Global warming is the most immediate threat to global

sustainability, driven primarily by CO2 emissions. Achieving Insulation for

optimum thermal design of buildings can achieve large cuts
in CO2, with numerous other benefits. But at least half of
Europes existing buildings are uninsulated, while current
Sustainability
construction standards in most of Europe are also still not high
enough.

This guide shows in depth Why and How we should design

well-insulated and energy-efficient buildings, and it discusses
A Guide
the criteria for choosing Which insulation material and design
of insulating systems. The guide is extensively illustrated with
diagrams and illustrative energy modelling.

A study by
XCO2 for BING

XCO2 conisbee Ltd 1-5 Offord Street E: [email protected]

Consulting engineers London N1 1DH, UK W: www.xco2.com
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This research study is a result of research and analysis
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carried out by XCO2 conisbee and sponsored by:

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BING
Federation of European Rigid Polyurethane Foam Associations
Fdration des associations europennes de mousse de polyurthane rigide
Vereinigung der europischen Polyurethan-Hartschaum-Verbnde
Summary - 1 why

Energy technology is vital to a

dynamic society but global
warming, driven primarily by CO2
emissions, now demands change in
current patterns of generation and
use.
Satellite imaging shows the
concentrations of energy use in Europe

Half of our energy is used in

buildings, which form an excellent
focus for actions to reduce CO2
emissions, starting with energy
efficiency.
Aerial thermographic image
showing heat loss from a city

In Europe, the largest share of

energy in buildings is heating.
Insulation and thermal design can
dramatically reduce heat loss and
help stop global warming.
Thermographic image showing
heat loss from typical houses

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Summary - 2 why local

160
Heating energy demand in existing
buildings can be reduced by 30-50%
Heating through retrofit, compared to the
120
energy use
2 current average. In new buildings it
kW.h/m .yr
80
can be reduced by 90-95%, using
2000 Standard
widely available technology and
40
design knowledge and at
0 competitive costs.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Graph based on analysis showing incremental
250
Incremental improvements to design, summarised below reductions in heating demand possible

Airtight and highly

insulated housing
achieves very low
heating demand. Zero-CO2 option:

Zero-CO2 option:
Incremental improvement to
building codes is not fast enough,
Highly insulated
and the savings through retrofit are
modular construction
panels
limited. Large savings can be
achieved through programmes of
(Mechanical ventilation
with heat recovery)
replacement new-build to the best
available standard.
Diagram showing principles of LowHeat housing
to reduce heating energy use by 90-95%

The choice of insulating material

is relatively insignificant
compared to achieving optimum
thermal resistance. The most
important design issue is to
ensure longevity of performance
over the lifetime of the material.
Image shows typical insulation materials

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why
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The global

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context why
global

Foreword

You see, we should make use of the forces of Humanity currently faces its greatest challenge ever - to
nature and should obtain all our power in this support continued growth in living standards worldwide
within diminishing natural resources and saturated
way. Sunshine is a form of energy, wind and pollution sinks. This challenge is now driving change at all
sea currents are manifestations of this energy. levels through government, business and civil society.
Do we make use of them? Oh no! We burn
forests and coal, like tenants burning down More and more business and government leaders are
our front door for heating. We live like wild grasping the great opportunity - if we invest in innovative
settlers and not as though these resources design and new technology, and if we only cease to be
stupid, we can cherish the natural environment alongside
belong to us. social and economic progress.
Thomas A.Edison, inventor of the tungsten lightbulb, 1916 As we will show later, the biggest environmental problem
of all is the atmosphere, where accumulating greenhouse
gases are causing climate change and sea level rise. The
most recent report of the International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) confirms there is now very little doubt that
anthropogenic (man-made) carbon dioxide is the main
cause of climate change.

Greenhouse gases are accumulating in the In response to this challenge, we are now entering an age
of great innovation, another Industrial Revolution, which
Earths atmosphere as a result of human
will see a tremendous pace of change. This is much
activities, causing surface air temperatures bigger than just technology, requiring a new Renaissance
and subsurface ocean temperatures to rise. in design, economics and society.
Temperatures are, in fact, rising... Human-
induced warming and associated sea-level This revolution is driven by a quest to find solutions with
rises are expected to continue throughout the overlapping benefits and positively reinforcing outcomes
in many different sectors - where 1+1+1 = 5 - we call
21st century.
them XCO2 solutions.
National Academy of Sciences report on global warming
One of these solutions is insulation, a key element of the
to the Bush Administration, June 2001
energy efficiency strategies and technologies that we
http://www.national academies.org
need to rely on to achieve this revolution. I hope that this
guide helps to take this message to a wide audience
within the construction industry, and to promote
understanding and good design. We need to cut fossil fuel
energy use by 60-90%, while supporting social and
economic development. The means are there, all that we
require is the will.

Robert Webb, XCO2

London, February 2002

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Introduction

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to this study why
global

Diagram of the overall structure of the document; Insulation is a product or service which stands up very
We ask Why?, How? and Which? questions on three well on its own - offering clear and straightforward
scales - Global, Local, and Detailed. energy efficiency and economic advantages. So why
focus on it?
Global Local Detailed Simply, because it can go much further! Insulation
To stop global materials and systems offer many overlapping benefits
Why? To reduce energy To maintain good
warming and comfort
minimise fossil fuel use and contribute to sustainability in society, the economy and the
to economy conditions
depletion
use insulation environment. Yet many existing buildings in Europe
To achieve high As required by remain uninsulated, and most new buildings are still
How?
to use insulation
To minimise heat
loss in buildings
performance in
conjunction with
energy systems
construction
method insulated far below optimum levels.

In response to Those are failures to grasp simple opportunities for

Which? insulation to use
To achieve maximum
performance and
longevity
As appropriate for local
exposure conditions
individual choice &
project conditions sustainable development. And they are massive failures.
40-50% of all energy in Europe is used in buildings, and
Guidance for designers and specifiers - the 40-60% of this is heating energy. Every new building
aim is to provide clear guidance and specific with suboptimal insulation may remain that way for 100
examples on each of the points listed above. years or more.

The purpose of this document is to explore and

champion the opportunities for sustainability which are
Symbols used to indicate the report structure presented by insulation technologies, especially
inability inability inability environmental sustainability, and start to explore how
u s ta u s ta s ta
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business and society.

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why how which

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There are a number of factors to be overcome:

Inertia and inefficiency in financial and management
structures leading to drastic undervaluing of energy
efficiency and whole-life costs.

Resistance to change in the construction industry,

leading for example to lobbying from some quarters for
Some definitions of standards slower improvement in thermal standards.
In this study we refer to a number of standards and types
of housing for energy consumption comparisons in the A misleading emphasis in many green building
European context. Existing refers to the average of a publications, leading to a failure to properly weight
typical house built before 1970. Refurbished refers to an whole-life issues.
Existing property which has been upgraded with a range
of energy-efficiency measures. 2000 Standard is an We cannot tackle all of these problems in one study. We
average standard for new buildings in 2000 (which aim however to put the issues in context by providing a
happens to be the same as the 2002 UK regulations). simple Why?, How? and Which? of insulation, a primer
LowHeat Standard and NoHeat Standard are XCO2s and reference guide for all those involved in the built
proposed specifications for low-energy housing, which environment.
are defined on pages 39, and 50-51.

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Summary

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1 - Global why
global

Isnt sustainable development too

difficult to achieve?
As a starting point we need to reduce our environmental
impact by very large margins (between 60 and 90%), but
we know we can do this through a combination of
Each line refers to a
specific model and
scenario from the IPCC
Envelope of modelling under
varying assumptions for
climate sensitivity
efficiency and technology. And with no sacrifices to quality
Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios
(SRES)
Envelope for the 35 scenarios
of life.
of the Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios

But its so complicated, how do we know where to

start?
Energy use is the most important issue. This is because
fossil fuel energy use is leading to global warming and
sea level rise, raising the very real possibility of
catastrophic climate change which might destroy life as
we know it. It's also because our current reserves of fossil
Predicted temperature change as a fuel will not meet growing world demand in the long-term.
result of global warming
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change So we should invest in renewable energy, right?
Yes, but at the same time we have to invest in energy
efficiency. A unit of energy saved is as good as a unit of
renewable energy generated in fact better, because its
probably cheaper and easier.
Transport Industry
Temperature
control of industrial
So where do we start?
buildings
The single largest energy-consuming sector in developed
Non- countries is buildings (50% of the total), so let's start here.
residential Residential
(tertiary) In European buildings, heating energy accounts for 40-
Buildings 60% of their energy use, so let's reduce this first. In new
buildings you can do this through good design, and by
50% of energy use in the specifying high levels of insulation. Existing buildings
EU is in buildings require retrofit of insulation and better glazing.
Source: DG TREN
Note: reducing cooling energy use is also very important
in Europe, particularly in office buildings and industrial
uses - and insulation also plays an important part in this.
2000
Existing
So we should prioritize insulation as an important
part of reducing energy use in buildings?
1500
MWh of Yes it is a very important part of good thermal design.
heating energy

1000 Refurbished
But arent national heat loss regulations becoming
500
2000
Standard
more strict anyway?
LowHeat see pp50-51
Yes, but only on an incremental basis. Every house
0 for definitions insulated below the optimum level may stay that way for
0 50 yrs 100 yrs
Life of building
its entire life possibly 60-150 years or more of
It is possible to reduce housing heating energy unnecessary carbon dioxide emissions and unnecessary
use to 7.5% of the average level through good fossil fuel depletion. We need more insulation in all new
design and high levels of insulation buildings.

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why local

Is it difficult to reduce heating energy use in new and

existing houses?
No - the knowledge and the tools are available. Simple
guidelines are presented here to provide some guidance.

Sunspace / wintergarden acts How much heating energy do existing houses use?
as thermal buffer and passive
solar heat store. Exposed
thermal mass should be used
There is huge variation of course, but most existing
to store heat.
properties built before 1990 will use 150-400 kW.h/m2.yr
(we have taken the figure of 200 kW.h/m2.yr for
comparisons).
150
Space heating How far can we reduce heating energy use?
Hot water Modelling shows that new buildings to the 2000 Standard
Electricity achieve 70% reduction compared to existing, while new
kW.h/m2.yr buildings to our proposed LowHeat Standard can reduce
delivered
energy use by 92% or more. In refurbishment of existing
buildings assessment of the situation is more difficult but
50 50 the savings possible are in the order of 30-50%.
40 40
30 15-
20 20 20
Should we focus on refurbishment before new-build?
We need both. Modern new buildings can easily be built
Conventional 2000 LowHeat with extremely low heat demand, whereas retrofitting is
Standard Standard
complicated and achieves lower savings. It can be shown
see p 50 for definitions
that a radically accelerated building replacement
programme to LowHeat Standard can achieve much
larger savings in a 10-50 year timescale than
refurbishment.
Energy-in-use must be optimised
first. Embodied impact can then be How do we choose the best insulation materials?
reduced if it does not compromise
in-use performance Different materials will achieve the same performance with
different thicknesses. What matters most is that the
In-use
material will last a long time at a high level of
Embodied performance.
60%
reduction
in-use
What about the embodied energy of the materials?
Achieving low energy demand in-use is the most
important factor. Embodied energy is especially
75% misleading for materials and equipment which are critical
reduction
in-use to energy efficiency. Ensuring performance over life is
much more important.
Conventional 2000 LowHeat
Standard Standard
So how do we assess length of life and performance
Energy in-use compared to embodied
energy in a typical dwelling standards for an insulation material?
Note: 100-year life assumed There is a shortage of concrete knowledge although
see p 50 for definitions
different materials have different types of failure risks
associated with them. More research is urgently needed
in this area.
Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 14 15
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The triple bottom line (TBL) focuses Sustainability - rs

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corporations not just on the economic value
where do we

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they add, but also on the environmental and
social value they add and destroy.... the start?
why
global
term is used to capture the whole set of
values, issues and processes that companies
must address in order to minimize any harm
resulting from their activities and to create Our species is enjoying unprecedented success on the
planet we call Earth. Though huge inequalities remain in
economic, social and environmental value.
society, the last 150 years have seen unprecedented
John Elkington, SustainAbility www.sustainability.com
growth in population, life expectancy and education.

Buildings Use The largest single challenge of global sustainability is

40% of total energy use, adding to: local air pollution, acid probably the reduction of poverty and inequality. This
rain, damming of rivers, nuclear waste, risk of global warming. document contains no solutions to that problem, though
as a context it should never be forgotten. Our focus here
40% of raw stone, gravel and sand; comparable share of is however an essential requirement for any continuation
other processed materials such as steel, adding to: landscape of human development and civilisation, as we will show:
destruction, toxic runoff from mines and tailings, deforestation,
the preservation of stability in the global environment.
air and water pollution from processing.

25% of virgin wood is used for construction To achieve sustainability we must balance human society
adding to: deforestation, flooding, siltation, biological and with environment. The construction industry is a very good
cultural diversity losses. place to start - not only occupied with the creation of our
physical environment, it is one of the largest sectors of the
16% of total water withdrawals, adding to water pollution; economy.
competes with agriculture and ecosystems for water.
There are arguably three main threats to environmental
Waste amounts produced are comparable in industrial sustainability: global warming (climate change driven by
countries to municipal solid waste generation, adding to man-made emissions of gases); resource depletion
landfill problems, such as leaching of heavy metals and water
(including depletion of non-renewable resources, and
pollution.
damage to renewable resources and ecosystems); and
Poor air quality in 30% of new and renovated buildings, pollution including ozone depletion (the last is now largely
adding to higher incidence of sicknesslost productivity in dealt with under the Montreal Protocol).
tens of billions annually.
The most immediate of these threats is global warming,
Source: World Watch Institute which threatens catastrophic climate change and sea level
rises whose impact is likely to be greater than all of
humanitys wars combined (see following section).

Emissions of CO2 due HFC, Global warming is driven primarily by carbon dioxide
to fossil fuel burning PFC,
emissions from fossil fuel energy use. Climate scientists
are virtually certain to N2O SF6
agree that we need to cut carbon dioxide emissions by
be the dominant 60-90% to stabilise the climate, and we need to start now.
CH4
influence on the
trends in atmospheric The extraction and use of fossil fuels is the primary
CO2 concentrations source of man-made carbon dioxide, also causes the
during the 21st majority of eco-toxic pollution [Ref: 1], and is the prime
Century IPCC, Third resource depletion issue as our economies are currently
Assessment Report dependent on fossil fuels. Action to reduce fossil fuel use
CO 2 not only helps prevent climate change, but also reduces
Greenhouse gas data: From the IPCC resource depletion and pollution. Reducing CO2 emissions
Second Report. Note SF6 is also an
anthropogenic greenhouse gas is therefore by far the most significant issue in buildings.
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Global

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warming - a why
summary global

What is the greenhouse effect?

The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
been charged with overseeing the development of climate
science and its latest report, the Third Assessment report
published in July 2001 [Ref: 2], states that there is very
little doubt that mans influence on global warming is real.

The introduction to the Summary for Policy-Makers

explains the basic concept and the reasons for any
controversy:
The Greenhouse concept is simply that the composition of the
gases that make up the atmosphere enveloping the earth is
crucial to the existence of life, by acting as an insulator. This is
because a precise gaseous composition allows heat which is
radiated from the sun to be trapped in by the earth. Furthermore
Variation of the Earths Surface temperature it allows the specific temperature range for life to flourish, as it
Over the past 1000 years: allows the right amount of heat loss as well as heat retention to
keep the balance of life stable.

Changes in climate occur as a result of both internal variability

in the climate system, natural change, and also external
influence - unnatural or anthropogenic [man-made] change. The
contentiousness behind Climate Change has revolved mostly
on the whether this external anthropogenic influence can be
attributed to the absolute changes observed.

Summary of the historical evidence

Here we quote some of the key points arising from the
IPCC Third Assessment Report:
Over the 20th Century global average surface
temperature has increased by 0.6C+/-0.2C with the
period 1972-2000 being one of the times that most
warming occurred.
Source: Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change
Globally, it is very likely that the 1990s was the warmest
Over the past 140 years: decade and 1998 the warmest year in the instrumental
(meteorological) record, since 1861.

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2)

has increased by 31% since 1750. The present CO2
concentration has not been exceeded during the past
420,000 years and likely not during the past 20,000,000
years. The current rate of increase is unprecedented
during at least the past 20,000 years.

About 3/4 of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere in the

past 20 years has been due to fossil fuel burning with
Source: Intergovernmental
the rest being predominantly due to deforestation.
Panel on Climate Change

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Status and future implications of the climate

change models - from the IPCC 3rd Report
Recent models are producing increasingly accurate
simulations taking into account both natural changes
and anthropogenic [man-made] influences. Simulations
of both external and internal influences produce results
Source: Intergovernmental which are sufficient and convincing in explaining the
Panel on Climate Change observed changes.

Most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is

likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse
Each line refers to a
specific model and
Envelope of modelling under
varying assumptions for
gas concentrations.
scenario from the IPCC climate sensitivity
Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios
(SRES)
Envelope for the 35 scenarios
Emissions of CO2 due to fossil fuel burning are virtually
of the Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios certain to be the dominant influence on the trends in
atmospheric CO2 concentration during the 21st
Century.

The globally averaged surface temperature is projected

to increase by 1.4 to 5.8C over the period 1990 to
2100. These results are for the full range of 35 climate
modelling scenarios, based on a number of climate
models.

The projected rate of warming is much larger than the

Source: Intergovernmental observed changes during the 20th Century and is very
Panel on Climate Change
likely to be without precedent during at least the last
10,000 years.

Global warming is likely to lead to greater extremes of

Each line refers to a
drying and heavy rainfall and increase risk of droughts
specific model and
scenario from the IPCC
Model outcome including
assumptions for uncertainty and floods.
Special Report on over land-ice interaction
Emissions Scenarios
(SRES)

Envelope of modelling Northern hemisphere snow cover and sea-ice extent

under varying assumptions
for climate sensitivity are projected to decrease further Glaciers and ice
Envelope for the 35 scenarios
caps are projected to continue their retreat.
of the Special Report on
Emissions Scenarios

Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 0.09 to

0.88 metres between 1990 and 2100.

Surface temperatures will increase, ice caps will retreat

and sea levels rise for hundreds of years, even if
greenhouse gases are stabilised permanently to current
levels.
Source: Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change

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The international

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response to why
global warming global

Carbon Trading Markets There are now many factors driving change to fight global
An international carbon trading scheme will be set up warming, from public opinion and consumer pressure to
now that the Kyoto Protocol has been signed, probably changing global and local legislation. This combination of
based in London. In addition national schemes are being pressures is increasing the speed of change - and the
created in a number of countries. For example, the UK most successful innovations provide benefits by
Emissions Trading Scheme is expected to be fully motivating and educating people at the same time as
operational by April 2002. realising the economic benefits of energy efficiency and
carbon trading.
Companies will be eligible to join the scheme if they
agree to a target on greenhouse gas emissions Global Scale - Kyoto
reductions. If they do better than the target, they will The Kyoto Treaty, signed at Bonn in July 2001 by 186
create allowances that can be sold, whereas if they nations, is an unprecedented global agreement setting
fail to meet their target they will have to buy legally binding targets for carbon dioxide emissions for the
allowances. For companies joining voluntarily with 38 industrialised countries which are signitories (the only
the financial incentive, targets will be framed in significant country which did not sign is the United States).
terms of absolute emission reductions (caps). The agreed target is a 5.2% reduction on 1990 emissions
from The Carbon Trust and the Emissions Trading levels by 2010. This alone will have little impact on global
Scheme, a leaflet produced by the UK Government warming; the treatys significance is that it sets the
framework for further reductions in future.

The agreement also includes the Clean Development

Mechanism, a fund for green technology in developing
Draft Directive on the Energy Performance of countries; carbon credits gained through offset activities
Buildings such as planting forests; and an international market in
Published by the European Commission in May 2001, carbon credits will be established for companies which
this calls for: invest in clean technologies in other states.
Establishment of a common European methodology
for calculating the integrated energy performance of Local Scale - European changes in building regulation
buildings. There is a general move in the EU towards upgrading
Application of minimum standards across Europe, thermal insulation and energy regulations for buildings in
based on the methodology. all European states, though as we argue later, this is not
Certification schemes requiring new and existing fast enough.
buildings to carry certificates with details of energy
performance. In addition, a number of countries are developing
Inspection of medium-sized and older boiler and approaches to the assessment of building materials, and
heating/cooling installations. there are currently strong moves towards a harmonised
European approach for environmental labelling of
The Certification Scheme is already coming into use in construction products - otherwise known as the
some countries. For example in the UKs trial Sellers Environmental Product Declaration, based on an audited
Pack scheme, energy data about properties must be Life Cycle Assessment of the product. This will act as a
included. This means that potential purchasers of positive incentive for companies to compete on
property are given the opportunity to judge value on the environmental issues as they currently do on quality, cost
basis of energy running costs as well as other issues. and other issues. However to be truly useful and
meaningful these assessments should be carried out for
the whole building over its life, rather than for an individual
material.
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Start with

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efficient why local

buildings
Energy efficiency and renewable energy measures in
Buildings are responsible for buildings - what we refer to as XCO2 strategies - have
50% of EU energy use huge potential to improve quality of life and increase
(including industrial buildings) productivity through better working conditions, as well as
reducing running costs, and maximising lifetime return on
investment.

Massive growth in renewable energy is now occurring

Transport Industry which will reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. But the
first step in reducing carbon emissions is through energy
Temperature
control of industrial
buildings
efficiency. Efficiency measures tend to be cheaper and
easier to realise than renewables, and offer financial
Non- savings and other benefits.
residential Residential
(tertiary)
Meanwhile extensive literature and examples have shown
Buildings that efficiency improvements of at least factor four (75%
reduction) are available in all the principle sectors which
Source: DG TREN emit CO2: buildings, transport and industry [Ref: 4] But
buildings are the largest sector, responsible for 40-50% of
the EUs CO2 emissions, and therefore presents a
massive potential for savings.

The majority of building energy use in Europe is in

heating.
Insulation shows the greatest potential savings of CO2 Up to 60% of total delivered energy use in Europes
compared to other building efficiency measures buildings is in space heating.

Improve Lighting 50 Insulation is a central plank of building energy

Efficiency
efficiency strategies.
Improve 87 Insulation measures to new and existing buildings offer
Controls
potentially the single most effective building efficiency
Glazing strategy in Europe. In existing buildings alone, a study
Standards 119
published by EuroACE [Ref: 3] found that a European
programme of building energy efficiency could bring
Thermal 185
Insulation reductions of between 430 and 452 million tonnes of CO2
per year by 2010, a reduction of 12.5% of current EU
[Ref: 3] 0 50 100 150 200 emissions - based on conservative assumptions. The
Potential savings in EU - Mt CO2 per annum largest share of this figure is in improvements to
insulation, giving savings of 185 Mt CO2 per annum (20%
reduction in heating energy use; amounting to 5% of total
Note: Reduce cooling energy also EU emissions).
For overall building energy efficiency and especially in office
buildings, reducing cooling energy can also achieve massive impact. And this is not including the improvements possible in
In most of northern europe, passive design can eliminate or reduce new buildings, which have the potential of even greater
the need for cooling; where this is not possible cooling and air
conditioning systems should be designed to optimise efficiency.
impact, as we shall show.

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What about

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climate why local

1 North
differences?
European
Coastal
The European climate varies quite widely from the north
to the south, though there is also much common ground
between countries in central Europe. Variations in thermal
insulation standards are to be expected - however the
actual variation is much greater than climatic differences,
as a result of cultural (and to some extent economic)
2 Mid-
European
Coastal
3 Continental forces.

For example in Germany, with an average degree-day

4 Southern and Mediterranean heating requirement of 3845, the annual insulation
consumption is 0.35 m3 per capita [Ref: 3]. However in the
UK, with a similar degree-day requirement of 3210, the
annual insulation consumption is only 0.15 m3 of insulation
per year. This difference is not accounted for by rates of
construction, though insulation density may be a factor.

Present
The comparison of standards (see graph) confirms that
even when climatic differences are taken into account,
Nordic Countries
thermal insulation standards vary considerably and there
Germany is much room for improvement. Standards are in fact
lowest in southern countries, where typical heat loss for a
France house may exceed that in the north of Europe, despite a
warmer climate.
United Kingdom

m33 per capita

Rest of Europe mean per year Future
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
At present many member states are improving their
Annual insulation consumption per capita, m3 - selected regulations separately; in 1999 Germany planned to
European countries. [Ref: 3] reduce heat loss by 30% and Finland by a further 10%.
An integrated calculation approach has already been
applied in Germany, France, UK, Ireland and Netherlands.

Varying thermal insulation standards across Europe. [Ref: It seems likely that in due course this will lead to a
3] standardised European calculation with variation for
climatic conditions.
Insulation standards by country
Min. thermal resistance for dwellings
6.0 A European initiative intended to improve the
R = m2.K/W
5.0 energy performance of buildings by
4.0 promoting improved Member State thermal
3.0 insulation regulations to a level already
2.0
attained by some Member States could result
1.0
in substantial energy savings for the EU as a
0.0
Germany UK France Nordic Countries Other Europe whole.
Draft Directive of the Commission on the Energy
roofs floors walls Performance of Buildings, May 2001

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 26 27

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A National Programme to improve the standard of Comfort and

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Fuel poverty why
Existing Housing
SAP 20
c 600 kW.h/m2/yr Job
Creation
Comfort

Saving Clearly, insulation is one of the key strategies for
achieving thermal comfort efficiently in buildings.
Reduced
Investment Illness
Modern lifestyles require high levels of thermal comfort in
buildings - typically 21C for the main living spaces and
18C for other spaces.
CO2 >50% cut in
CO2 emissions
reduction from housing
New & Retrofitted Demand for thermal comfort levels also become higher as
Housing more people work from home and spend irregular hours at
SAP 60
c 230 kW.h/m2/yr As proposed by Professor Peter Smith, Chairman home. The travel savings achieved by communications
RIBA Energy & Environment Committee
advances are then likely to be partially offset by increases
in domestic heating energy... unless thermal insulation
standards are improved.
Professor Peter Smith of UKs Sheffield Hallam University
has shown how the UK target of 20% cut in CO2 Fuel Poverty
emissions on 1990 levels by 2010 is achieveable entirely A prime driver for better insulation practice is the
by raising the energy standards required of new homes eradication of fuel poverty. Though not often recognised
and by instigating a programme of energy efficiency as a distinct issue outside the UK, fuel poverty certainly
measures in existing housing stock. This would create a exists in many European countries.
major new industry in energy efficiency and reduce
energy use in housing by up to 50%. Fuel poverty is found in poor areas and in substandard
social housing, much of which built since 1945 was
8 million households cannot afford basic standards system-built with air-leaky construction and very little if
of warmth, even though energy prices in the UK are any insulation. This is particularly applicable in eastern
relatively low... Raising thermal efficiency of their Europe.
homes would meet an acute social need whilst
generating jobs and cutting down on the 1bn Retrofit of existing buildings in fuel-poor areas offers great
annual health bill attributable to poor housing. advantages to both society and the environment.

We need to refurbish poor-quality homes to an "Fuel poverty arises when people have insufficient
energy efficiency standard of SAP60 (UK government income to heat their homes to the standard required
Standard Assessment Procedure). To put this in for health & comfort. Affordable warmth is defined by
perspective, new homes have to achieve around the World Health Organisation as having a
SAP75 whilst most of the sub-standard homes will be temperature of 21C in the living room & 18C
SAP10-20. Professor Peter Smith throughout the rest of the home." (Briefing from Age
Concern, UK charity)

In 1996, one out of every twelve EU citizens The common definition of a fuel poor household is one
(about 28 million people) lived in a household that needs to spend in excess of 10% of household
income in order to maintain a satisfactory heating
that was behind schedule with (re)payments
regime. Evidence shows that it is the poorer
of utility bills and/or housing costs. households that have the least insulated homes. [Ref:
From: European social statistics [Ref: 5] 6]. The number of fuel poor in the UK in 1999 was
around 4.5 million households.

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Transport Industry
Temperature
control of industrial
buildings
Domestic buildings are
responsible for 60% of EU
reduce heating
Non-
residential
(tertiary)
Residential
building energy use, about 40-
60% of which is heating energy
energy? global

Buildings
Source: DG TREN
In this section we provide a simple guide explaining some
of the principles of low-energy design, and showing how
Key efficiency design good thermal design and use of insulation can cut heating
energy use to very low levels - in many cases to zero.
strategies for housing
Macro-scale design The charts on this page show that domestic buildings -
Landscaping for shelter
Hot water 23%
and solar penetration.
housing - takes the largest share of building energy use,
Solar water heating.
Site CHP system. Building form. and offers the greatest opportunities for heating energy
Orientation & Massing. savings, hence our focus on it in this section.

While thermal design standards are increasing gradually,

we believe that a faster improvement could make major
contributions to greenhouse gas reduction targets. Our
Space
Electricity 10% Heating proposed LowHeat standard offers a benchmark for such
Good daylighting. 60% optimum design.
Efficient lighting.
It is commonly assumed that very low-energy and zero-
heating houses are very difficult to achieve. This is not the
Micro-scale design case, especially in new-build; a simple combination of
Cooking 7%
Efficient appliances.
Good insulation. clear design steps can reduce energy use without large
Airtightness/ controlled ventilation.
Passive solar design.
increases in capital cost, as we show in this section both
Thermal mass. analytically and graphically as Guidelines for the designer.
Sunspaces.
[Ref: 7] Glazing technology.
There is a complex dynamic between refurbishment and
new-build strategies, where analysis shows that new-build
replacement programmes perhaps have the best potential
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from domestic energy
Key design strategies for use.
commercial buildings
Natural ventilation. Reducing heating energy use is the first step
Thermal mass cooling.
Good daylight design. These standards for housing form the basis for much of the comparative
Local comfort cooling.
Efficient lighting. work in this study, and are defined in more detail on pp50-51.
In warmer climes, use
efficient air conditioning 150
Improvements in electrical energy
efficiency through better lighting and
Space heating
appliances are assumed alongside Hot water
Cooli
Lighting improvements to thermal
20% 4%
performance. Electricity
Ventilation/
Cooling 30%
kW.h/m2.yr
Lightin delivered
14%
Many buildings e.g.
Heating 50% deep-plan air-conditioned
Cooki
offices will have higher
5% 50 50
ventilation/cooling energy
Wate 40 40
compared to heating 30 15-
20 20 20
Glazing specification.
Insulation and thermal mass.
[Ref: 7] Atrium as thermal buffer.
Conventional 2000 LowHeat
Standard Standard
Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 32 33
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types?
global

Domestic buildings
A small programme of new-build LowHeat Domestic buildings make up 60% of total building energy
houses will achieve similar annual savings to a use, and about 60% of domestic energy use is in heating.
much larger programme of retrofit.
100 million existing
New buildings can easily reduce this heating energy use
Scenario Energy Demand
dwelllings to very low levels through good design and sufficient
50 as
existing
1000 TW.h insulation. This means that new-build replacement to
Refurbish 100
route base 50
LowHeat standards can potentially achieve greater CO2
SAVE
700 TW.h
refurbished 296 TW.h emissions abatement than refurbishment (see pp 40-41
for full discussion).
84 as 1680 TW.h
New-build 100
replacement
base
existing Existing buildings
route SAVE
16 new build
24
TW.h 296 TW.h It is very difficult to assess the total scope for retrofit in
Annual
Europe, but it is thought that up to 50% of buildings in
Annualdelivered
delivered heating energy,demand,
heating energy see pp assumptions
40-41 for fullasmodelling
at left
Europe are uninsulated. For example Germany, Ireland,
Italy, Netherlands, Spain and UK together hold 100 million
dwellings of which about 50 million are uninsulated.

Retrofitting insulation and glazing can reduce heating

Over 50% of total building stock and 85% of energy use by 30-40% in these buildings. This is most
that pre-1965 is without any wall insulation.. cost-effective when it takes place at the same time as
approximately 31% of walls are solid major refurbishment.
masonry walls of brick, block, or stone... Higher savings can be achieved where supply-side
improvements like district heating and combined heat and
In total 58% of the domestic building stock is power (CHP) are options. For example in Denmark,
uninsulated Where appropriate, 28% saving average space heating reductions of 53% were achieved
is expected through cavity wall insulation in the period 1972-2000, through both demand and
retrofit, and 41% saving is expected through supply-side measures on both new and old buildings
including better insulation standards and retrofit insulation.
solid wall insulation. [Ref: 10]
From the English House Condition Survey 1991 Energy Report
[Ref: 8], and interpretation in [Ref: 3]
However, many existing buildings do present restrictions
to retrofit insulation due to practical and aesthetic
constraints, and supply-side options are more applicable
to new-build. A more realistic estimate of the potential
reduction is perhaps 30%, achieveable in half the stock.

Commercial buildings
Heating savings arising from insulation are less significant
in commercial and office buildings due to greater
Note: industrial process applications ventilation and glazing heat loss and other design
This is a very important area, though only c.25% of EU energy use constraints. However design for efficiency overall offers
is in industrial uses. Large energy savings are achieveable by great scope for energy reductions in commercial buildings,
increasing pipe insulation standards in industrial process and many of the principles are similar to those in housing
applications to optimise them for insulation and life-time cost criteria. discussed here.
Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 34 35
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we adopt? local

Building insulation standards are Building insulation standards have increased generally
over the 20th Century as consciousness of energy
improving over time, but not fast enough! conservation has increased, and will continue improving
over time - as shown in the diagram.
1970- 1980-
Since this incremental improvement is so far below the
Roof 0.35
potential energy and carbon savings possible, we argue
for an immediate jump to better standards in new
construction wherever possible - in particular our
proposed LowHeat standard.
Wall Window 0.6 5.4

What is the cost impact of this proposal? On a Lifetime

Cost basis, it is well documented that even more onerous
Floor standards than LowHeat will achieve the same cost over
30 years compared to standard housing (see pp40-41).
2002- Moreover experience suggests that the LowHeat Standard
1990- can be constructed at or very close to standard capital
0.25/0.35 0.16-0.2 budgets for housing, and with good design and careful
specification can even be achieved within social housing
budgets (implying a lifetime cost far lower than
conventional)
0.45 2.8 0.35 1.9
Some
Some EU Building
EU Building Regulations
Regulations in force 2002,
0.45 0.25
2002
relative and
to the energy standards
Standards in this document
160 Relative to the modelling on pp 50-51
Heating
energy use B
2
kW.h/m .yr
F (s) Selected EU
2007-8 2050- 120
F (n) regulations
ventilation
0.16 also
legislated 80 GB
2002 IR
2002 D
40
(EnEV)

?
(Passiv Haus
Standard)
0.2 1.6
0
0.25 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 11
0 1 4 10 12
Existing 1990
Existing 1990 UK 2000
2000 LowHeat NoHeat
LowHeat NoHeat
UKRegs
Regs Standard
Standard Standard
Standard Standard
Standard
Example based on England and Wales
Example based on UK Building Regulations
Building Regulations
Window heat loss per square metre
shown heat
at 1/5 scale How to assess investment in thermal standards
Window loss per of opaque
square elements
metre shown at
1/5 scale of opaque elements Economic levels of insulation are usually judged on simple
payback, which gives a poor indication of the advantages. If
considered instead as Return on Investment, it can be seen that a
Elemental U-values are only one part of low-energy design. relatively small capital investment in better insulation levels can
Assessment of designs should be made using calculation and produce a large return on investment by reducing running costs. As
modelling software on the basis of the whole building, and European important is that the decision must consider the whole building
regulations will increasingly operate in this way. This enables system: for example main heating systems can be omitted as
designers to achieve the desired energy use standards through a design improves, a saving which will pay for improvements to
range of design and technical strategies. insulation and ventilation systems.

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A LowHeat house uses 7.5% of the heating
energy of an existing house, saving large LowHeat
amounts of energy over its life local

2000
Existing
Standards?
See pp52-53 for
definitions While many European nations are approaching or have
1500 reached the 2000 Standard, on average across Europe
MWh of new buildings are performing much worse. Building
heating energy
regulations are improving incrementally but buildings last
1000 Refurbished
from 60 to 150 years or longer, and insulation is not
usually replaced or upgraded in that time. Every building
2000 built to suboptimal standards may continue to emit carbon
500 Standard
for 100 years or more.
LowHeat
0 However it is possible to build very low-energy houses
0 50 yrs 100 yrs with very low or zero heating demand. There are
Life of building
exemplary schemes around the world, most notably the
Ref: XCO2 modelling
German, Austrian and Swiss scheme known as Passiv
Haus. Many thousands of houses have been built as part
of this scheme, showing that low heating levels can be
achieved with no limit to living space or design creativity,
and at very little or no additional lifetime cost thanks to the
Increasing insulation gradually reduces running costs omission of a main heating system (and our proposed
but increases capital costs; but once the LowHeat LowHeat standard is even less onerous than the Passiv
standard is achieved, lifetime costs jump down as the Haus in order to be achieveable within lower budgets).
radiator system is no longer required
The main limit to the implementation of LowHeat housing
Zero-heating transition
No heating system required on a wider scale is a lack of political will - though
> capital costs reduced knowledge and understanding barriers also need to be
Running costs minimal
Cost overcome. The savings achieveable relative to the
Total Lifetime Cost average demand level are very large (92.5%). If the
construction industry works together to encourage and
speed the adoption of these standards, we can cut carbon
Insulation + heating
system capital cost dioxide emissions, minimise running costs and provide
high levels of thermal comfort.

The LowHeat specification includes:

Running cost Envelope
Well insulated: U 0.2 W/m2.K
Airtight (<0.6 ac/h @ 50 Pa)
Low thermal bridging
Increasing
insulation thickness
Glazing
The capitalized total costs (investments in Orientation and area optimized; c 25-30% of floor area.
the building including planning and building Double glazing with low-e coating and insulated shutters
services plus running costs over a period of or blinds, average U 1.3 W/m2.K
30 years) are not higher than for an average
Ventilation
new building. Mechanical winter ventilation with heat recovery 70%
from CEPHEUS, EU-funded Passiv Haus demonstration project.
www.cepheus.de
efficient. Supplementary heating via booster coil within
air supply.

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use in Europe's housing stock
1 annual heating energy use for different scenarios local

2000 Base current demand

1 2 3 4
1 Gradual refurbish 10% pa
1500 Newbuild to 2000
2 Standard 5% pa
TWh of delivered
On previous pages we raised the common question: to
3 Newbuild to LowHeat
heating energy per year Standard 5% pa reduce domestic energy use, is it better to focus on new-
1000
build, or on refurbishment?
4 Newbuild to LowHeat
Standard 10% pa
500
Refurbishment appears to require lower embodied energy,
but can be complex, cant be carried out on all dwellings
Theoretical future and will achieve modest savings (our research suggests
minimum demand
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
that fabric improvement measure will probably cut heating
Year of programme energy use by 30% on average). New-build meanwhile
can achieve cuts of up to 92% of heating energy
2 annual heating energy use + embodied
compared to the current average, if houses are designed
energy for the same scenarios
and built to the best of current knowledge - though a
2500
higher embodied energy burden is also implied.

2000 Base figure no change

The modelling illustrated on this page has been set up to
1 2 compare different scenarios for refurbishing or replacing
3 Newbuild to 2000
4 2 Standard 5% pa
1 Gradual refurbish 10% with newbuild a percentage of the housing stock, on the
1500 3 Newbuild to LowHeat basis of annual energy demand, and then including
TWh of delivered heating Standard 5% pa
energy and embodied consideration of embodied energy. It shows that a
energy per year 4 Newbuild to LowHeat
Standard 10% pa
programme of radically accelerated new-build
1000
replacement to LowHeat standards can achieve more
than refurbishing even double the number of buildings,
500 even when embodied energy is taken into account.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Year of programme
The peak at the beginning of the lower graph is due to the
Cumulative total energy after 60 years embodied energy in newbuild: but the annual demand still
Gradual refurbish 10%
falls sharply, and the cumulative demand after 60 years
1
shows a massive advantage to the new-build replacement
Replace, 2000 Standard 5% pa
2 strategies.
Replace, LowHeat Standard 5% pa
3 In reality it is not an either/or situation. A programme of
Replace, LowHeat Standard 10% pa accelerated replacement with newbuild to LowHeat
000 TW.h of total heating
4
energy plus embodied
standards where feasible and refurbishment elsewhere is
0 20 40 60 80 100 a strategy which could achieve massive energy and
Assumptions: no of dwellings carbon savings in the housing sector.
refurbished and newbuild per year Assumptions
100
Base: 100 million dwellings each with assumed average heating demand 20
Cumulative MW.h/year. Total number of dwellings constant over time. Note: total number
80 transformation of dwellings in DE, IR, IT, NL, ES + UK is approx 100 million.
Millions of
dwellings 1 Refurbishment of 10% of stock per year with thermal efficiency measures
10% per year achieving reduction to average demand 14 MW.h/yr per house
60
5% per year 2 Replacement of 5% of stock per year with Newbuild to 2000 Standard, to
6 MW.h/yr per house
40
3 Replacement of 5% of stock per year with Newbuild to LowHeat Standard,
to 1.5 MW.h/yr per house
20 4 Replacement of 10% of stock per year with Newbuild to LowHeat Standard,
to 1.5 MW.h/yr per house
0 Embodied energy: total new-build embodied assumed to be 80 MW.h per
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 house, and refurbishment embodied assumed to be 12 MW.h per house). [Ref: 10]
Year of programme
Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 40 41 x and brackets to go
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Guidelines 1 local
Basic principles for low-
energy design, newbuild

In exposed sites, 1 Site, orientation and Relative heat loss for

respond to climate
and microclimate
Shelter from
built form different house forms

north-east cold
winds
Design for solar access & Detached
house
wind protection, compact
building form. Heat loss 2.4

Compact form has a large impact Terraced

house
on heat loss. Daylighting should not
be compromised however - light
pipes are one way to bring daylight Heat loss 1.71

into the centre of the building. In

exposed sites, wind protection can Apartment
reduce heating demand by up to
Shelter from 10%.
south-west
prevailing wind Heat loss 0.62

2 Optimise insulation (U-value) and airtightness

Minimise heat loss and maximise airtightness

Heat loss tends to be equally Typical variation in energy

distributed between opaque use with glazing area
fabric, glazing and ventilation
- all three elements must be Lowest total
energy demand
Total energy use
considered. Once insulation
of opaque and glazed
elements is improved beyond Heating
the 2000 Standard then energy
Energy considerations recommend airtightness is also critical.
glazing to max 20-30% of floor Lighting
area, though this can be increased Area of glazing must achieve energy
with the use of moveable Airtightness means that cold a balance between heat loss
insulation and shading. draughts cannot get in, and warm
air cannot escape (except for
and daylighting (typically 25-
ventilation air; see also step 5) 30% of floor area if no 0 20 40 60 80 100
Glazing ratio % glazing of wall
external shading). re

3 Passive Solar design

Optimise glazing, orientation and thermal mass strategy

Passive Solar design aims to use N

solar gains to maximum extent in
winter, and most glazing needs to be

Sum
oriented towards south - though

mer
external shading or overhangs
should be provided to minimise
n
e a so
summer overheating. In a passive
Mids

solar design thermal mass located 40%

correctly is essential to store solar
60%
r
te

Sunspace / wintergarden acts

and occupant gains for use when
in
W

as thermal buffer and passive

100%
solar heat store. Exposed needed. However as envelope
thermal mass should be used
to store heat. insulation and airtightness increases, Sun Rose
passive solar is less important. Percentage of solar energy from different
directions (45 inclined plane) - London

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Guidelines 2 local
Basic principles for low-energy
design, newbuild, continued

4 Energy system &

Solar thermal panels can
provide 70% of water appliances 50
heating demand
Choose efficient, low carbon heating
system, lighting and appliances mg CO2 per
Efficient lighting and lumen output
per hour
appliances will reduce
demand dramatically
Though a small percentage of domestic
energy use is in lighting and appliances,
it relies on electricity which is valuable
and of relatively high-carbon intensity. 8.3
6.7
Modern lighting systems and appliances
offer huge efficiency gains over tungsten metal compact
filament halide flourescent
traditional, and further improvements
are possible. When specifying, energy Lighting: Carbon
ratings and eco-labels should be Intensity
referred to.

5 Ventilation strategy
Design controllable system, consider mechanical
Extract can be
partly wind-driven
ventilation & heat recovery
Heat
recovery Once a highly-insulated and air-tight
system fabric has been created, control of
ventilation heat losses becomes
essential. In the winter, ventilation
should be kept to a minimum (though heat
Bathroom reclaimed

extract
sufficient to provide fresh air) and heat from
ventilation air
recovery should be considered. In
colder climates whole-house
mechanical ventilation with heat Typical modern Airtight house
house, 1 ac/h at with MHVR to
recovery (70-80% of outgoing heat natural pressure achieve 0.5 ac/h,
(2000 Standard) 70% eff (LowHeat
recovered) should be considered. In Standard)
Kitchen slightly warmer climates humidity-
extract
controlled passive stack vents can be Ventilation
used. heat loss

Energy-in-use must be optimised

first. Embodied impact can then be 6 Materials issues
reduced if it does not compromise The principles of LCA analysis
in-use performance of building materials Final stage. Without compromising energy in-use
Inputs performance, aim to reduce embodied impact where
In-use
Energy Material Water possible.
Embodied Resources Resources Resources

60% Materials embodied impact makes up to 10-15% of the buildings total

reduction
in-use
Building production and life time
impact, and it is more important to minimise energy-in-use. This
Production Manufacturing
Construction Use and means that the first materials to focus on are those which have least
and maintenance Demolition
of Materials of Products Refurbishment of Buildings
impact on the energy-efficiency strategy. Most buildings last much
'Cradle to Grave' timescale
75% longer than a design life of 70 years, and the longer they last, the
reduction
in-use less important is embodied energy.
Emissions Emissions Emissions Wastes
to Air to Water to Land
Conventional 2000 LowHeat Rating of materials on embodied impact alone is not common sense;
Standard Standard
Outputs
using a life cycle assessment approach, the whole building system
Energy in-use compared to embodied diagram after BRE
energy in a typical dwelling
should be considered, in particular the energy use of the building over
Note: 100-year life assumed its life.

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heavyweight? local

Two of the key issues affecting choice of energy-efficiency

strategy are wall thickness, which may be an issue in
Heavyweight low-energy houses at
Hockerton, UK
order to maximise living space in medium- to high-density
Heavyweight developments; and thermal mass, which may conflict with
E.g. Masonry + overcladding. mass-production system-build approaches. The two issues
Solar-oriented design can use thermal mass. are related in the debate about thermally massive against
Design for constant temperature. lightweight construction. The dichotomy is in fact slightly
false - as we explore here.
- More appropriate for orientations where passive solar
can be optimised, and for continuous occupancy. The heavyweight approach
The traditional wisdom in many parts of Europe would
argue that heavyweight construction is required to give
thermal mass which offsets temperature fluctuations:
specifically to prevent summer overheating, and in winter
to capture and store heat arising from occupants and solar
gain. There are a number of case studies for this
approach, particularly in the UK (Hockerton; BedZED), but
it is not the only approach to zero-energy buildings.
Indeed some energy design experts believe that air-
tightness is a more important factor than thermal mass.

Lightweight low-energy houses at The lightweight approach

Altotting, Germany
Lightweight Lightweight building construction (e.g. modular timber
E.g. Timber or steel frame or SIPs (structural insulated panels) frame) is being increasingly explored in many circles
Fast response heating. because it offers opportunities for rapid, defect-free and
MHVR works well with airtight construction. low-cost construction with maximum opportunity for
prefabrication. In the UK, particularly it is seen as part of
- Ideal for sites requiring rapid construction, where the solution to a shortage of low-cost housing provision.
space/density is at a premium, or ephemeral occupancy From the macro scale, this approach can be seen to be
- Appropriate where solar gains cannot be optimised. more socially sustainable, assisting the construction of
affordable housing.

Hybrid
Combination of precast or The Hybrid approach
insitu mass components with A realistic approach for the LowHeat standard is a hybrid
airtight modular lightweight approach combining the best of both. In circumstances
highly insulated skin where the lightweight approach proves insufficient to store
construction. incidental or solar gains then there are opportunities for
localised exposed thermal mass. The key variable here is
- Allows rapid construction exposed mass - concrete floors may be rendered useless
and thin walls with some by carpet, or walls covered by hanging pictures. The key
storage of solar and to a successful design is to get enough thermal mass in
incidental gains. places where it does not conflict with useability.

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Guidelines - local

retrofit

While potential savings are not as large as in new-build,

Where to insulate - retrofit considerable improvements can be made in existing
In general, external insulation of the fabric is preferable to internal
as it makes it easier to avoid cold bridges, which as well as heat
building stock (30% reductions on average in heating
loss can sometimes cause damp in a poorly ventilated building. demand, 50% possible) and a refurbishment programme
will form an important part of reducing heating energy in
Vapour
barrier may Europe while also reducing fuel poverty and increasing
be req'd Warm roofspace -
insulate with rigid board Cold roofspace: loose comfort.
or spray at rafter level fill or quilt or rigid
board at joist level
Design considerations in retrofit place more limits on
possibilities, and technical issues like condensation need
Cavity walls - inject Option: internally Solid masonry or concrete to be carefully considered. The most common debate is
with loose-fill fibre or line with rigid
insulation-backed
walls - externally insulate about the best location for insulation, and we summarise
in-situ rigid board with rigid board.
plasterboard
some of the issues here.
Material must be water-
Must be water-
resistant to block water
resistant and
transfer between skins
rigid insulation There are pros and cons to each material and application
which are not discussed here. There are also longevity
Note: where rigid board is used, in-
criteria for the insulant, touched on in the appendix on pp
Floor - rigid board under Must be water-resistant
and structurally strong
situ sprayed cellular plastic is often 70-71.
floating floor also an option
insulation
Note: radiant barriers can form a useful
strategy in many applications where
Raised timber floor - rigid Must be water-resistant space is limited. However maintaining The principle locations and types of insulation retrofit are:
insulation sealed air gaps between and around
board or quilt all layers is essential for performance.
Cavity wall
Injection of loose-fill or insitu-expanding material.
Internal lining with rigid insulation-backed plasterboard.
Solid masonry wall
The single best means of encouraging investment is External insulation with rigid board material, which can
to offer specific financial inducements to consumers. then be overclad with a rainscreen or rendered.
These can be by way of cash-back schemes, grants, Internal lining with rigid insulation-backed plasterboard.
tax breaks and accelerated capital allowances. These Roofspace - cold
tax breaks are directly required in order to Between- and over-joist insulation with loose-fill or quilt
compensate for the substantial numbers of barriers material.
which exist in the marketplace currently, which distort Roofspace - warm
optimum levels of investment. Between or between and under-rafter insulation with rigid
Report of the Working Group on Sustainable Construction, board material.
DG Enterprise Solid concrete floor
Rigid board under new screed or floor finish
Raised timber floor
Rigid board or quilt between and under floor joists.
It is widely perceived [in Germany, Netherlands, and
Switzerland] that work is needed on existing buildings Retrofit is more cost-effective when combined with other
as a matter of urgency.. The costs of such refurbishment works. In general, insulation levels should
improvements are reasonable, if they are combined be specified to the maximum possible level as it is likely
with major renovation work.. that further upgrades to the building will prove expensive
David Olivier, low-energy design specialist [Ref: 9] and difficult.

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modelling to a zero-
results base terraced house
used for analysis
heating house
160

Heating
120
energy use Standards and specifications to
kW.h/m .yr
2 reduce heating energy use
80
161 Heating Efficiency
kW.h/yr Energy strategies
2000 Standard

40 Insulation to Insulation
average opaque
U = 0.5 W/m2 .K Glazing

Infiltration = 1 ac/hr Ventilation

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
104 Increase opaque
kW.h/yr insulation
250
Incremental improvements to design, summarised below
U = 0.35 W/m2.K
Roof U = 0.2 Wm2.K
Ground U = 0.25 W/m2.K
Fabric Loss
200 Double glazing
Glazing Loss
Vent Loss
Heat loss U = 2.2 W/m2.K

150 components 50 Fabric insulation

U = 0.20 W/m2.K
W/K kW.h/yr
Glazing double Increase fabric
low-e + shutters insulation
U = 1.3 W/m2.K U = 0.1 W/m2.K
100 Infiltration reduced Glazing triple
to 0.5 ac/h 'superwindows'
Ventilation is U = 0.75 W/m2.K
MHVR 70% eff MHVR = 80%
10 efficient
50 kW.h/yr 2 kW.h/yr

1970 1990 2000 LowHeat NoHeat

(UK regs) (UK regs) Standard Standard Standard
0 Step 0 Step 1 Step 4 Step 10 Step 12
Conventional building
as 1970 UK regs
As 1990 UK Regs. Fabric U = 0.5,
1 ac/hr, single glazed

NoHeat Standard
Fabric U = 0.1 MHVR 80% eff
2000 Standard: wall U = 0.35,
glazing U = 2.2, roof U = 0.2

double low-e + curtains gives U = 1.71

LowHeat Standard
fabric U = 0.45

Wall U = 0.3, roof U = 0.2,

improved to 0.5 ac/h

glazing double U = 2.9
fabric U = 0.4

glazing U = 2
airtightness

wall U = 0.25, roof U = 0.2, glazing

fabric U = 0.2 glazing double low-

e + insulated shutters U = 1.3

MVHR 70% eff

Glazing is superwindows,
U = 0.75
airtightness
improved to 0.75 ac/hr

Fabric thermal specification and resultant heating energy use

Note: modelling is dependent on assumptions and these numbers should be taken as typical not absolute
predictions, within correct orders of magnitude and based on this house type on the London climate.
Infiltration rates are indicative of standard new construction ventilation + leakage at normal pressure.

Design for low heating energy involves optimising the

thermal properties of the fabric in three ways: insulation of
opaque fabric; heat transfer properties of glazing; and
airtightness and ventilation strategy.

In order to demonstrate the relative contributions of these

Zero ODP Rigid Urethane three elements we have used the INDEX computer model
300
lambda = 0.022 W/m.K Insulation of domestic thermal design [Ref: 11]. Starting with a house
Mineral wool
lambda = 0.037 W/m.K required built to 1970 UK standards, we have gradually upgraded
in timber frame wall construction the specification of three elements. Its clear from this
200
mm modelling that thermal insulation, glazing and ventilation
are all critical aspects of the overall thermal strategy.

100 This and other modelling has shown that the LowHeat
and NoHeat Standards can cut heating energy use by
80-96% compared to the 2000 Standard, and by 90-98%
0 compared to the typical existing dwelling.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

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Introduction

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to insulation which
Classification of Insulation Materials materials global

Fibre Cellular
Array of materials
Mineral Rock wool Cellular glass There is a large array of different insulation materials,
RW

'Inorganic' Glass wool Vermiculite from many different sources and with different properties.
GW
This is as it should be - construction is complicated,
Rigid polyurethane
different construction methods have very different
Oil- PUR/PIR
performance requirements for insulation, and there is
derived Phenolic much scope for individual choice in response to specific
'Organic synthetic'
EPS
Expanded
XPS
Extruded
project conditions. This diversity puts considerable
polystyrene polystyrene
responsibility on the specifier, and it is important to
understand the process by which different materials are
Plant / animal Cellulose Wool
derived Cork chosen.
'Organic natural' Cotton Flax
Materials selection
In fact the choice of material per se has very little impact
on the total environmental impact of the building, as we
will show. What is most significant is the thermal design
and specification: the overall design strategy and the
particular U-value of components, which can be achieved
with a variety of different materials at different
thicknesses.

On the level of the material choice, there are three key

points for selecting insulation materials:
Mineral wool Cellular plastic Choose a material with long life, sufficient durability
and minimum failure risk (to maximise energy and
carbon benefits).
Choose a material with zero ozone depletion potential
(ZODP) (a global pollution issue).
Where thickness is constrained, choose the best
thermal insulator appropriate to the construction type
(to optimise U-value and energy savings).
Cellulose fibre
In this section
Note on assumptions In this section we discuss the selection of insulation
1 Thermal conductivity. Assessment methods for lambda values materials, and describe the key environmental issues in
(thermal conductivity) currently vary slightly across Europe (a the choice of material. We also show how thermal
harmonised approach has been developed and will be in force in resistance is much more significant than embodied
March 2003). For the sake of comparisons between materials, this
report uses lambdas based on best available values. Lambdas do
energy, and we summarise the issues with respect to
vary for different manufacturers, and specifiers should always check blowing agents. We discuss longevity as an essential
the specific lambda rather than relying on a generic. environmental issue, and we review the ageing and failure
risks in insulants which challenge longevity.
2 Ozone depletion. In this document cellular plastics are assumed
to be those versions available using non ozone-depleting blowing
agents (as all materials will be after Jan 1 2004, see pp64-65),
Finally for reference we summarise the key aspects of the
which have slightly higher lambdas than some of the materials most common material types including raw materials,
available today. manufacturing and general properties.
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Don't substitute a 'green' insulation for a non-
Choosing

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green material if the change will hurt energy

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performance. With lower R-value [higher insulation for which
lambda] materials, increase thickness....
Durability of building materials, including sustainability global

insulation, is a very important environmental

consideration. Overall performance targets
The most important factor overall in designing insulation
Environmental Building News, US publication systems is achieving very low U-values to minimise
www.buildinggreen.com energy use and carbon dioxide emissions. This on its own
does not provide limitation or guidance on one material
over another, except where thickness is constrained.
Those issues that are important are summarised below
Convection
and expanded on in this section.

Conduction Radiation Ageing Issues

Most importantly, insulation materials must be durable and
must not age from stated thermal conductivity - they
should provide consistent performance over the life of the
Fibrous
Inside Outside building. Thermal performance over time is critically
important to the total energy saving properties of the
Uninsulated wall
material. Most insulation is installed on the assumption
that it will last as long as the building itself, but buildings
Low density material with
can last anywhere between 50 and 500 years. An
complex solid paths informed choice of materials needs to be made on the
reduces conduction Cellular
basis of an assessment of ageing or failure risk in any
Cellular or fibrous
structure of trapped gas particular application.
pockets reduces
Air gaps with reflective convection. Low blowing
and low-emissivity agent conductivity The myth of embodied energy
surfaces block radiation reduces conduction.
Embodied energy has often been used by designers as a
Inside Outside basis for environmental comparisons between materials.
But in the case of energy-efficiency materials like
Insulated wall insulation, this is extremely misleading, as we will show:
the energy saved over the building lifetime is far more
significant.

Human health issues - summary Ozone depletion

Fibrous materials: Some materials cause skin irritation Perhaps the most well-known of environmental issues in
and protective gear is advised for installation. Loose-fill relation to insulation is ozone depletion potential (ODP),
fibre installations should not be ventilated to occupied though chemicals with ODP are being phased out. All
internal building spaces. Whilst in the past some fibrous insulation materials are now available in zero-ODP
materials have been listed by research bodies like the versions which should be specified in preference. We
International Agency for Research on Cancer as potential provide some background to the issues and blowing
carcinogens, they are currently listed as not; classifiable
agents used.
as to carcinogenicity in humans;.

Cellular materials: In the past some materials had Materials reference information
offgassing problems which could cause internal build-up And finally, in order to help design teams make informed
of pollutants (notably Urea-Formaldehyde foam). These decisions and to start the longevity debate, we include in
materials are no longer used and in general health terms an appendix some guidance and opinion on the different
there are no detectable problems with any of the properties of the many common insulation materials
products available today. There are also no special available, including their manufacturing process and
installation requirements or issues. associated detailed design issues and longevity issues.
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Durability and rs

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failure risks in which
insulants - 1 global

Once low U-values have been achieved, the most

Challenges to important issue in choosing insulants is longevity of
insulation performance thermal performance. Buildings can last between 50 and
500 years, and the insulation will most likely not be
replaced for the life of the building - unless it is specifically
designed to enable replacement. Its clear however that
more research in this area is required to determine long-
term performance of insulants, as large-scale use of
insulation is a relatively recent development compared to
building lifespans. In future it may be useful to define
failure risk factors for insulation materials, to be used in
assessing their long-term performance.

Inside Outside
The biggest risk factor is perhaps moisture build-up
Insulated wall (whatever the cause), which will increase thermal
conductivity - especially in fibrous materials - and may in
Condensation: can reduce
thermal resistance and
some cases damage the fabric of the insulant (see p 61).
Vapour damage building fabric
permeability Other risk factors include settlement - which some fibres
presents risk of Air movement at may be susceptible to; air movement at surface, air
condensation surface: can cause
convection heat loss
leakiness, and attack by vermin and/or rot.
Leakiness - air
escape carries Ageing: any degradation to
heat away material or to thermal
resistance from quoted values
over the lifetime, including
settlement or compression
Inside Outside

Installation risks: all materials are

vulnerable to poor installation leaving gaps
or physical deterioration (compression). Design considerations
Good workmanship is essential.
We believe that these issues should be considered alongside more
conventional design issues. But there is in addition a potential
macro approach: one aspect of making buildings future-proof might
be to design the building to allow for the future upgrade of insulation
(the most practical way to do this might be by making the insulation
external to the structure).

Fire
Behaviour of materials in fire is not an environmental performance
Workmanship
issue or a longevity criteria as it constitutes a catastrophic failure to
Poor workmanship is a common denominator of failure for all
the entire building system, and its not covered in any detail here. It
insulation materials. For example, fibre batts in cavity walls may
has little meaning on the level of the insulant itself as it has to be
suffer from mortar droppings, while cellular plastic boards may be
defined for building components as a whole, relative to the particular
left with gaps between boards. Whatever the material, good
function (legislative approaches do currently vary across Europe,
construction management is essential.
though harmonisation is in preparation).

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Durability and

fon
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Idiosyncratic Norwegian commentator Bjorn Berge, in

insula
his book The Ecology of Building Materials points
out some insulation failure risks in general terms:
failure risks in which
Lambda values give no indication of a
insulants - 2 global

materials structure, moisture properties or

reaction to draughts. The thermal insulation
Many aspects of insulation materials performance over
value of a material is reduced when damp this
long periods are not understood and more research is
is important in hygroscopic materials Age can required. Some general points can be made on the
also affect insulation value. Certain products sources of failure:
have shown a tendency to compress through the
absorption of moisture and/or under their own Fibrous materials
weight, while others have shrunk. In fibrous materials the greatest ageing risks are probably
temporary or permanent increase of conductivity due to
Solid boards.. need to be mounted as an wetting. Settlement due to compression or wetting of the
unbroken surface on the structure and not within material will also have catastrophic impact on the
it.. Loose fill .. can settle over time. The performance.
disadvantages of hygroscopic materials become
Animal- and plant-based fibres may be more vulnerable to
apparent here because they take up more
vermin or insect attack, if the pest-resistant chemicals do
moisture and become heavier..
not work or if they leach out.
[Ref: 12]
Cellular materials
In some cellular materials ageing will occur through the
Ageing in cellular plastics loss of cell-gas resistance, usually through inward
Blown cellular plastics are known to age in the first diffusion of air into the cells. This process is successfully
years of their life through a process of gas exchange limited through the use of gas-tight facings (aluminium
diffusion between CO2 in the cells and the ambient foil). It is well-understood, and manufacturers state that it
air. This is taken into account in manufacturers is taken into account in the stated insulation value of the
quoted conductivity values which should be declared material.
according to the European Standard (EN 13165 for Moisture causes thermal conductivity increase
rigid polyurethane insulation) to represent the aged - The presence of moisture in the insulant (which could
i.e. long-term - value. Where a gas-tight facing is occur as a result of condensation, rain penetration or
used (e.g. aluminium foil), a lower long-term plumbing leak) will increase the thermal conductivity by
conductivity value can be achieved as a result of a large factor, especially in fibrous materials. A ventilated
prevention of the gas diffusion process. or vapour-permeable construction will potentially allow
the insulant to dry out, but building heat loss will be
EN 13165 requires that the aged lambda value is The aged value corresponds to the leveling out of the
quoted by manufacturers. ageing profile. EN 13165 allows this to be measured directly
for boards that have undergone accelerated ageing. much greater in the meantime.
Aged lambda value

Quoted lambda value

Measured thermal

0.10
conductivity

EN 13165 allows a defined

increment to be added to the
initial lamba value to give Mineral wool
Measured thermal the aged lamba value for the
conductivity over product. This increment is 0.08
Thermal conductivity

time. The insulation product specific and

performs better than calculated to mimic the
quoted in the first few ageing profile of the
years. product.
W/m.K

0.06
Expanded
polystyrene
Initial lambda value Polyurethane
0.04
0 2 4 6 8 years
Typical ageing profile for rigid polyurethane Insulation layer = 80 mm
Based on a study of ageing of rigid polyurethane cellular boards blown with pentane 0.02
[Ref: 13] 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moisture % of volume
From a study by Weiland Engineering, Reference
[Ref: 14] xxx
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How important

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is embodied which
local

For insulation, material type doesnt energy?

matter; but performance does:
Total energy consumption to achieve There is a common misconception that the most important
specified U-values with different materials factor in a material specification is the embodied energy of
the material. For base construction materials, the
Masonry Cavity Wall replacement of one material with an equivalent with lower
600000

embodied energy will of course reduce the overall energy

290
500000 impact. But energy in-use is potentially much more
100 year total
kWh
energy in use
significant, and must be optimised first.
total
and embodied
400000
insulant Embodied energy can be particularly misleading for energy
thickness mm
193
300000
efficiency materials and systems - where the embodied
energy will typically be in the order of 1% - 3% of the
125
energy saved over 100 years (based on calculations for
200000
83 100 m2 of wall insulated to U = 0.2 W/m2.K).
100000
54
36 Analysis shows that over a realistic timescale of 100
years, the lifetime energy is not sensitive to the choice of
0
Rigid Rock Rigid Rock Rigid Rock insulating material - though it is, of course, extremely
polyurethane wool polyurethane wool polyurethane wool sensitive to the thermal standards or U-values achieved.
= 0.022 = 0.033 = 0.022 = 0.033 = 0.022 = 0.033
U = 0.35 W/m2.K U = 0.20 W/m2.K U = 0.10 W/m2.K
2000 LowHeat NoHeat This reiterates very clearly: thermal standards first, and
Standard Standard Standard longevity of performance second, are the two key
demand 50 kW.h/m2.yr 2
15 kW.h/m .yr 2
5 kW.h/m .yr
environmental issues for choosing insulation materials.
Timber Frame Wall
600000 Embodied impact is a poor indicator of an
energy efficiency systems total contribution
350
500000 Relative share of total energy impacts Key
kWh 100 year total
Dense concrete block Embodied in
total energy in use manufacture
400000
and embodied
insulant Energy saved
thickness mm Insulation system in use
208
300000 Note: Diagram; not based on a specific example
165 For example, a concrete block in the right design will reduce energy use through
storage of solar radiation for release when required. The energy saved though
will be minimal compared to energy-efficiency products like insulation.
200000

91 99 Energy in-use must be optimised first.

100000 52
In-use Energy-in-use must be optimised
Embodied first. Embodied impact can then be
0
Rigid Rock Rigid Rock Rigid Rock reduced if it does not compromise
polyurethane wool polyurethane wool polyurethane wool 60% in-use performance
= 0.022 = 0.037 = 0.022 = 0.037 = 0.022 = 0.037 reduction
2 2 2 in-use
U = 0.35 W/m .K U = 0.20 W/m .K U = 0.10 W/m .K Energy in-use compared to embodied
2000 LowHeat NoHeat energy in a typical dwelling
Standard Standard Standard Note: 100-year life assumed
demand 50 kW.h/m2.yr 2
15 kW.h/m .yr 2
5 kW.h/m .yr 75%
reduction
Based on the insulation to meet the required U-value in 100 m2 of timber in-use Note: Energy demand assumptions are
frame wall with timber cladding and brick-block cavity wall (terraced based on our modelling on pp 50-51;
house London). Whole building heat energy from INDEX model, assumed [see Ref: 10 for a discussion of the
baseline embodied of 80 MW.h for each house construction plus calculated embodied energy assumptions].
embodied energy for insulation, all other assumptions kept constant. Conventional 2000 LowHeat
Standard Standard

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 62 63

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which
agents
The most commonly-known environmental issue with
Ozone Global Thermal
Agent Depletion Warming Conductivity relation to cellular plastic insulating materials is the issue
Potential Potential (gas) of ozone depletion, perhaps the best-known
environmental issue after global warming since it was
Phased-out CFC-11 1 3800 0.0074 recognised by the British Antartic Survey in the early
under Montreal CFC-12 1 8100 0.0105 1980s and generated one of the first examples of rapid
(Class 1) transnational action in response. The Montreal Protocol of
1987 (with amendments in 1990 and 1992) has set a
Transitional HCFC-141b 0.11 600 0.0088 timetable for the phasing-out of CFCs, and their less
(Class II) HCFC-142b 0.07 1800 0.0084 polluting cousins HCFCs.
HCFC-22 0.055 1500 0.0099
Blowing agents for cellular plastics are chosen on the
Long-term HFC-134a 0 1300 0.0124 basis of two characteristics: thermal conductivity (as the
Alternatives HFC-245fa 0 820 0.0140 gas will remain in the cells); and processability. CFCs
HFC-365-mfc 0 810 0.0100 were initially favoured because they give rise to very low
n Pentane 0 11 0.0140 conductivity materials (they were also used widely as
CO2 0 1 0.0145 refrigerants). Their Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) is
defined relative to the effect of CFC-11 which is given a
value of 1.
Properties of foam blowing agents The use of CFCs in cellular plastics was phased out in
Note: GWPs are from the IPCC Second Assessment Report and the the developed world in 1995 (though they are still used in
Montreal Protocol and are 100 year integrated time horizon values.
some parts of the world). In Europe the transitional
Thermal conductivity is in W/mK measured at 10C. Pentane value is
from [Ref: 15] HCFCs, which have a much lower ODP, are being phased
out in insulation boards in 2002 - 2004, and in other parts
of the world to a 65% reduction by 2010 and total
elimination by 2030.
The preferred gases in view of thermal conductivity are
HFCs, which have no effect on stratospheric ozone, but
are quite potent greenhouse gases (defined relative to
CO2 which is given a value of 1). The impact of the
material must here be considered in terms of Total
Equivalent Warming Impact over lifetime, as the increased
thermal resistance of the HFC-blown cellular plastics
might offset the global warming impact of their blowing
Note on assumptions agents? There has been much debate on this issue.
All cellular plastic materials are now available with zero Some studies [Ref: 16] suggest that HFC-blowing agents
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP), and total phase-out of have the advantage over others when 80% of the gas is
ozone depleting substances in thermal insulation is reclaimed at the end of life (though this is not currently
occuring. We would argue that all materials should be widely done). This is particularly relevant to high-demand
specified in their zero-ODP form. Specifiers should be refrigeration applications.
aware that CFC-free or HCFC-free does not mean However, many manufacturers are now switching to
zero-ODP. In this document, all comparisons are based hydrocarbons like pentane, and to CO2, whose global
on materials with zero-ODP blowing agents and the warming effect is easily outweighed by their added
thermal conductivity values quoted are those for zero- insulating value.
ODP materials.

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Typical indicators for building material Life Cycle
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Assessment (LCA)

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Category
Depletion of resources
Description
Non-renewable raw building materials - which
material use - e.g. oil extraction
Global Warming Potential
(GWP)
Greenhouse gas emissions
- e.g. CO2, CH4, etc
detailed assessment
Ozone Depletion Potential Ozone depleting emissions
(ODP) e.g. CFC, HCFC
Acidification Potential Emissions to air causing acid Background to LCA
(AP) rain - e.g. NOx, SO2, HCl
Nutrification Potential Pollution of surface water and
Life Cycle Assessment or LCA is the process of evaluating
(NP) soil with nutrients - e.g. Nitrogen the potential effects that a product has on the environment
Photochemical Ozone Creation Emissions leading to ozone throughout its entire life cycle, from cradle-to-grave. In an
Potential (POCP) pollution at ground level (HCs) LCA, the energy and materials used and released back
Human Toxicity Potential (HTP) Human-toxic emissions - e.g. into the environment during the life cycle of the product
heavy metals and dioxins
Ecotoxicity Potentials Flora- and fauna- toxic
are identified and quantified. This allows an assessment
emissions e.g. heavy metals, of environmental impact from raw material extraction and
acids processing, manufacture, transport and distribution, use,
Use of land and space Type and duration of man-made maintenance, re-use and recovery, to final disposal.
change of land use -e.g. mining.
The International Standard Organization has developed a
series of international standards (ISO 14040 series) based
Construction products cannot be assessed on on the guidelines of The Society of Environmental
a standalone basis since construction works Chemistry and Toxicology (SETAC) which was a pioneer
with the highest "green credentials" may use in LCA methodology development. Regulators and
products which might have relatively high industry increasingly use LCA because it provides
objective data that help strengthen the communication
loads but which significantly contribute to
between all stakeholders. If used properly, LCA can lead
reducing a building's impact throughout its to genuine environmental benefits and support the
lifetime. development of more sustainable production and
An Agenda for Sustainable Construction, DG Enterprise consumption patterns.
Construction Unit, Working Group Sustainable
Construction, May 2001 Limitations
LCA comparisons must be based on elements with
functional equivalence - i.e. two wall constructions with
Scope of LCA in buildings
the same U-value. However it is the whole-life
The SETAC Working Group LCA in Building concluded
performance of the whole system which is most significant
that the final building or construction, defined by
and an elemental comparison only gives part of the
performance requirements, is the central subject of an
picture (for example it wont consider airtightness, a key
LCA and provides the most accurate subject for any
factor in heating energy use). To be meaningful enough to
comparison. In practice, the products or components of a
compare design options, LCA should be carried out for the
building or construction can provide a valid subject for
whole building for its total life.
the application of LCA. However, the context of the
complete building or construction should be reflected or
It should also be noted that during the buildings life span
at least mentioned in comparative LCAs of building or
it may undergo changes in its function and fabric which
construction components and incorporated whenever
will have potentially large effects on its environmental
appropriate.
impact, which will be outside the scope of an LCA.
Alternatively, integrated building assessment tools like
the British ENVEST and the Dutch EcoQuantum [Ref: 17] In this document
can enable the comparison of impacts for different There are currently only a few public LCA schemes and
construction and materials options, for the complete these tend to include information on a limited range of
system over the life of the building. These systems are materials. While these are excellent initiatives, current
very much under development, and should be used with data availability is partial and assumptions vary. As a
care by qualified experts. result we have chosen not to include current LCA data in
this document.
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appendix
Some key properties of
insulation materials

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 68 69

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Guidelines on key issues to
Design issues for longevity rs
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achieve longevity in detailing

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insulation materials: the most appendix
significant environmental issue.
Mineral fibre Note: as discussed poor workmanship is a common
issue to all materials and is not discussed here.
Mineral fibre materials have design issues relating to their open
structure - they are vapour permeable and air permeable.
Vapour Moisture /
Moisture build-up in insulant
permeability Condensation
Caused by condensation, leaking cladding or leaking pipework. Will Possible in material; water
Permeable
cause large increases in conductivity. causes large deterioration to
thermal performance
Compression
Lower-strength products with lower binder content offer compression
Physical Air
risk - e.g. in flat roof applications. Good specification should avoid this Fibrous
degradation
problem.
movement
Only likely
Possible in cases of
if insufficiently Possible reduction to thermal
catastrophic degradation
specified. Greater strength performance through air
Air movement boards have higher binder % movement at surface and throu
The open structure means that surface air movement and air moving Low risk
through may reduce the insulation value, though some products have Detailed design issues Design issue
facings used to prevent this.

Cellular plastic
There are very few detailed design issues related to cellular plastics.

Gas exchange (in materials with blowing agent) Vapour Moisture /

The main known failure risk in cellular plastics relates to increased permeability Condensation
thermal conductivity due to gas exchange (esp in materials without Very low except at butt joints Possible on surface, only slight
effect on thermal performance.
gas-tight facings). As discussed on pp 60-61, according to the if poorly assembled.
Wetness may cause degradation of
European Standard this is taken into account in the quoted lambda materials
value.
Cellular Physical Air
Longevity degradation movement
Cellular plastics are not susceptible to rot, are not attractive to vermin Only likely in cases of Low permeability especially if
catastrophic degradation. joints are taped or interlocking
as food, and are known to be very long-lasting materials.
Low risk
Detailed design issues Design issue

Plant / animal fibre

There appears to be greater need for risk awareness when detailing
these materials, though more research is required to confirm longevity
issues. Moisture /
Vapour
permeability Condensation
Rot / Vermin Permeable, see comment on Possible in material; water
These fibres are naturally susceptible to rot and vermin and need to 'breathing wall'. Not suitable causes deterioration to thermal
performance and fabric.
be protected with chemical treatment. If the material becomes wet for masonry applications.
there is a risk that this treatment may leach out.
Physical Air
Settlement Fibrous
degradation movement
Settlement may be an issue for loose-fill blown fibres as Settlement possible; Low air permeability in some
acknowledged for example in the British Standard on loft insulation. especially if exposed to products. If wet-sprayed may
water or moisture. help seal gaps.

Compression Low risk

Physical strength and resistance to compression is very low, creating
Detailed design issues Design issue
greater risk during installation and in trafficked areas.

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 70 71

 Look-up charts on typical
Lambda values / conductivity lambda values and typical
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construction thicknesses
appendix
required for different U-values
Mineral fibre
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
Thekey equation relating U-value
urethane
.K
(heat loss rate) to lambda (thermal
Rock wool conductivity) and thickness (d)
K
0.033-0.040 W/m.K Lambda, thermal
conductivity
Heat loss rate

U=
W/m.K
Glass wool
0.033-0.040 W/m.K Note: highly

Worse Better
approximate, issues
like thermal bridging
must be considered
W/m2.K d m
thickness of
material

Thickness required to achieve

Cellular plastic specified U-values in walls
Note: based on typical lambdas; actual values will vary with manufacturer
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

Masonry Cavity wall, partial fill

0.40

50
Phenolic 50 50
0.35
0.020 W/m.K 50

ZODP Rigid Polyurethane 0.30

50
0.022-0.028 W/m.K U-value
(W/m2.K) 50
0.25
100 100
Extruded Polystyrene 100
100
(XPS) 0.028 - 0.036 W/m.K 0.20
100

Expanded Polystyrene 100

0.15
(EPS) 0.032-0.040 W/m.K 200 200
200
Rock wool Glass
200 Expanded wool
batts
Worse Better 0.10 200 Extruded polystyrene
= 0.034
= 0.034
200 polystyrene (EPS)
Rigid
Phenolic polyurethane (XPS) = 0.032
with foil with foil = 0.028
0.05 facing facing
= 0.020 = 0.022

Plant / animal fibre Timber-frame wall

0.9
Note: assumes studs to
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

same depth as insulant, with

0.8
no low-emissivity cavity (i.e.
50
performance of foil-faced 50 50

0.7 products is underestimated)

Flax U-value 50

(W/m2.K) 50
0.037 W/m.K 0.6
50

Compressed straw 0.5

50

0.037 W/m.K 100

100 100
0.4 100
Cellulose fibre 100

0.038-0.040 W/m.K 0.3

100
100

200 200
200
200 Glass
Sheep's wool 0.2
200
200
Expanded
Rock wool Cellulose
fibres
wool
200 Extruded batts = 0.040
0.040 W/m.K Phenolic Rigid
polyurethane
polystyrene polystyrene
(EPS)
= 0.034 = 0.038
with foil (XPS)
0.1 facing with foil = 0.032
Worse Better = 0.020 facing = 0.028
= 0.022

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 72 73

 Look-up charts on typical
Lambda values / conductivity lambda values and typical
rs
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construction thicknesses

Cellular mineral
required for different U-values why
appendix
local

Thekey equation relating U-value

urethane
.K
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
(heat loss rate) to lambda (thermal
K
conductivity) and thickness (d)
Lambda, thermal
Cellular glass conductivity
0.040-0.050 W/m.K Heat loss rate

U=
Lightweight block W/m.K
0.15 W/m.K Note: highly
Aircrete block
0.11 W/m.K
Worse Better
approximate, issues
like thermal bridging
must be considered
W/m2.K d m
thickness of
material

Future possibilities: Evacuated panels

Cellular plant derived Evacuated panels can achieve extremely low lambda values in
theory but are difficult in practice to manufacture (a few companies
now claim to be developing them). The problem is keeping the
skins (usually metal) apart with a low-conductivity material which
doesnt become too much of a cold bridge. Once these technical
barriers are overcome, the next problem is manufacturing at low
enough cost. The first products available are likely to be for high-
performance applications like refrigeration.
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

Cork
Note on breathing walls
0.042-0.050 W/m.K Cellulose and natural fibres is commonly used in a breathing wall
construction, with no vapour barrier. Its not entirely clear what the
benefits of this approach are, even amongst its proponents. In
Worse Better some respects it is a fail-safe system - as there is no vapour
barrier to puncture. There is concern though that moisture in the
insulant may leach out fire retardents and/or cause settlement.

Radiant barriers
120 space mm including
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

Note on Radiant Barriers

Assessing the overall effective lambda or U-value of radiant barrier
insulation is slightly controversial because some manufacturers
Typical product
make claims not justified by the theory! (probably due to additional
Effective 0.030 W/m.K
(5 reflective layers, 120mm airtightness benefits when retrofitting historic buildings).
overall inc airgaps)

The lambda equivalent depends on the cumulative benefit of

reflective layers of foil and air, and depends on the size of the air
Worse Better gaps, the fixing between layers and the conductivity of the fixings or
interleavings.

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 74 75

 Summary of key production ability

Manufacturing process steps and issues associated

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with each class of material - 1
appendix
Mineral fibre
Products include - rock wool, slag wool and glass wool.

Mineral fibre products

Produced by melting at high temperatures and spinning
into fibre.
e.g.
Silicon
Binder added to give rigidity (quantity depending on oxide
Heat
application). minerals 1600 degrees C Rock wool, glass
Fibre wool, slag wool
melt & spin Add
Mineral oil or silicone often added for moisture e.g.
Metallic Phenol Formaldehyde (binder)
resistance. Mineral oil / silicone
Compounds - for selective properties

End of life - recycling possible if not contaminated,

currently landfilled in most countries.

Cellular plastic
Products include - rigid polyurethane (PUR/PIR), phenolic,
XPS and EPS.
Cellular plastic products

Produced by polymerisation using a blowing agent,

catalyst and surfactant. EPS is slightly different >>.

Some HCFCs currently still used in rigid polyurethane Polyaddition /

polymerisation
and phenolic as blowing agents (small ODP) - due to be monomers Cellular plastic,
PUR/PIR, phenolic,
phased out by 2004. Blowing agent XPS
Catalyst
Surfactant
Renewably-sourced monomers can be used in
production (e.g. plant- or animal-based). In EPS manufacture, beads of PS are made with
dissolved pentane. Steam is blown into the mixture,
expanding the pellets and expelling the pentane.
End of life - incineration for energy recovery preferable,
recycling is possible but dependant on stream quality
and quantities.

Plant / animal Fibre

Products include - cellulose fibre, sheep wool, cotton, flax
and compressed straw.
Plant/animal fibre products
Produced by treating plant or animal products, or waste
raw materials
newspaper, to form fibres, batts or boards.
Waste paper Cellulose fibre
[fire retardant + pesticide]
Fire retardents and pesticides are added to the raw Wool
(e.g. boron)
Wool fibre
Cotton Flexible batts
material. Flax polyester + boron (fire retardant) Fibre
Straw heat + pressure Boards
End of life - energy recovery or landfill, although
products treated with boron may require disposal to
specified landfill sites. Incineration/energy recovery
may prove difficult due to the addition of fire retardants.

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 76 77

Manufacturing process Summary of key production rs
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fo
steps and issues associated

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with each class of material - 2 appendix
Cellular mineral
Products include - foamed glass, aerated concrete,
vermiculite and expanded clay pellets.

Foamed material is produced by aerating (using air

and/or foaming gas) granulated raw product in a
furnace, or aerating a concrete slurry.

Waste glass can be used in foamed glass production. Cellular mineral products (e.g. foamed glass)
raw material
Pre-1990 vermiculite (sourced from a particular mine)
Crushed, milled, heated Aerated
has been associated with asbestos contamination. e.g.
Glass
Granulated Gravel, crushed
glass pieces, blocks
(waste) (air/foaming gas
e.g. H 2S)
End of life - glass and concrete products are
theoretically recyclable, especially for aggregate.

Cellular plant derived

Products include - cork.

Produced by cooking cork granules at high temperature

and pressure to form boards. Rubber/cork composites
are also made with additives and binders.

Renewable source with virtually no pollution

associated. Cellular plant derived (cork)
raw material

Large-scale availability not guaranteed and relatively Bark granulation High temperature and pressure
expensive. (evergreen
oak)
Cork
granules
Cork boards
(granules bond with own resin)

End of life - incineration energy recovery or landfill.

Radiant barriers
Products manufactured from multiple layers of (e.g.) foil-
faced polyethylene sheet, foil-faced paperboard and
bubble pack, or open-cell flexible foam.
Radiant barriers
Produced by creating multiple layers of foil (usually components

aluminium) with air-gaps that are reflective to short-

wave thermal radiation. Foil
sheets
(e.g. Al)
Multiple layers
Susceptible to loss of performance over time through Radiant barrier
sheets
build-up of dust and dirt and corrosion of foil. combining air gaps

e.g.
Paperboard
End of life - theoretically foil layers are recyclable,
landfilling.

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 78 79

References rs
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appendix

1 construction materials (an average of 109 MW.h). The

The World Environment 1972-1992 - Two Decades of Challenge. Newton/Westaway report quotes figures indicating an embodied
Tolba, El-Kholy, Holdgate, McMichael (eds), Kluwer Academic energy of 21 MW.h/house on average. A BRE study of 1991 quotes
Publishers for United Nations Environment Programme, 1992 figures of 28-70 MW.h for UK houses (an average of 49 MW.h). We
have assumed what we consider a safe (i.e. high) average of these
2 and other figures for embodied energy for new-build of 80 MW.h per
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Third Assessment house, with a complete energy refurbishment at 15% of this, 12 MW.h
Report: Climate Change 2001. July 2001 www.ipcc.ch per house.

3 Importantly the overall trends in the model on pages 40-41 remain the
Based on Assessment of Potential for the Saving of Carbon Dioxide same within a wide range of values for newbuild embodied energy
Emissions in European Building Stock. Report to EuroACE by Caleb the figure has to increase fourfold before any change is reached in
Management Services, May 1998 the hierarchy of best overall energy saving.
Report is available on www.euroace.org, referred to as CALEB 1.
Buchanan, A.H. and B.G. Honey. 1994. Energy and Carbon
4 Dioxide Implications of Building Construction, Energy and Building 20:
Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use, by von 205-217.
Weizscker, Lovins, and Lovins, 1997. ISBN 1853834068
Embodied energy in residential property development - A Guide for
5 Registered Social Landlords by John Newton and Nigel Westaway.
European Social Statistics: Income, poverty and social exclusion. Published by Sustainable Homes, a UK site
Eurostat, ISBN 92-828-9034-1 www.sustainablehomes.co.uk

6 11
Best available technologies in housing, Case Study UK. A study as The INDEX model developed by Simos Yannas and colleagues at the
part of MURE II project, an EU SAVE project (Mesures dUtilisation Architectural Association School of Architecture, London. Calculation
Rationelle de lEnergie) www.mure2.com sheets are contained in Solar Energy and Housing Design, Simos
Yannas, 1994, published by Architectural Association publications, 2
7 volumes, ISBN 1 870890 45 0
These are based on UK figures, but the EU figures are very similar.
12
UK Data: The Ecology of Building Materials by Bjorn Berge, Architectural Press,
Domestic Energy Fact File 1998; BRECSU, LD Shorrock and G A ISBN 0 7506 3394 8
Walters
13
After a study by Albrecht. Cell-gas composition - an important factor in
Energy Use in Offices, ref EGC 019. Published by Energy Efficiency
the evaluation of long-term thermal conductivity in closed-cell foamed
Best Practice Programme, UK Government. www.energy-
plastics, Cellular Polymers, Vol 19, no 5, 2000
efficiency.gov.uk
14
EU Data: available from DG TREN, or for exmaple in the presentation Building Physics in a Roof with two trapezoidal sheets, H Weiland,
Improving the Energy Efficiency of Buildings, downloadable from the Weiland Engineeing AG
EuroAce website. www.EuroAce.org
15
8 Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. 1998
English House Condition Survey 1991- Energy Report - UK report of the flexible and rigid foams technical options. UNEP,
Department of the Environment, 1996; and [Ref: 3] December 1998

9 16
David Olivier, Energy Efficiency and Renewables: Recent Experience Thermal insulation and its role in carbon dioxide reduction, a research
on Mainland Europe, 1992 ISBN 0-9518791-0-3 report by Paul Ashworth of CALEB Management Services, Arran
Cottage, 6 the Row, Aust, Bristol, BS12 3MAY
10
Authors note: There are a wide variety of embodied energy figures 17
quoted in different studies. The Buchanan and Honey study (see EcoQuantum - www.ecoquantum.nl
below) quotes figures ranging from 64 154 MW.h depending on ENVEST - www.bre.co.uk/sustainable/envest.html

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 80 81

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appendix

Bibliography and Selected Resources

Sustainability and Buildings

Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial
Revolution, by Lovins, Lovins and Hawken. 1999. ISBN
0316353000 www.natcap.org, www.rmi.org

Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use, by

von Weizscker, Lovins, and Lovins. 1997. ISBN
1853834068

Solar Energy and Housing Design, Simos Yannas, 1994,

published by Architectural Association publications, 2
volumes, ISBN 1870890 450

Environmental Design an Introduction for Architects and

Engineers, Ed. Randall Thomas. Spon Press, ISBN 0419
237607

EcoHouse A Design Guide. By Roaf, Fuentes and

Thomas. Architectural Press, ISBN 0750649046

The Green Guide to Specification Third Edition, by

Anderson, Shiers, and Sinclair, January 2002. Blackwell
Publishing, ISBN 0632059613

Organisations
Forum for the Future, think tank and research group on
sustainable development. www.forumforthefuture.org.uk

Association for Environment Conscious Building, UK,

publishers of Building for a Future magazine.
www.aecb.net

Green Building News - US publication and website.

www.buildinggreen.com

EuroACE, European Alliance of Companies for Energy

Efficiency in Buildings
Some useful studies on the importance of building energy
and the savings possible through efficiency.
www.EuroAce.org

Climate Care, charity offering personal and corporate

carbon offset through renewable energy and forestry.
www.co2.org

Insulation for Sustainability - a Guide 82 83 www.xco2.com