and warm gently and distil out the aldehyde as it
forms [This prevents further oxidation to the Water
carboxylic acid] out
CH3CH2CH2OH + [O] CH3CH2CHO + H2O
Round Water in
Observation
bottomed
Orange dichromate solution changes to green
flask
colour of Cr3+ ions
Heat

Reflux
Reflux is used when heating organic reaction mixtures for long Water out
periods. The condenser prevents organic vapours from escaping
by condensing them back to liquids.
condenser
Never seal the end of the condenser as the build up of gas
pressure could cause the apparatus to explode. This is true of any
apparatus where volatile liquids are heated

Classic AS reaction using reflux

Reaction: primary alcohol carboxylic acid Water in
Reagent: potassium dichromate(VI) solution and dilute
sulphuric acid
Conditions: use an excess of dichromate, and heat
under reflux: (distill off product after the reaction Round
has finished using distillation set up) bottomed
CH3CH2CH2OH + 2[O] CH3CH2CO2H + H2O flask
Observation
Orange dichromate solution changes to green colour of
Cr3+ ions
Heat

Anti-bumping granules are added to the flask in both distillation and reflux to prevent vigorous,
uneven boiling by making small bubbles form instead of large bubbles

Its important to be able to draw and label this apparatus accurately.

Dont draw lines between flask and condenser.
Dont have top of condenser sealed
Condenser must have outer tube for water that is sealed at top and bottom
Condenser must have two openings for water in and out that are open

N Goalby chemrevise.org 19
 Purifying an organic liquid
Put the distillate of impure product into a separating funnel
Sodium hydrogencarbonate will
wash product by adding either neutralise any remaining reactant acid.
sodium hydrogencarbonate solution , shaking and
releasing the pressure from CO2 produced. Sodium chloride will help separate the
Saturated sodium chloride solution organic layer from the aqueous layer

Allow the layers to separate in the funnel, and then run and
discard the aqueous layer.
The drying agent should
Run the organic layer into a clean, dry conical flask and add be insoluble in the organic liquid
three spatula loads of drying agent (anhydrous sodium not react with the organic liquid
sulphate) to dry the organic liquid.

Carefully decant the liquid into the distillation flask

Distill to collect pure product

Separating funnel

Purifying an organic solid: Recrystallisation Used for purifying aspirin

Step Reason

1. Dissolve the impure compound in a minimum An appropriate solvent is one which will dissolve both
volume of hot (near boiling) solvent. compound and impurities when hot and one in which
the compound itself does not dissolve well when cold.
The minimum volume is used to obtain saturated
solution and to enable crystallisation on cooling (If
excess (solvent) is used, crystals might not form on
cooling)
2. Hot filter solution through (fluted) filter paper This step will remove any insoluble impurities and
quickly. heat will prevent crystals reforming during filtration
3. Cool the filtered solution by inserting beaker in ice Crystals will reform but soluble impurities will remain
in solution form because they are present in small
quantities so the solution is not saturated with the
impurities. Ice will increase the yield of crystals
4. Suction filtrate with a buchner flask to separate The water pump connected to the Buchner flask
out crystals reduces the pressure and speeds up the filtration.
5 Wash the crystals with distilled water To remove soluble impurities

6. Dry the crystals between absorbent paper

Loss of yield in this process

Crystals lost when filtering or washing
Some product stays in solution after recrystallisation
other side reactions occurring
buchner flask

N Goalby chemrevise.org 20
Steam distillation steam
in

In steam distillation steam is passed into

the mixture and the product vapour is
distilled off with the water and condensed

Advantage of steam distillation:

The product distils at a lower temperature
which can prevents decomposition of the
product if it has a high boiling point

Water
out

Water
in

Solvent extraction

Mix organic solvent and oil-water mixture in a

separating funnel then separate the oil layer.
Distil to separate oil from organic solvent
Add anhydrous CaCl2 to clove oil to dry oil
Decant to remove CaCl2
Separating funnel

Safety and hazards

A hazard is a substance or procedure that can has the RISK: This is the probability or chance that
potential to do harm. harm will result from the use of a
Typical hazards are toxic/flammable /harmful/ hazardous substance or a procedure
irritant /corrosive /oxidizing/ carcinogenic

Irritant - dilute acid and alkalis- wear googles Hazardous substances in low
Corrosive- stronger acids and alkalis wear goggles concentrations or amounts
Flammable keep away from naked flames will not pose the same risks
Toxic wear gloves- avoid skin contact- wash hands after use as the pure substance.
Oxidising- Keep away from flammable / easily oxidised materials

N Goalby chemrevise.org 21
Measuring melting point
One way of testing for the degree of purity is to determine the melting
point, or melting range, of the sample.
Thermometer with
If the sample is very pure then the melting point will be a capillary tube
sharp one, at the same value as quoted in data books. strapped to it
containing sample
If impurities are present (and this can include solvent from the
recrystallisation process) the melting point will be lowered and Heating oil- needs
the sample will melt over a range of several degrees Celsius to have boiling point
higher than samples
melting point and
Melting point can be measured in an electronic melting point low flammability
machine or by using a practical set up where the capillary tube is
strapped to a thermometer immersed in some heating oil.
In both cases a small amount of the salt is put into a capillary tube.

Heat
Comparing an experimentally determined melting point
value with one quoted in a data source will verify the
degree of purity.

Sometimes an error may occur if the temperature on the thermometer is not the same as the temperature in
the actual sample tube.

Measuring boiling point

Purity of liquid can be determined by measuring a boiling point. This can be
done in a distillation set up or by simply boiling a tube of the sample in an To get a correct measure
heating oil bath. of boiling point the
thermometer should be
Pressure should be noted as changing pressure can change the boiling above the level of the
point of a liquid surface of the boiling liquid
and be measuring the
temperature of the
Measuring boiling point is not the most accurate method of identifying a saturated vapour.
substance as several substances may have the same boiling point.

N Goalby chemrevise.org 22
Combustion Analysis
0.328 g of a compound containing C,H and O was burnt completely in excess oxygen,
producing 0.880 g of carbon dioxide and 0.216 g of water. Use these data to calculate
the empirical formula of the compound.

Work out moles of CO2 = Mass of CO2/Mr of CO2

= 0.88/44
=0.02mol
Moles of C in compound = moles of CO2 Mass of C in = mol of C x 12
= 0.02 mol compound =0.02 x12
=0.24g
Work out moles of H2O = Mass of H2O /Mr of H2O
= 0.216/18
=0.012mol

Moles of H in compound = 2 x moles of H2O Mass of H in = mol of H x 1

= 0.024 mol compound =0.024 x1
=0.024g

Work out mass of O = mass of compound mass of C mass of H

in compound = 0.328 0.24 -0.024
=0.064

Work out moles of O = Mass of O /Ar of O

in compound = 0.064/16
= mol 0.004

Work out molar ratio

of 3 elements (divide C = 0.02/0.004 H = 0.024/0.004 O = 0.004/0.004
by smallest moles) =5 =6 =1

empirical formula = C5H6O

See notes in module 4 on spectroscopy for mass spec, IR, and NMR

N Goalby chemrevise.org 23
Bringing it all together
C H O
1. Work out empirical formula
66.63/12 11.18/1 22.19/16
Elemental analysis C 66.63% H 11.18% O 22.19%
=5.5525 =11.18 =1.386875
=4 =8 =1

2. Using molecular ion peak m/z value from mass

spectrum calculate Molecular formula Mr empirical formula C4H8O = 72
molecular ion peak m/z value= 144 If Mr molecular formula 144 then
compound is C8H16O2

3. Use IR spectra or functional group C8H16O2 could be an ester, carboxylic acid or combination of
chemical tests to identify main alcohol and carbonyl. Look for IR spectra for C=O and O-H
bonds/functional group bonds

There is a C=O but no

O-H absorptions, so
must be an ester.

C-H
C=O

CH3

4. Use NMR spectra to give details of carbon chain singlet of area 9 H3C C H
At =0.9 CH3
4 peaks only 4 different environments. Means 3 CH3 groups
9

Peak at 4 shows HCO Peak at 1.2

Peak at 2.2 shows HC=O
shows R-CH3
Area 2 suggests CH2 Area 2 suggests CH2 Area 3 means CH3
Quartet means next to a Singlet means adjacent to Triplet means next
CH3 C with no hydrogens to a CH2
H H3C CH3
H O
H3C O C H
H3C O C C H 2
2 3
H
H

5 4 ppm 3 2 1

Put all together to give final structure

CH3 O
H3C C CH2 C O CH2 CH3
CH3

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 Testing for Organic Functional Groups

Functional group Reagent Result

Alkene Bromine water Orange colour

decolourises
Alcohols + carboxylic acids PCl5 Misty fumes of HCl
produced
Alcohols, phenols, Sodium metal Efferevesence due to H2
carboxylic acids gas
Carbonyls 2,4,DNP Orange/red crystals
produced
Aldehyde Fehlings solution Blue solution to red
precipitate
Aldehyde Tollens Reagent Silver mirror formed

Carboxylic acid Sodium carbonate Effervescence of CO2

evolved
1o 2o alcohol and Sodium dichromate and Orange to green colour
aldehyde sulphuric acid change
chloroalkane Warm with silver nitrate Slow formation of white
precipitate of AgCl
Acyl chloride Silver nitrate Vigorous reaction- steamy
fumes of HCl- rapid white
precipitate of AgCl

Tollens Reagent Fehlings solution

Reagent: Tollens Reagent formed by mixing aqueous Reagent: Fehlings Solution containing blue Cu 2+ ions.
ammonia and silver nitrate. The active substance Conditions: heat gently
is the complex ion of [Ag(NH3)2]+ . Reaction: aldehydes only are oxidised by Fehlings
Conditions: heat gently Solution into a carboxylic acid and the copper ions
are reduced to copper(I) oxide .
Reaction: aldehydes only are oxidised by Tollens
reagent into a carboxylic acid and the silver(I) Observation: Aldehydes :Blue Cu 2+ ions in solution
change to a red precipitate of Cu 2O. Ketones do
ions are reduced to silver atoms not react
Observation: with aldehydes, a silver mirror forms
coating the inside of the test tube. Ketones result CH3CHO + 2Cu2+ + 2H2O CH3COOH + Cu2O + 4H+
in no change.

CH3CHO + 2Ag+ + H2O CH3COOH + 2Ag + 2H+

The presence of a carboxylic acid can be tested by

addition of sodium carbonate. It will fizz and produce
carbon dioxide
2CH3CO2H + Na2CO3 2CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O + CO2

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