Group Members

M Usman Azeem 3609

Syed Qutaiba Bin Tariq 3605
M Saqlain Chishti 3577
Jahangir Khan Bazai 3617
Jaleel Ahmed
Arif Hussain

Title Study of pretreatment & Dyeing recipies and role of

axillaries used in these processes

Project Miss Lubna Syed

Supervisor

Study program BS(Textile)

Section Fall-06
Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering and
Management Sciences

DEDICATION

We dedicate our project to our grate parents.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our first experience of project has been successfully,
thanks to the support staff of many friends &
colleagues with gratitude. We wish to acknowledge
all of them. However, we wish to make special
mention of the following:
First of all, we thankful to almighty ALLAH for the
successful completion of this project. Who gave us
strength and power to attain our target. After that we
are thankful to our project supervisor Ms. Lubna Syed
under whose guideline we were able to complete this
project. We are wholeheartedly thankful to her for
giving us her value able time & attention & for
providing us a systematic way for completing our
project in time.
We are thankful to H.O.D Dr. Fahim Udin and
Chairman Mr. Ali Asgher and all other staff for
providing their assistance and guidance at different
stages during this project.
We are also thankful to the Sapphire Mills ltd. who
allow us in their unit to perform our project
experiments.
We are also very thankful to our vice chancellor Engr.
Farooq Ahmed Bazai who gave us an opportunity to
present this project.

All Group Members

3
Table of contents
Summary of Project

Chapter no 1
Introduction to fibers
Cotton
Types of cotton fibers
Characteristics of cotton
Properties of cotton
Physical properties of cotton
Chemical properties of cotton
Molecular structure
Polyester
Types of polyester
Characteristics of polyester
Cotton polyester blend
Spandex
Spandex Fiber Characteristics
Cotton lycra blend

Chapter no 2
Greige department
Fabric receiving
Report receiving and storage
Inspection
Inspection of faults
Department mechanicals
Winding pporcess
Chapter no 3

4
Pretreatment department
Singeing
Objectives of singeing
Methods of singeing
Gas singeing mechanism
Parameters of gas singeing process
Perble Sando Iron works Japan
Osth-off Singeing Machine
Desizing
Oxidative desizing
Role of process axillaries
Enzymatic desizing
Role of process axillaries
Differentiate of process and chemicals
Scouring
Surfactants
Classification of surfactants
Detergents
Emulsifying Agents
Sapphire Mills ltd. Scouring Process
Machine Lay out: Perble Sando Scouring
Bleaching
Sodium Chlorite Bleaching
Sodium Chlorite Bleaching
Mercerization
Chain mercerization
Sapphire mills ltd Mercerization Machine
Mercerizing Fiber Blends
Chapter no 4
Dyeing
Types of dyeing
Reactive dyes

5
 Chemical structure of Reactive dyes
Methods of dyeing of reactive dyes
Disperse dyes
Application of disperse dyes
Properties of disperse dye
Chemical characteristics and general application conditions
Auxiliaries
Classes of disperse dye
Disperse and Reactive dyes in one bath
Advantages of Disperse dyes
Vat dyes
Chemical structure of vat dyes
Dyeing structure of vat dyes
Machines for continuous dyeing
Machine details of Sapphire Mills ltd. pad-thermosol

6
 Summary of Project:

The following fibers were studied during our project:

 Cotton
 Polyester and cotton blend
 Cotton and lycra blend

All experiments and observations were taken on the fabrics used these
fibers.

The following processes are discussed

 Singeing
 Desizing
 Scouring
 Bleaching
 Mercerization
 Dyeing

All fibers mentioned above are tested at different processes with varying
the standard conditions and the results are discussed in this booklet.

Chapter no 1

7
Introduction to fibers

Cotton

It is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll around the seeds of the
cotton plant. Cotton the purest form of cellulose found in nature is the seed
hair plants of genus gossypium. The fiber most often is spun into yarn or
thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile, which is the most
widely, used natural-fiber cloth in clothing today. Many species are grown
commercially but there are mainly three types of cotton:

o Type 1 having staple length from about 26-60 mm e.g. Egyptian

o Type 2 having staple length from about 13-33 mm e.g. American
o Type 3 having staple length from about 9-25 mm e.g. Asian

Major producers of cotton in world are USA, China, India, Pakistan and
other central Asian countries. Mature cotton forms a flat ribbon varying in
width from 13-20. Number of convolutions vary from 4-6 per millimeter,
reversing in direction per millimeter or so along the fiber.

The normal lot of cotton contains three types of fibers

Mature fiber
Which swell to rod like structure in sodium hydroxide solution with
continuous lumens and no well defined convolutions.

Immature fibers
These are the fibers which have not been given time to develop there
secondary wall, so some of the proteins remain in the fibers which
give lot shade during dyeing.

Dead fibers

8
 In dead fibers the after swell width is less than one fifth of the maximum
ribbon width. They are usually found on mid way b/w two
convolutions.

Characteristics of cotton

Cotton, as a natural cellulose fiber, has a lot of characteristics, such as;

 Comfortable Soft hand

 Good absorbency
 Color retention
 Prints well
 Machine-washable
 Dry-cleanable
 Good strength
 Drapes well
 Easy to handle and sew

Properties of cotton
There are two types of properties that should be described here.

Physical properties of cotton

Fiber length
Fiber length is described as "the average length of the longer one-half of
the fibers (upper half mean length)" This measure is taken by scanning a
"beard” of parallel fibers through a sensing region. The beard is formed
from the fibers taken from the sample, clasped in a holding clamp and
combed to align the fibers. Typical lengths of Upland cottons might range
from 0.79 to 1.36in. This experiment was done by us during 6th semester,
course advisor: Mr. Ahmer Shah.

9
Cottons come from the cotton plant; the longer strand types such as Pima
or Sea Island produce the finest types of cotton fabrics.

Length uniformity
Fiber strength is measured in grams per denier. It is determined as the
force necessary to break the beard of fibers, clamped in two sets of jaws,
(1/8 inch apart). Typical tensile levels are illustrated. The breaking strength
of cotton is about 3.0~4.9 g/denier, and the breaking elongation is about
8~10%.

Color
The color of cotton samples is determined from two parameters: degree of
reflectance and yellowness. Degree of reflectance shows the brightness of
the sample and yellowness depicts the degree of cotton pigmentation. The
color of the fibers is affected by climatic conditions, impact of insects and
fungi, type of soil, storage conditions etc. There are five recognized groups
of color: white, gray, spotted, tinged, and yellow stained. As the color of
cotton deteriorates the process ability of the fibers decreases.

Chemical properties of cotton

Cotton swells in a high humidity environment, in water and in concentrated
solutions of certain acids, salts and bases. The swelling effect is usually
attributed to the sorption of highly hydrated ions. The moisture regain for
cotton is about 7.1~8.5% and the moisture absorption is 7~8%.

Cotton is attacked by hot dilute or cold concentrated acid solutions. Acid

hydrolysis of cellulose produces hydro-celluloses. Cold weak acids do not
affect it. The fibers show excellent resistance to alkalis. There are a few
other solvents that will dissolve cotton completely. One of them is a copper
complex of cupramonium hydroxide and cupriethylene diamine.

Cotton degradation is usually attributed to oxidation, hydrolysis or both.

Oxidation of cellulose can lead to two types of so-called oxy-cellulose,
depending on the environment, in which the oxidation takes place.

10
Also, cotton can degrade by exposure to visible and ultraviolet light,
especially in the presence of high temperatures around 250~397° C and
humidity. Cotton fibers are extremely susceptible to any biological
degradation (microorganisms, fungi etc.)

Molecular structure
Cotton is natural fiber. It structure can be described as 1,4 beta–D-glucan
i.e. a condensation polymer of beta –D-glucopyranose with 1,4 glycosodic
bonds.

The degree of polymerization of cellulose varies with the conditions and

depends upon the nature of soil. It contains the characteristics of both an
alcohol and aldehyde under appropriate conditions as shown below:

Cotton sample

11
 Sample place
here

12
Polyester
Polyester is a term often defined as “long-chain polymers chemically
composed of at least 85% by weight of an ester and a dihydric alcohol
and a terephthalic acid”. In other words, it means the linking of several
esters within the fibers. Reaction of alcohol with carboxylic acid results
in the formation of esters. Polyester fibers, the synthetic fibers, are
long chain polymers derived from coal, air, water, and petroleum. They
are formed through chemical reaction between an acid and alcohol.

Types of Polyester

The polyester fibers are generally available in two varieties

 PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and

 PCDT (poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene terephthalate).

PET Polyester
For manufacturing PET Polyester, the main raw material is ethylene derived
from petroleum. It is oxidized to produce a glycol monomer dihydric alcohol
which is further combined with another monomer, terephthalic acid at a
high temperature in a vacuum. Polymerization, the chemical process that
produces the finished polyester, is done with the help of catalysts. The

13
colorless molten polyester then flows from a slot in a vessel on to a casting
wheel and takes shape of a ribbon as it cools to hardness. The polymer
thus produced is then cut into very small chips, dried to remove all
moisture and blended to make it uniform for getting it ready for spinning
into yarn.

PCDT Polyester
This variation of polyester is made by condensing terephthalic acid with
1,4-cyclohexane-dimethanol to form poly-1, 4-cyclohexylene-dimethylene
terephthalate or the PCDT Polyester. As for PET Polyester, PCDT is
processed for melt spinning.

Characteristics of polyester

• Polyester fabrics and fibers are extremely strong.

• Polyester is very durable: resistant to most chemicals, stretching and
shrinking, wrinkle resistant, mildew and abrasion resistant.
• Polyester is hydrophobic in nature and quick drying. It can be used for
insulation by manufacturing hollow fibers.
• Polyester retains its shape and hence is good for making outdoor
clothing for harsh climates.
• It is easily washed and dried.

Cotton Polyester Blend

Cotton polyester blend is a very useful blend in textile industry because it
has high rating of desired properties. This blend is mostly used for wearing.

Cotton polyester blend ratio test

Cotton polyester blend ratio can be calculated by dipping the fabric in
concentrated or dilute H2SO4 solution.

14
The sample of the test is positioned below:

Sample place

Detection of cotton polyester blend

Cotton polyester blend can be detected by using the reflection of the ultra
violet light as polyester refractive index is higher than cotton.

Sample place

15
Spandex

Spandex, Lycra or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional

elasticity. Spandex is a lightweight soft, strong and very stretchable. In
fact, spandex fiber was developed as an alternative to rubber but has a
better quality than it. The name Lycra has also come to be a synonymous
of spandex. However, Lycra is the trademark brand but it has become so
popular that all the varieties of spandex are popularly referred to as Lycra.
It is used to make stretchable clothing such as sportswear. It is used to
make stretchable clothing such as sportswear. It is made up of a long chain
polymer called polyurethane, which is produced by reacting polyester with
a diisocyanate (-NCO) group on both ends. The polymer is converted into a
fiber using a dry spinning technique.

Spandex Fiber Characteristics

 Can be stretched repeatedly and still recover to very near its
original length and shape
 Generally, can be stretched more than 500% without breaking
 Stronger, more durable and higher retractive force than rubber
 Lightweight, soft, smooth, supple
 In garments, provides a combination of comfort and fit, prevents
bagging and sagging
 Heat-settable — facilitates transforming puckered fabrics into
flat fabrics, or flat fabrics into permanent rounded shapes
 Dye able
 Resistant to deterioration by body oils, perspiration, lotions or
detergents
 Abrasion resistant

16
  When fabrics containing spandex are sewn, the needle causes
little or no damage from “needle cutting” compared to the older
types of elastic materials
 Available in fiber diameters ranging from 10 denier to 2500
denier
 Available in clear and opaque luster

Cotton lycra blend sample

Sample place here

17
Greige Department

18
The fabric comes from the weaving unit in this department. In the gray
department the fabric are coming in two forms namely roller form and bale
form the packing list are attached with the fabric and with piece detailing.
There are two type fabric coming in greige, own fabric and commercial
fabric. The main purpose of grey department is inspection of the fabric.

The other purposes of grey fabric are:

1. Fabric receiving

2. Report receiving and storage report

3. Inspection

4. Issuance

Fabric Receiving:

First of all the fabric comes from the weaving mills through transportation.
The weaving mill handover the all documents to finishing unit by means of
transportation incharge. In these documents all specification of fabric are
presented e.g.

1. Quality;
2. Bale No;
3. Construction;
4. Blend;
5. Roll No;
6. Selvedge;

19
 7. Weight etc.

1. Report receiving and storage

The collector reports the received fabric to the greige department

incharge. The documentation is saved as for record. After that the fabric is
forward to storage or for directly inspection.

2. Inspection

The fabric is inspected to find the ratio of errors occur during

manufacturing of fabric. In the gray department we have to inspect 10
percent of fabric. These defects are classified into three types:

1. Avoidable and unavoidable

2. Major and minor

3. Mendable and unmendable

While most of the faults in the fabric are avoidable some are unavoidable
such as certain floats/smashes. Faults such as weft crack is considered to
be a minor if it is within 1-2 cm while the same faults is major when it is
more than 2cm. Certain defects such as isolated snarls could be mended
while the others such as big cracks are un-mendable.

20
The most common or general faults are mentioned below:

i. Contamination: Presence of the any other fibers along with the

original fibers in the fabric is called contamination. Mainly
polypropylene, hair, jute etc. are some common contaminations.

ii. Cockled yarn: Fluff or any material pressed by machine in warp or

end is called cockled yarn. It forms hard surface.

iii. Color variation: At some places color is found different then the
actual one.

iv. Oily weft: When weft or pick yarn is oily then it is called oily weft.

v. Black end: When end or warp is black may be due to oil is called
black end.

vi. Count variation: In this case warp or weft may be thick or thin then
the count shown in the construction. In this case cloudy like
appearance occurs.

vii. Courses pick: One thick pick or weft is called course pick.

Some mechanical faults are given below:

i. Short miss pick: If pick or weft is missing at any point than it is called
short miss pick.

ii. Short double pick: In this case two yarns in pick are found for short
distance.

iii. Short end: Any warp or end may be missing.

iv. Double end: In this case double yarn is found in warp direction rather
than the single one.

v. Miss pick: A pick or weft yarn is missing.

vi. Double pick: Double weft yarn is inserted by loom in a single stroke.

21
vii. Starting mark: When loom starts after a short stoppage it produces a
pattern on fabric in weft direction called starting mark.

viii. Wrapping marks: It is just like starting mark but here the surface
become very hard on weft side,

ix. Oil stains: It is the spot of oil dropped on the fabric from any machine
part.

x. Loose ends: Warp yarn or end comes out of fabric and not properly
interlaced, it does not remain straight and goes in zigzag way.

xi. Sizing stains: It is like oily stain but more opaque then oily stain.

Some important mending faults are mentioned below:

i. Hanging thread: Any thread hanging in the fabric is called hanging

thread.

ii. Mending: If slub is taken out or kink is pulled out then a space
appears in fabric and called mending fault.

There are some faults may occur in selvedges also, these are given below:

i. Curled selvedge: caused due to incorrect balance of cloth structure

between body and selvedge.

ii. Cut/torn or burst selvage: it is due to selvedge sticking to emery roller

or damages caused by temple roller.

iii. Loopy selvedge: when the selvedge or cut the race board felt at the
reed and the weft is caught on this groove when the slay beats up.

iv. Rugged or ragged selvedge: when the variations in tension of the

selvedge ends.

22
 v. Slacked selvedge: caused due the incorrect balance of cloth structure
between the body and the selvedge.

vi. Tight selvedge: caused due to incorrect balance of structure between

body and selvedge, selvedge yarns woven at high tension.

vii. Uneven selvedge: when variation in weft tension, lack of control on

number of selvedge ends uneven selvedge is produced.

Analysis Of Faults
The methods employed for analysis of fabric defects are

1. First piece inspection

2. Grey inspection

3. Point rate system

1. First piece inspection

The first piece of the newly gated loom is taken to the grey folding
departments and is inspected fir design verifications. The report is
immediately sent to the weaving department and if there is any defect the
necessary changes are made.

2. Grey inspection
Fabrics are tested in grey state after weaving. In the grey inspection the
fabric faults are identified and mended if they are mendable.

23
 3. Point rate system
It is an American system. Two most commonly used point rate systems
are

• 4-point rate system

• 10-point rate system.

4-point system
Given by American standard ASTM, the test method describes a procedure
to establish a numerical designation for grading of fabrics from a visual
inspection. This system does not establish a quality level for a given
product, but rather provides a means of defining defects according to their
severity by assigning demerit point values.

Length of defect Points

3 inches or less 1
3 - 6 inches 2
6 - 9 inches 3
9 inches 4

Points to be remembered while using 4-point system are:

1. No running yard shall be penalized more than 4 points for warp and weft
faults.

24
2. For Fabric width exceeding 64"-66",Maximum penalty points can be
increased above 4 per linear yard in proportion to the

width.

3. Defects appearing within one inch of either edge shall be disregarded.

4. Any hole other than a pin hole shall be considered a major defect and
assigned 4 points for penalty.

Issuance:
According to production planning and control department the production
planning card is send to greige department according to this card the
fabric is unroll and send to pretreatment department.

Department mechanicals:

INSPECTION FRAMES

No of machines : 3

Company : AL-HADDID (PAKISTAN)

25
ROLLING & UN-ROLLING MACHINES

No o machines : 2

Company : HSING CHENG (TAIWAN)

Winding process:
In this process the fabric are wind on batch’s because they are suitable for
further process. The winding is achieved through the winding machine
because the fabric are in roll or bale form they are difficult to process
therefore we are done winding and suitable for further process. And
forward to pretreatment department.

Inspection frame Al-HADID

Singeing

26
This is usually the first stage in pre-treatment; consist of destroying by
burning all the tufts, fibers and hairs protruding form the surface of the
material (yarn and fabric). There by giving it smooth and cleaning face.
Singeing is generally done o grey goods before any other treatment. The
fabric is singed on one or both sides by passing either over plates or
heated cylinder or by gas flame.

Objectives of singeing:

 Surface hair traps air in the fabric when it is immerged in water.

This means that it takes longer time for water to enter the fabric,
singeing therefore indirectly helps to increase the fabric wet
ability.
 To prominent the woven structure of the fabric.
 To create smooth surface for printing.
 To prevent firstly or cloudy after dyeing.
 To prevent or minimize the tending of landed fabrics composed of
cellulose and synthetic fiber (mainly polyester) the form pills after
abrasion during usage.

Methods of singeing:
Usually three types of singeing can be carried out:

i. Plate Singeing Machine.

ii. Rotary Singing Machine.
iii. Gas Singeing Machine.

In Sapphire only Gas singing process is done so it is discussed below

Gas singeing machine:

Gas Singeing is intended for single and double face singeing of fabric with
passes through the guide roller. Then in brushing zone which rotate in the

27
sense opposite to fabric to be singed. The brushes are placed in a special
chamber from which dust and fluff removed form the fabric, which are
further exhausted by a fan.

Then the fabric passes over gas burner with ceramics nozzles where
singing is covered out. Coming out of the gas singeing machine a box
containing water. This bath may also contain desizing agent. In this way
after singeing we can desize and batched the fabric.

In Sapphire mills ltd. Single action machine, singe only, is installed.

Machine specifications are given below:

Parameters of gas singeing process

The parameters which are belong the singeing is following

1. Flame height
2. Flame Intensity
3. Flame Distance
4. Flame angle

1. Flame height
The height is of flame is same to every fabric so its should be common and
height is 6 inches

2. Flame Intensity
The are three position of flame intensity in machine which are differ from
fibers the position are following

 Position1
 Position2
 Position3

28
I. Position1
Position1 is not use in machine due to draw backs. These draw backs are:

• In this position the flame is directly in contact with fabric and

metal roller due to which fabric damages and the roller heats
up.

• It has fewer angles between flame and fabric and has no

medium for flame to cross the fabric surface.

II. Position2
Position2 is used for polyesters blends with lycra and all type of cotton
blends. In this position the flame is in angle with the roller about 45-60’
and reflect its surface which burns only cotton hairiness.

29
Position3
Position3 only use for cotton in this positions the flame crosses the fabric
surface and then burn the hairiness.

Sapphire mills ltd’s OSTH-OFF machine position 3 is shown below:

3. Flame Distance

30
The distance of flame and fabric is same for all type of fabrics the distance
is 25 – 30mm

4. Flame angle
The angle is differ by type of fiber its should be minimum 20 and maximum
30

For cotton (Heavy Quality):

The 20° is used for pure cotton

For cotton (Fine Quality):

25° angle is used for the fine quality cotton.

For polyester + Lycra:

30° angle is used for polyester and lycra blend.

Types of Machines
There are two types of singeing machines are installed in sapphire

 Perble Sando Iron works Japan

 Osth-Off 423260 Wuppertal Germany

Perble Sando Iron works Japan

31
It is a continuous type pretreatment machine. Singeing is also done on this
machine. In this machine firstly the fabric is dried through steam rollers for
maintaining fabric moisture. If fabric has more moisture in its surface then
singeing objectives can’t be achieved and if the fabric is more dried then
there are possibilities of burning of fabric. After the steam rollers, there are
six brushing rollers. These rollers remove the protruding fibers which are
loosely held on the fabric surface and which fibers, these rollers can’t
remove because they have strong relation with fabric surface, only emboss
those protruding fibers which are burnt in further processings singeing.
In Sapphire Mills ltd. gas singeing is in process. Gas flames are used to
singe the fabric. Details of singeing process are mentioned above. After
singeing in Perble Sando, after singeing, the fabric is washed with simple
water.

Perble Sando Singe machine

Parameters

These are following parameters

32
  Machine Speed 50-150m/min
 Chamber temp 40°-42°C
 Flame Pressure 23mbar
 Flame tube temp is controlled by water circulation
 Flame intensity 30-60Hz
 Flame ratio 80% Air – 20% Natural gas

Different internal parts of Perble Sando singe machine are shown below in
figures:

Flames positions can easily be seen in this diagram.

33
 Brushing rollers

Osth-off Singeing Machine

It is a semi continuous machine. It is an advanced machine in which
singeing, desizing and bleaching process can be done. In this machine
singeing is done by gas flame. Single and double sided singe can be done.

Here in OSTH-OFF machine, singeing is done in any of three positions,

mentioned above. Selection of flame position and angle depends upon the
fabric quality which has to be processed. Physical diagram of Sapphire Mills
Ltd is shown below:

34
After singeing, the fabric can also be desized. Enzymatic desizing is done
on this machine. For the application, the fabric is dipped in a bath
containing enzymes at specific temperature. For the proper reaction and
complete removal of sizing agent, the fabric is wound on a batch and is
rotated for about 8-10 hours

Parameters
These are following parameters

 Machine Speed 50-150m/min

 Chamber Temp 40°-42°C
 Flame Pressure 23mbar
 Flame tube temp is controlled by water circulation

Advancement of this machine is that it can process singeing, Desizing as

well as cold Bleaching

35
Recipe no 1

Machine OSTHOFF
Quality 16*12/120*60
Blend 100% Cotton
Process Singe + Desize
Speed/min 80 m/min
Flame 23 mbar
Position 3
PP-1 (bar/ton) 2 bar/ton
Temp (‘C) S-1 85
PP-2 (bar/ton) 1.2 bar/ton
Temp (‘C) S-2 85
pH S-2 5.5-6.5

Explanation:

Recipe for every quality or every different fabric is different. Recipe

depends upon the weight per unit of fabric. Here for the given quality
machine speed should be maintained at 80 m/min. if this optimized speed
is varies from the given fabric, it can cause a lot of damages i.e. if speed is
decreased from the limit, the fabric may burn and if the speed increases, it
might result in irregular singeing. Now if selection of flame position is
discussed, it is also depends upon the fabric quality as discussed earlier.
Generally in case of 100% cotton position 3 is preferred. In OSTH-OFF
singeing machine, enzymatic desizing is done. For this purpose, the

36
desizing material is applied to the fabric and left for enzyme reaction for
about eight hours in batch form. This batch with desizing material
(enzymes) is rotated continually for eight hours as for better and uniform
application. So this is important to note that how much enzymes are
applied on which quality, heavy or light quality. So pad pressures are also
very important to be maintained in the whole application process. For the
given quality pad pressures are optimized at 2bar/ton and 1.2bar/ton.

Recipe no 2:

Machine OSTHOFF
Quality 16*162/88*52
Blend 100% cotton
Process Singe + Desize
Speed/min 80 m/min
Flame 23 mbar
Position 3
PP-1 (bar/ton) 2 bar/ton
PP-2 (bar/ton) 1.2 bar/ton
Temp (‘C) S-1 85
Temp (‘C) S-2 80
pH S-2 6-7

Recipe no 3:

Machine OSTHOFF

37
 Quality 32/2 comb*24/2comb/92*41
Blend 100% cotton
Speed/min 70 m/min
Flame 23 mbar
Position 3
PP-1 (bar/ton) -
PP-2 (bar/ton) -
Temp (‘C) S-1 -
Temp (‘C) S-2 -
pH S-2 -

Explanation:

Here in this process, only singeing process is being done on OSTH-OFF

machine. That’s why there are no pad pressures, temperatures and power
of hydrogen mentioned.

Recipe no 4:

Machine OSTHOFF
Quality 14*14 82*50
Blend 65% polyester, 35% cotton
Process Dry singe
Speed/min 130 m/min
Flame 23 m bar
Position 3

38
 PP-1 (bar/ton) -
PP-2 (bar/ton) -
Temp (‘C) S-1 -
Temp (‘C) S-2 -
Remarks

Recipe no 5:

Machine OSTHOFF
Quality 10*6/64*48
Blend 100% cotton
Process Dry singe
Speed/min 80 m/min
Flame 23m bar
Position 3
PP-1 (bar/ton) -
PP-2 (bar/ton) -
Temp (‘C) S-1 -
Temp (‘C) S-2 -
pH S-2 -

Recipe no 6:

39
 Machine OSTH-OFF
Quality 16*12/120*60
Process Singe + Desize
Speed/min 80 m/min
Flame 23 mbar
Position 3
PP-1 (bar/ton) 2 bar/ton
PP-2 (bar/ton) 1 bar/ton
Temp (‘C) S-1 85
Temp (‘C) S-2 85
pH S-2 5.5-6.5
Rotation time (min.) 8 hrs

DESIZING
The process which removes the sizing material in the grey fabric is called
the Desizng process. When fabric is woven before the warp end is coated
with the material (starch) it give the strength in the end which bear the
looms forces and reduction in the broken of threads during weaving
process. Then this material should be removed if it not removed yet it’s
present on the fabric and make problems in dyeing. The desizing process is
depending upon the sizing material which used before the weaving knows
the properties of sizing material we set the desizing agents and process. In
sizing material there is always glucose and cellulose is used. There is three
types of desizing is present in textile sector.

• Acid Desizing
• Oxidative Desizing
• Enzymatic Desizing

40
1. Oxidative Desizing
It’s also the one of the good technique in textile sector to remove the
sizing material. In this technique used the oxidative chemicals like
sodiumpersulphate (Na2S2O8) sodium hypochlorite, sodiumhypobromite.
This chemical takes part of reaction solublizing group (ONa+). Which
impact the sizing material and remove the sizing material by help of water.
In oxidative desizing there is only heavy quality will be treated because it’s
high oxidative agent and damage the light quality and remarks is pin hole
in it. The reaction open the hydro glucose rings at 2,3 hydroxyls converting
into carboxylic acid. Which is soluble in water and starch is removed from
fabric. We done practice on the oxidative agents the agents which we are
used is the sodiumpersulphate. The oxidative desizing mostly done on the
perbale sando machine which is continous machine and desizing chamber
is placed after the singeing. after singeing the fabric is proceeding to
saturators. There are four hot washes for the better application. The basic
purpose of hot saturators is to increase the fabric temperature, as the
desizer is more likely to react in high temperature conditions. Temperature
for these hot wash is 90°-95°C. After hot washes the chemical is applied by
means of a trough. In trough, sodium persulphate, Felosan NKB, acetic
acid, Heptol B-95 or VL is used. These chemicals have their own
application. After it there is 3 cold washer which removed the soluble
material and the process is done

For 100% cotton 16*16/58*12:

Chemicals g/l Temp/PH

Sodiumpersulph 1 90’C/4.5-5.5
ate
NKB 1
Acetic Acid 0.4
B-95 2

ROLE OF PROCESS AUXILARIES:

41
 i. ACETIC ACID:
Acetic acid is a weak acid. pH is controlled by this acid during process. The
chemical formula of acetic acid is the CH3COOH. The PH of acetic acid is
the 5-6 which is very useful to the oxidative agents. The Titration is placed
after each compellation of Liquor because its good to make precipitate in
the water.

ii. Felosan NKB:

It is a soaping agent. It’s manufacture by the CHT chemical company. It’s
give the soaping properties during the process which remove the starch
cleanly in the farbric. Synergetic mixture of modified fatty alcohol
alkoxlyates. pH-value 7.0 – 8.0. ALKAPOL NKB has a good stability in usual
concentrations toacids, alkalis, metal salts as well as oxidation agents,
reduction agents and hardening agents of the water.

ALKAPOL NKB is also compatible with non ionic, anionic and cationic
products. The product is not sensitive to frost.

iii. Heptol B-95/VL:

It is a cleaning agent. It is used to clean the scattering from the rollers,
caused by the fabric passage form these rollers. If this chemical not use in
the process the pasing of fabric is must be difficult on rollers.

2. Enzymatic Desizing
Enzymes are the bacteria which are not be lived or dead but work in
suitable condition and temperature. There is two types of enzymes

• Hot
• Cold

42
Hot enzymes are those who works only in hot condition and temp like the
90-95’c thy only activate on this temperature.

Cold enzymes are those whose works only in 25-30’c and it activate and
suitable for working in this conditions.

Enzymatic desizing is the process in which enzymes are used in it and the
starch is removed by the help of this. This technique is very suitable in
textile sector and mostly used in the industry. It’s very fast process and
also not toxic to environment. In Enzymes the main unit which degrade the
cellulose is the amalyse because the sizing agent is used is amaloyse.
There is three sources to get the amalyse

• Malt
• Pancreatic
• Bacterial
Bacterial are form the sources but it only works in condition it’s very useful
for desizing process and mostly alpha amalyse is present in it.

Enzyme has property it eat the starch by giving its time and no toxic is
produce in it. We done our practice on the enzymatic desizing there is JRL
is used in it. Osthoff singe machine done the desizing process because it is
batchwise process. In this machine there is two tanks is presnt which
capacity are the 500 ml in each tank and after it there is making of batch
and it give the time of 8hr that removed the all starch in it when it give
time the batch should be revolve it because all the starch is removed in it.
When we used the enzymatic desizing there should be carefull the
following parameters which are desizing chemical is based on it. : after
singeing the fabric is proceed to saturated portion. There are two
saturators. In which the temperature is 40°-42° C. If Osth-Off machine is
used of oxidative desizing, cold bleaching should be done with this process.
Saturator capacity is 500 liters/saturator. Stock tank at normal condition is
1000 litters but max. capacity is 2000 litters. Machine speed is 50-
150m/min. Dancer rollers are used for proper tensioning. There are two
nipping points in Osth-Off machine. Fabric is dipped in each saturator for 8
times for better chemical application. Treated fabric is wound on batcher

• PH

43
 • TEMP
• Type of Enzyme

For 100% cotton 20*20/100*20

Chemicals g/l Temp/PH

JRL 2 100’C/ 4-5.5

NKB 1

Acetic 0.6
Acid/ Formic
Acid
B-95 2

• After the time there is should be wash in hot water at temp of 90’c
• If there is presence of any sizng material which removed by the hot
water
• Time should be 10min

ROLE OF PROCESS AUXILARIES:

I. Formic Acid:
It’s optional acid in the process but its uses is more than the acetic acid
because it give accurate PH value for enzyme. PH is very important factor
in enzyme cases if PH is not stable the enzyme is also not activated
properly. Due to the accuracy in PH the process its give te better result.
The PH is 5 - 5.5. The chemical formula is the CHCOOH and manufacture
company is the calariant.

II. Felosan NKB:

44
 It is a soaping agent. It’s manufacture by the CHT chemical company. It’s
give the soaping properties during the process which remove the starch
cleanly in the farbric. Synergetic mixture of modified fatty alcohol
alkoxlyates. pH-value 7.0 – 8.0. ALKAPOL NKB has a good stability in usual
concentrations toacids, alkalis, metal salts as well as oxidation agents,
reduction agents and hardening agents of the water.

ALKAPOL NKB is also compatible with non ionic, anionic and cationic
products.The product is not sensitive to frost.

III. Heptol B-95/VL:

It is a cleaning agent. It is used to clean the scattering from the rollers,
caused by the fabric passage form these rollers. If this chemical not use in
the process the pasing of fabric is must be difficult on rollers.

Differentiate of process and chemicals:

PROCESS ENZYAMTIC OXIDATIVE

CHEMICALS JRL SPS
AUXILLARIES FELSON NKB FELSON NKB
ACID FORMIC ACID ACETIC ACID
OTHER B - 95 B- 95
AUXILLARIES
PH 5 – 5.5 5 – 6.5
REMARKS SEMI CONTINOUS CONTINOUS
PROBLEMS PH MAINTAINANCE PARTICIPATES
DIFFERENCE TAKE 8 HRS, CONTINOUS,
BATCH MADE OTHER PROCESS
DONE LIKE
SCOURING
45
EXPERINCE & COMPLETE
OPINION DESIZING
46
SCOURING
Scouring is a process in which we remove the foreign material of any kind
on the fabric surface and as well as from the interior structure of it.
Natural fibers contain oils, fats, waxes, minerals, leafy matter and motes as
impurities that interfere with dyeing and finishing. Synthetic fibers contain
producer spin finishes, coning oils and/or knitting oils. Mill grease used to
lubricate processing equipment mill dirt, temporary fabric markings and
the like may contaminate fabrics as they are being produced. The process
of removing these impurities is called Scouring. Even though these
impurities are not soluble in water, they can be removed by Extraction,
dissolving the impurities in organic solvents,

Scouring plant of Sapphire Mills ltd.

Two main processes of scouring to achieve its objectives:

Emulsification:
Forming stable suspensions of the impurities in water and

47
Soaponification:
Converting contaminates into water soluble components.

SURFACTANTS
The word Surfactant is coined from the expression "surface active agent".
As the phrase implies, a surfactant molecule possesses surface activity, a
property associated with the chemical structure of the molecule. The
characteristic feature of a surfactant molecule is its two ends attached by a
covalent bond. The two ends have diametrically opposed polarities. The
non-polar end is lyophilic (strongly attracted to organic molecules) while
the strongly polar end is lyophobic (having little attraction for organic
molecules) yet strongly hydrophilic (water loving). Duality of polarity
causes the molecule to align itself with respect to the polar nature of the
surfaces it contacts.

Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Solutions

When soap (sodium oleate) molecules are added to pure water one
molecule at a time, the first few molecules align at the air/water interface
and the hydrocarbon tails orient toward air. The driving force for this
alignment is the non-polar tail seeking to associate them with the most
non-polar interface it can find, in this case air. As additional molecules are
added, they too will align at the water/air interface until all of the surface
area is completely packed. As more molecules are added, they are forced
into the bulk of the water, floating about as individual a molecule until a
saturation level is reached. At this point, called the Critical Micelle
Concentration, soap molecules agglomerate into water soluble clumps
(Micelles), where the lyophobic tails are associated with themselves and
the hydrophilic heads are surrounded by water molecules. The first beaker
represents close packing of surfactant molecules at the surface. The
second beaker represents the condition before micelle formation. The third
beaker shows the formation of micelles.

48
Classification of surfactants
Surfactants are classified according to use, to ionic charge and to chemical
Structure. By Use Wetting Agents: The ability of a liquid to spread on a
smooth solid surface is dependent on the polar nature of the solid and the
surface tension of the liquid. A non-polar solid surface such as paraffin wax
or Teflon will cause a drop of pure water to bead-up and not spread. Water
containing surfactants on the other hand will easily spread on paraffin
surfaces and have lower contact angles on Teflon. Surfactants used this
way are called wetting agents, or penetrating agents when used to wet out
repellent fabrics. Penetration of fabrics is a function of surface wetting,
however fabric assemblies have a volume of air entrapped in the void
formed spaces. Before a liquid can move in, the air must move out.
Penetrates facilitate this process.

Detergents
These are surfactants that help remove soils from solid surfaces. Over and
above reducing water's surface tension, detergents must adsorb onto the
soils surface to aid in spontaneous release. Detergents must also keep the
soil suspended to prevent redeposit ion.

Emulsifying Agents:
These are surfactants that convert water-insoluble oils into stable, aqueous
suspensions. The lyophobic part of the surfactant molecule is absorbed by
the oil droplet and the lyophobic head is oriented outward, surrounding the
droplet with a hydrophilic sheath. Ionic surfactants add another dimension
to the stability of emulsions; they set up a charge-charge repulsion field
which adds to keeping the droplets separated.

By Ionic Charge

Anionic:

49
Those that develop a negative charge on the water solubilizing end.

Cationic:
Those that develop a positive charge on the water solubilizing end.

Non-Ionic:
Those that develop no ionic charge on the water solubilizing end.

Amphoteric:
Those that have both a positive and negative charged group on the
molecule

Sapphire Mills ltd. Scouring Process:

In sapphire there is caustic soda is used for scouring, with scouring

sometimes the oxidative desizing agent is present in it. If there is
enzymatic desizing the scouring is done individually and alone caustic
soda, Heptol B-95, NKB is present in the tough. During scouring, the
titration is of the solution is done at the intervals of approx 10min. There is
concept that more titration more it is advantageous and the process comes
reliable. The concept of titration is that it controls the precipitate formation
in the tough and water keeps good for the process. For titration there is the
KMNO4, dil H2SO4 used. Both are strong acid and base. In sapphire the
scouring is done on the perble sando machine where is parameters is
checked and the machine description is given below. In sapphire the
scouring is done by means of a J-Box. For this purpose, first of all the fabric
is passed to saturators. In these washes the temperature is about 95°C as
the fabric is preparing for chemical treatment. Now chemical is applied on
the fabric by means of a trough.
In j-box there is time needed for the further operation but this time varies
by changing in fabric quality even by changing the fiber type but the time
is about 23-28 min it means that the fabric is placed in the j-box and
treated with steam at temperature, approx 100’C and fabric is under

50
treatment of steam. This steam energizes the ions of scouring chemicals
and chemical action is ready to take control.

J-Box and saturators of sapphire

Machine Lay out: Perble Sando Scouring

Scouring machine parts;

Cold wash;
Scouring chemical bath;
Steamer (J-box);
Washers;
4 hot washers

51
 Internal part of J-box

Fabric passage from the inner side of J-box

52
 Inner part of J-box

Inner part of J-box

53
 Recipe no1:
Quality 16*162/88*
52
Blend 100%
cotton
Machine & Perble, Singe+Desize Titration NaOH
process (osth-off)
Machine Conditions
Recipe Saturator Chamb saturat Chamb
er or er
Caustic 80 g/l 150 kg Chamber 30 min 84-86
(NaOH) time g/l
Sodium - 35 kg Boil box 99’C
persulphate temp
Felosan NKB 2 g/l 20 kg Top part 98’C
temp
Heptol B-95 1 g/l 10 kg Pad 7-1
pressure
Level 4 (ton)

Recipe no 2:
Quality 16*12/120*
60
Blend 100%
cotton
Machine&Proc Perble, Singe+Desize Titration NaOH
ess (osth-off)
Machine Conditions
Recipe Saturator Chamb saturat Chamb
er or er
Caustic (NaOH) 80 g/l 150 kg Chamber 29 min 84-86
time g/l
Sodium 5% 35 kg Boil box 99’C

54
persulphate temp
Felosan NKB 2 g/l 20 kg Top part 98’C
temp
Heptol B-95 1 g/l 10 kg Pad 7-1
pressure
Level 4 (ton)

Recipe no 3:
Quality 20*20/100*
50
Blend 100%
cotton
Machine&Proc Perble, Singe+Desize Titration NaOH
ess (osth-off)
Machine Conditions
Recipe Saturator Chamb saturat Chamb
er or er
Caustic (NaOH) 80 g/l 150 kg Chamber 30 min 84-86
time g/l
Sodium - 35 kg Boil box 99’C
persulphate temp
Felosan NKB 2 g/l 20 kg Top part 98’C
temp
Heptol B-95 1 g/l 10 kg Pad 7-1
pressure
Level 4 (ton)

Recipe no 4:
Quality 20*12(70D)/104*
48
Blend 98%cotton
2%Lycra
Machine&Proc Perble, Singe+Desize Titration NaOH
ess (osth-off) Machine
Recipe Saturator Chamb Conditions saturat Chamb
er or er

55
Caustic 80 g/l 150 kg Chambe 30 73-74
(NaOH) r time min g/l
Sodium - 35 kg Boil box 99’C
persulphate temp
Felosan NKB 2 g/l 20 kg Top part 98’C
temp
Heptol B-95 1 g/l 10 kg Pad 7-1
pressur
e
Level 4 (ton)

Recipe no 5:
Quality 20*12(70D)/104*
48
Blend 98%cotton
2%Lycra
Machine&Proc Perble, Singe + Desize Titration NaOH
ess Machine
Recipe Saturator Chamb Conditions saturat Chamb
er or er
Caustic 80 g/l 150 kg Chambe 30 73-74
(NaOH) r time min g/l
Sodium 20 g/l 35 kg Boil box 99’C
persulphate temp
Felosan NKB 2 g/l 20 kg Top part 98’C
temp
Heptol B-95 1 g/l 10 kg Pad 7-1
pressur
e
Level 4 (ton)

56
BLEACHING
Scouring generally removes all impurities from the cotton except colouring
matters therefore bleaching is done after scouring. This is the process in
which natural and other colouring matters are discoloured either with
reducing or oxidising agents. Almost invariably oxidising agents give a
more permanent white.
If cloth is to be finished white or is to be given surface ornamentation, all
natural colours must be removed by bleaching. This is also necessary if
discoloration or stains have occurred during the previous manufacturing
process. Bleaching can be done in yarn stage as well as in the constructed
fabric. When cloth has been bleached for finishing it is called bleached
goods. All bleaching processes reduce the strength of the fibre. If durability
is more important then appearance; the consumer should select greige
goods rather than bleached material. With continued laundering, greige
goods will gradually whiten.
There are some commonly used bleaching agents.

Reducing bleaching agents

SO2, NaHSO3, Na2S2O4

Oxidizing bleaching agents

KMnO4 Cl2 and ClO2
Na2O2 NaOCl and NaClO2 (Sapphire)
BaO2 Ca(OCl)2
H2O2 (Sapphire)

Sodium Chlorite Bleaching:

Sodium chlorite was actually introduced for bleaching of synthetic fibres
but now it is found that it can be used for bleaching cotton goods.
Bleaching activity of sodium chlorite is highly dependent on pH, Generation
of different degradation products and rate of decomposition may vary with
the change in pH.
Bleaching occurs most rapidly below pH 1-2, rapidly at pH 2-3, and the rate
decreases as the pH increases.

General Recipe:
NaC1O2 10 g/l
Sodium chlorite, bleaching agent.
HOOCH 2g/l
Formic aid, to maintain pH at 2.2-3.5
CH3 OH 1g/l
Methyl alcohol, buffer to maintain pH

Chamber time 22min

Boil Box Temp. 95-99
Top Part Temp. 95-98
Pad Pressure 7…..1
Saturator Temp. 40

Saturator:
At the back of the Perble tanks are given for the chemical preparation.
Recipe chemicals are fed to these tanks and pipe lines connect these tanks
to the metering pumps, filters and to the saturator.
Fabric to be bleached is impregnated with the sodium chlorite solution and
squeezed by a padder to remove the excess liquor and to ensure the even
pickup. After impregnation fabric goes to the chlorite chamber

Chamber:
Chlorite chamber is slightly different from scouring chamber. It is
completely closed chamber having no drainage for chemicals, no recycling
of liquor due to the highly toxic nature of chlorine dioxide, capacity of this
chamber less then scouring chamber. Chlorite chamber is coated from
inside with titanium to prevent any damage by the corrosive nature of
chlorine compounds, Excess of chlorine gas is produced in this chamber
which is collected and shifted away from the working area through ducts,
where it is processed. Chlorite chamber has no plate for pilling the fabric

58
but it has wings which control the movement of fabric. After completion of
required dwell time fabric goes to washing baths for washing.
Specifications are as given
• Fabric Capacity 2800 meter
• Dwell time 20-25 min
• Temperature 97-100 °C
• Under liquor level 3.5-4.0 ton

De-chlorination Chamber:
Treatment of liberated chlorine gas is necessary to minimize any health
hazards. De-chlorination chamber is used for this treatment. Treatment is
done by showering of hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide to the
chlorine gas. Reaction is given as under,

For chlorine dioxide

ClO2 + H2 O2 ———> HCl + H2O

NaOH + HCl ———> NaCl + H2O

For chlorine

Cl2 + H2 O2 + 2 NaOH ———> NaCl + H2O+ O2

Washing Baths:
After chlorite chamber fabric enters into washing baths. In first washing
bath an anti chlor treatment is given to the fabric with HT enzyme, which
removes chlorine from the fabric. After anti chlor treatment fabric goes to
next washers where it is washed with hot water at temperature of 80-90
ºC

Bleaching with H2O2:

In case of heavy quality fabric or fabric having lycra blend, bleaching is
carried out with hydrogen peroxide.
In most organic and inorganic compounds which contain oxygen (e.g.
water, metal oxides, alcohols, carbonates) the oxygen atom is bounded to

59
other type of atoms. The oxygen in these atoms can not easily be split off.
On the other hand oxygen in all the peroxides and per salts is bonded such
that two oxygen atoms are bonded to each other. This linkage in these
compounds can be much easily broken librating one atom as active
oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide is used as bleaching agent on natural cellulose
(cotton, linen, jute) as well as the protein fibers (wool, silk) etc. it is also
effective on blended fibers as pc.

Bleaching Action:
It is generally agreed that the first stage is an ionization to form per
hydroxyl ion (HOO-)
H2O2 ——> HOO- + H+
The formation of per hydroxyl ions is favored by alkaline conditions and so
most H2O2 bleaching is carried out under this condition.
A number of reactions can also occur, particularly in presence of metallic
catalysts, to convert it into water and molecular oxygen.
2H2O2 ——> 2H2O + O2+
This break down is more rapid in highly alkaline solution. The molecular
oxygen escapes from the bleach solution reducing the bleaching effect and
intermediates in its formation are very active and can cause fiber damage.
Selection of alkali to be used in peroxide bleaching is dependent on the
fibers or blend being bleached.
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and sodium carbonate (soda ash) will be
used generally on cellulose fibers.

General Recipe:

H2 O2 18 – 38 g/l
Bleaching agent
Felosan 1.5 – 2 g/l
Wetting agent
Heptol B-95 1 – 3 g/l
Sequestering agent
NaOH 3 – 10 g/l

60
Activator
Stabilizer SIFA 2 – 8 g/l

Machine parameters:
Chamber Time 20-25 min
Boil Box Temp. 95-99
Top Part Temp. 95-98
Pad Pressure 7 m-bar
Saturator Temp. 40-45

Saturator:
After passing from cold washer the fabric enters into hydrogen peroxide
saturator, which contains the following chemicals.
1. H2 O2 (bleaching agent)
2. Felosan NKB (wetting agent)
3. Heptol B-95 (sequestering agent) to remove iron particles
4. NaOH (caustic)
5. Stabilizer SIFA

Chamber:
From saturator, saturated fabric enters into peroxide bleaching chamber
and here bleaching of fabric occurs. This chamber is similar to the chlorite
chamber capacity wise and process wise but the chemicals are different.
Here we use hydrogen peroxide as bleaching agent.

Washing Baths:
After coming-out from peroxide bleaching chamber, we pass the fabric
from four hot washers and then finally pass to last chamber, which has
neutralizing agent.
Temp of 1st,2nd & 3rd Washers are 98 C and 4th is 60 C.
Pad Pressure is 1.6 Ton.

Drying:
3 columns of drying cylinders are used.12 cylinders per column.

61
Temp or pressure of total 36 cylinders is 0.3 MPa each.

62
Mercerization

The process, in which we improve absorbency of the fabric, the

dimensional stability and control its shrinkage. This is done by the help of
strong alkali (NAOH). In Sapphire the NaOH is main chemical for
mercerization.

Sando mercerization machine line

This process gives the strength, dimensional stability and smoothness to

fabric. In process NAOH, salt, caustic, soap is used.
Mercerizing require cotton to be treated with concentrated solutions of
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). Mercerization requires higher
concentrations of caustic soda (19 to 26 % solutions). The procedure is
effective in completing the removal of motes that may have escaped the
scouring and bleaching steps. Caustic soda solution swells cotton fibers
breaking hydrogen bonds and weak van der Waal forces between cellulose
chains. The expanded, freed chains rearrange and re-orient and when the
caustic soda is removed, the chains form new bonds in the reorganized
state. When done tensionless, the cotton fiber swells, the cross section
becomes thicker and the length is shortened. Because of fiber thickening,
the fabric becomes denser, stronger and more elastic. Held under tension,
the coiled shape of the fiber is straightened and the characteristic lumen
almost disappears. The fibers become permanently round and rod like in

63
cross section and the fiber surface is smoother. Decrease in surface area
reduces light scattering, adding to fiber luster. Tension increases alignment
of cellulose chains which results in more uniform reflection of light. The
strength of the fiber is increased about 35 %. The fiber also becomes more
absorbent.
The cellulose crystal unit cell changes from cellulose I to cellulose II and
the amorphous area become more open, therefore more accessible to
water, dyes and chemicals. Mercerized cotton will absorb more dye than
un-mercerized cotton and in addition, yields an increase in color value a
given quantity of dye.
The amount of fiber shrinkage is a measure of the effectiveness of caustic
soda's ability to swell cotton.

Types of mercerization
• Chain
• Chain less

Chain Mercerizing
Chain mercerizing is done on a range equipped with tenter chains for
tension control. The range consists of a pad mangle followed by a set of
timing cans and then a clip tenter frame. Fresh water cascades onto the
fabric to remove the caustic soda as it is held tensioned in the tenter
frame, . The length of the frame must match the range speed and assure
that the caustic level is reduced below 3% before tensions are released.
The tenter frame is followed by a series of open-width wash boxes which
further reduces the caustic level. Acetic acid is in one of the last boxes to
complete the neutralization of caustic.

Procedure
1. Apply 22 to 25 % (48 - 54" Tw) caustic at the pad mangle at 100 wet
pickup.

64
2. Pass fabric over timing cans. The number of cans must correspond to
the range speed and provide at least one minute dwell time. 3. Clip fabric
onto tenter chains and stretch filling-wise while maintaining warp tension.
4. Run fabric under cascade washers to remove caustic. Keep under
tension until caustic level is less than 3% otherwise fabric will shrink in
filling direction. This width loss is impossible to recover later. 5. Release
tension and continue washing in open-width wash boxes, to further reduce
the caustic. 6. Neutralize with acetic acid in the next to last wash box and
rinse with fresh water in the last.

Sapphire mills ltd Mercerization Machine

In sapphire mercerization set up was install by SANDO IRON WORKS

WAKAYAMA, Nichimen corporation. Two machine lines are installed one line
was cotton and polyester blends and other is for pure cotton the difference
between both machine is number of trough. One have two troughs and the
other have three. The two troughs are 22 be calibration is used and the
three troughs using 28 Be caustic soda.

Mercerization Trough

Mechanically, in mercerization, the fabric is passed through a stanter. The

purpose of this stanter is to maintain the width of the fabric. Before the
process the width of the chain is adjusted as required. Before chain, the
fabric is treated with caustic soda. Caustic soda is applied in a trough.
There are three chemical troughs in both mercerizing machines. Use of

65
three chemical troughs is because of better application. All troughs are one
dip one nip. In all troughs, 28 Be NaOH is applied. After trough the fabric is
given some time about 11-15 sec. There are 14 timing rollers for 1 st trough.
11 timing rollers for 2nd trough and given 7-8 sec. after 3rd trough, the
fabric is transferred to chain. At chain, NaOH is showered on the fabric
when it is being passing through the chain. This showering is because the
fabric has lost some of its amount during passing through chain. So
showering recovers the leaked amount of caustic soda.

Points of Concern and Control

For best results, goods should be dry entering the liquid caustic
impregnation unit. Need to get uniform and even caustic pick-up through
out the fabric. Wet pickup must be at least 100 %. A certain amount of
liquid caustic must surround each fiber to provide proper lubrication so that
the fibers can be deformed. For piece goods, a caustic concentration
between 48 - 540 Tw should be maintained. Caustic stronger than 540 Tw
does not add to Mercerized properties whereas below 480 Tw, the
Mercerized fabric will have poor luster and appearance. Caustic solution
and impregnated fabric temperatures should be controlled between 70 -
1000 F. Above 1100 F, there is a noticeable decrease in luster of the
Mercerized goods. Below 700 F, there is no noticeable improvement.
Proper framing during the washing step is crucial.
The goods must be maintained at greige width to one inch over greige for
maximum luster. The tensioned width must be maintained through out the
caustic removal operations otherwise the fabric shrinks and luster is lost. If
optimum washing is obtained. there will be only a slight loss in width as the
goods come off the tenterclips.

Caustic Concentration Units

Caustic concentrations, expressed as percentages, are ratios calculated as
weight caustic/weight solution. However the specific gravity or density of
the solution (weight/volume) is directly related to the concentration.
Calibrated hydrometers are used to determine specific gravity. The
calibration scales most often used on caustic solutions are Twaddle (“Tw)

66
and Baume’ (“Be’). The relationships between concentration and
hydrometer readings are:
The relationship between the Baume’ scale and concentration is not linear,
the values get closer at higher concentrations. The reader is referred to
various handbooks and manuals that have conversion tables.

Barium Number
AATCC Test Method 89 is a common test used for quantifying the degree of
Mercerization. It is based on the fabric‘s ability to absorb barium hydroxide.
A two gram swatch of fabric is placed in a flask containing 30 ml of a
standardized 0.25 N barium hydroxide solution. The fabric is stirred for two
hours (to allow the barium hydroxide to be absorbed by the fabric). A 10 ml
aliquot is withdrawn and titrated with 0.1N hydrochloric acid to a
phenolphthalein end point. The difference between the starting
concentration and the remaining concentration of barium hydroxide is the
amount absorbed by the fabric. The procedure is carried out on the fabric
both before and after Mercerizing and the barium number is calculated as
shown below.
Unmercerized fabric will give a barium number of 100 to 105. Completely
mercerized fabric will give a barium number of 150. Commercially treated
fabrics fall in a range between 115 to 130.

Mercerizing Fiber Blends

Color yield, ease of dyeing and uniformity of dyed fabric will offset cost of
Mercerizing. This holds true even for yarn blends with low levels of cotton.
The temptation to Mercerize must temper with thoughts about how caustic
affects the blending fiber. The following section discusses these issues.

Polyester/Cotton
These can be handled under the same conditions as 100 % cotton. Even
though polyester fibers are sensitive to caustic, the temperature and time
the fibers are in contact with mercerizing strength caustic are insufficient
to cause fiber damage. One problem with polyester/cotton blends it that
they may not be as absorbent as 100 % cotton fabrics coming to the

67
caustic saturator. This is because they have not been given the same
thorough scouring and bleaching as 100 % cotton. In this case, special
penetrating agents are needed to help the caustic solution wet out the
fabric.

Quality 16*16/2 88*52

Blend 100% Cotton
Machine Conditions
Chain width 65
Required full width 59 – 60
Width After 61 full
Speed 60
NaOH (Be) o
28
showers 5

68
 Pad P. Temp. pH Fabric
Name
results
W. mangle 7 normal Tegwa 7-8
PP
1st saturator 6 pH 5-6
2nd 8 Absorbency ok
saturator
Feed 1.5 whiteness 75-76
mangle
After chain 1.5
Washer no 1/0.2 80 11-12
1
Washer no 1/0.2 90 11-12
2
Washer no 1/0.2 95 10-11
3
Washer no 1/0.2 60 10
4
Washer no 1/0.2 normal 2
5
Washer no 1/0.2 normal 2
6
Washer no 1/0.2 60 2
7
Washer no 1/0.2 80 3-4
8
Washer no 1/0.2 90 5-6
9
Washer 1/0.2 90 6-7
no10
Washerno1 7 normal 4
1/ B4Drye
PP

69
Quality 16*12/120*60
Blend 100% Cotton
Machine Conditions
Chain width 63
Required full width 58
Width after 59.5
Speed 55
NaOH (Beo) 28
showers 5
Fabric
Name Pad P. Temp. pH
results
W. mangle PP 7 normal Tegwa 7-8
1st saturator 6 pH 5-6
2nd saturator 8 Absorbency ok
Feed mangle 1.5 whiteness 67-68
After chain 1.5
Washer no 1 1/0.2 80 11-12
Washer no 2 1/0.2 90 11-12
Washer no 3 1/0.2 95 10-11
Washer no 4 1/0.2 60 10
Washer no 5 1/0.2 normal 2
Washer no 6 1/0.2 normal 2
Washer no 7 1/0.2 60 2
Washer no 8 1/0.2 80 3-4
Washer no 9 1/0.2 90 5-6
Washer no 10 1/0.2 90 6-7
Washer no
11/ B4 Dryer 7 normal 4
PP

70
Dyeing

The process of imparting color to any colorless or colored material is called

dyeing. Dyeing of textile materials (fibers) is called textile dyeing. Textile
dyeing is a very ancient process….
The color materials used in dyeing are called dyes. Dyes are forced to
make bonds or strong interactions with fibers. The interaction of dye and
dyed material is important for better results. This means that dyeing is not
only the process of imparting the dye into the fiber but it also include the
good and strong chemical attachments between both, dye and fiber. This
chemical bonding is responsible for good wash fastness properties, light
properties etc.
Dyeing is done in aqueous medium. As dyes are in different forms like
powder or liquid, so it is better to use aqueous medium. Different liquid
ratios are used according to dyeing method. The solution includes the
fibers (to be dyed), the dye and the auxiliaries.
The purpose of these auxiliaries is to improve efficiency of dyeing in other
words they help to make strong and lasting connections between dye and
fibers. These auxiliaries for dyeing vary according to the dyeing material
and condition in which the dyeing is being done. These auxiliaries include
the retardants, levelers, wetting agents, detergents etc.

Types of dyeing
There are different types of dyeing processes according to the condition
these conditions include the type of fiber, type of dyeing material and
temperature conditions etc. there are three main types of dyeing process:
Continuous dyeing;
Semi continuous dyeing;
Batch-wise dyeing.

Types of dyes
There are different types of textile dyes. These are different in chemical
formula, chemical nature, physical and chemical properties, and their
behavior with different fibers.

71
Some dyes are cationic, some anionic and some are neutral and etc. Dyes
are classified into different classes according to their nature. Some are
given below:
Reactive dyes;
Disperse dyes;
Vat dyes;
Acid dyes;
Mordant dyes;
Sulpher dyes;
Cationic dyes, etc.
We process only reactive, disperse and vat dye due to Sapphire mills
limitations, so only these dyes are discussed here.

Reactive dyes
Among the different classes of dyes for the cellulosic fibres the reactive
dyes are the only ones that attach themselves to the fibres by covalent
bonds and get their name for the same reason. Reactive dyes have certain
groups in their molecules that are capable of forming of covalent linkages
between carbon atom of the dye ion and oxygen, nitrogen or sulpher atom
of a hydroxyl, an amino or a mercapto group respectively of the fibrous
substrates. At this stage it is relevant to consider the basic mechanisms of
the dye fibre attachments that can be of three types:
 Physical adsorption
 Mechanical retention and
 Chemical reaction

Chemical structure of Reactive dyes

After the success of procion dyes in 1953, all the major dyestuff
manufacturers begin investigating to find new reactive groups. In 1958
after going through their wool dyes ranges, introduced Remazol dyes that
formed the covalent bond by “nucleophilic addition” reaction as indicated
below:

72
 (-HCl)
D-SO2CH2-CH2Cl = [D-SO2CH=CH2] + HO-Cell = D-SO 2CH2-
CH2OCell
These developments made the colour chemists think seriously, perhaps
for the first time, about the chemical structures of fibres especially of
cellulosic fibres and their role in dyeing mechanisms. In subsequent years
all the major dye manufacturers many new reactive groups. It is known
that about 250 reactive groups have been patent but only 20-30 have
actually been marketed for both cellulosic and protein fibres by cold as well
as hot dyeing process.
The four distinct structural features of mono-functional reactive dye are
chromogen, the the reactive system, the bridging link and one or more
solubilising groups. The structure can be represented as:
W-D-Q-RG-X
Where D is the chromogen, W is the water-solubilising groups, Q the
bridging link, RG the reactive group and X the leaving group.
Some reactive groups are shown below:

manufacture
Reactive group Trade name
r
(HOECHST)
D-SO2CH2-CH2-NR2 REMAZOL
DYESTAR

D-NHCOCH2CH2OSO3H + (BASE)
PRIMAZINE
D-NHCOCH = CH2Cl DYESTAR

The reactive dyes are the brightest dyes available for the cellulosic fibres
and have a full range of shades with very good wash and fairly high
fastness properties. These dyes offer a great flexibility in application
methods with a wide choice of effeuipment and process sequences and so
have become very popular. As a class, the reactive dyes are stable to
peroxide bleaching and so are used for dyeing cotton and viscose yarns to
be employed as effect threads. Strong reducing agents and chlorine
however destroy the chromogens.

73
Methods of dyeing of reactive dyes
In the absence of alkalis, the reactive dyes behave like levelling class of
direct dyes but being of relatively smaller molecular size, are exhausted
with higher consentrations of electrolytes. Even then exhaustion of the dye
is low and varies between 50-75% in most classes. Reactive dyes can be
applied by various methods but choice of dyeing process depends on
factors such as availability of equipment, depth of shade, length of fabric
and how much production is required.
Here in Sapphire mills limited, dyeing process is limited to full
continuous method due to the limitations of equipment as well as it is the
production requirement.

74
Disperse Dye
Disperse dye is originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate.
They are substantially water insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the
presence of a dispersing agent then sold as a paste or spray dried and sold
as a powder. They can also be used to dye nylon, triacetate, polyester and
acrylic fibers. In some cases a dyeing temperature of 130 deg C is required
and a pressurized dye bath is used. The very fine particle size gives a large
surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber. The dyeing
rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used
during the grinding.

Disperse dyes have low solubility in water, but they can interact with the
polyester chains by forming dispersed particles. Their main use is the
dyeing of polyesters, and they find minor use dyeing cellulose acetates and
polyamides. The general structure of disperse dyes is small, planar and
non-ionic, with attached polar functional groups like -NO2 and -CN. The
shape makes it easier for the dye to slide between the tightly-packed
polymer chains, and the polar groups improve the water solubility, improve
the dipolar bonding between dye and polymer and affect the color of the
dye. However, their small size means that disperse dyes are quite volatile,
and tend to sublime out of the polymer at sufficiently high temperatures.
The dye is generally applied under pressure, at temperatures of about
130oC. At this temperature, thermal agitation causes the polymer's
structure to become looser and less crystalline, opening gaps for the dye
molecules to enter. The interactions between dye and polymer are thought
to be Van-der-Waals and dipole forces.
The volatility of the dye can cause loss of color density, and staining of
other materials at high temperatures. This can be counteracted by using
larger molecules or making the dye more polar (or both). This has a
drawback, however, in that this new larger, more polar molecule will need
more extreme forcing conditions to dye the polymer2.

The most important class is the azo class. This class of azo disperse dyes
may be further sub-divided into four groups, the most numerous of which is
the aminoazobenzene class. This class of dye can be altered as mentioned

75
before, to produce bathochromic shifts. A range of heterocyclic
aminoazobenzene dyes are also available. These give bright dyes, and are
bathochromically shifted to give blues. The third class of disperse dye is
based on heterocyclic coupling components, which produce bright yellow
dyes. The fourth classes are disazo dyes. These tend to be quite simple in
structure. Other than these, there are disperse dyes of the carbonyl class,
and a few from the nitro and polymethine classes.

Application of disperse dyes:

Dyeing Polyester with Disperse Dyes

Polyester requires the use of disperse dyes. Other types of dyes leave the
color of polyester almost entirely unchanged. While novices happily charge
into dyeing with acid dyes (for wool or nylon) and fiber reactive dyes (for
cotton and rayon), often with excellent results, the immersion dyeing of
polyester is a different story.
However, disperse dye can be used by even young children to make
designs on paper, which can then be transferred to polyester fabric, or
other synthetics, with a hot iron. The possibilities are endless, using fabric
crayons, rubber stamps, painting, and even screen printing.

Properties of disperse dye:

Fastness to light is generally quite good, while fastness to washing is highly
dependent on the fiber. In particular, in polyamides and acrylics they are
used mostly for pastel shades because in dark shades they have limited
build-up properties and poor wash fastness.

Chemical characteristics and general application conditions

Disperse dyes are characterized by the absence of solublizing groups and
low molecular weight. From a chemical point of view more than 50 % of

76
disperse dyes are simple azo compounds, about 25 % are anthraquinones
and the rest are methine, nitro and naphthoquinone dyes.
The dye-fiber affinity is the result of different types of interactions:
· Hydrogen bonds
· Dipole-dipole interactions
· Van der Waals forces.
Disperse dyes have hydrogen atoms in their molecule, which are capable
of forming hydrogen bonds with oxygen and nitrogen atoms on the fiber.
Dipole-dipole interactions result from the asymmetrical structure of the dye
molecules, which makes possible electrostatic interactions between dipoles
on the dye molecules and polarized bonds on the fiber.
Van der Waals forces take effect when the molecules of the fiber and
colorant are aligned and close to each other. These forces are very
important in polyester fibers because they can take effect between the
aromatic groups of the fiber and those of the colorant.
Disperse dyes are supplied as powder and liquid products. Powder dyes
contain 40 - 60 % of dispersing agents, while in liquid formulations the
content of these substances is in the range of 10 - 30 %. Formaldehyde
condensation products and ligninsulphonates are widely used for this
purpose.

Dyeing with disperse dyes may require the use of the following
chemicals and auxiliaries:
· Dispersing agents: although all disperse dyes already have a high content
of dispersing agents, they are further added to the dyeing liquor and in the
final washing step
· Carriers: for some fibers, dyeing with disperse dyes at temperatures
below 100 °C requires the use of carriers. This is the case with polyester,
which needs the assistance of carriers to enable an even penetration of
disperse dyes below boiling temperature. Because of environmental
problems associated with the use of these substances, polyester is
preferably dyed under pressure at temperature >100 °C without carriers.
However, carrier dyeing is still important for polyester-wool blends, as wool

77
must not be submitted to wet treatment at temperatures significantly
above 100 °C
· Thickeners: polyacrylates or alginates are usually added to the dye liquor
in padding processes. Their function is to prevent migration of the dye
liquor on the surface during drying
· Reducing agents (mainly sodium hydrosulphite): they are added in
solution with alkali in the final washing step.
Disperse dyes are widely used not only for dyeing, but also for printing
synthetic fibers.

Classes of disperse dye:

Azo Disperse Dye:

The most important class of disperse dye is the azo class. This class of azo
disperse dyes may be further sub-divided into four groups, the most
numerous of which is the aminoazobenzene class. This class of dye can be
altered as mentioned before, to produce bathochromic shifts. A range of
heterocyclic aminoazobenzene dyes are also available. These give bright
dyes, and are bathochromically shifted to give blues. The third class of
disperse dye is based on heterocyclic coupling components, which produce
bright yellow dyes. The fourth class is disazo dyes. These tend to be quite
simple in structure. Other than these, there are disperse dyes of the
carbonyl class, and a few from the nitro and polymethine classes. Below is
an example of a disperse dye

78
Anthraquinone Disperse Dye:
Anthraquinone disperse dyes lack the water-solubilizing groups of the acid
dyes, but they are adsorbed by hydrophobic fibres such as nylon or acetate
rayon with the aid of soap or other agents that keep the dye suspended in
the application bath.
In the synthetic dye field, many hundreds of individual products are
manufactured. Of these, a small number become established as market
leaders in their particular area of utility. Factors influencing the attainment
of this status by a particular dye include hue, brightness, ease of
manufacture, dyeing properties and fastness properties. One dye that has
reached this position for the production of blue shades on polyester fibers
is CI Disperse Blue 56 which has a simple anthraquinone structure and is
easily applied giving bright blue colorations of high fastness.

Dyes of the anthraquinone series are noted for their brilliance of hue,
especially in the blue region, and also for their excellent fastness
properties, especially fastness to light. Unfortunately, they have relatively
low tinctorial strength compared with all other major classes of dye and
they are costly to manufacture. The replacement of anthraquinone dyes by
other chromophores, because of their low cost-effectiveness, has been
described by Renfrew (Rev.Prog.Coloration, 15, 1985, 15) as "a
commercially attractive but technically difficult objective for dye
manufacturers".

Thiocyanomethyl substituted anthraquinone disperse dyes

The present invention relates to disperse dyestuffs of the anthraquinone
series which contain at least one group of formula --Y--CH2 (SCN) where Y is
a mono- or binuclear aryl group, which dyestuffs are useful for dyeing or
printing textile substrates consisting of or comprising synthetic or semi-
synthetic, hydrophobic high molecular weight organic materials.

79
Light fastness:
The photofading behaviors of anthraquinone disperse dyes on polylactide
fabrics were investigated. The fabrics which had been dyed with 13
commercial dyes were exposed to a carbon arc light source. The
polylactide fabrics dyed with Disperse Red 127 or Violet 26, which has
phenoxy substituents, showed the light fastness higher than 4 grades.

Disperse and Reactive dyes in one bath:

If we want to dye polyester/cotton blend in one bath(i.e. both the reactive

and disperse in the same bath instead of two bath) then the parameters
we need to consider besides what must be the properties of both the dyes
to withstand in one bath giving good results and fastnesses from pastal
shades to darker shades.

The temperature and chemical requirements for the dye reaction of fiber
reactive dyes, versus the dye deposition of disperse dye, are so different
that the idea of combining both in one step seems bizarre. Disperse dye is
applied at a boil, using a chemical to reduce the temperature needed for
dye transfer, while reactive dyes, unlike direct dyes, are generally applied
at considerably lower temperatures, and may actually degrade quickly
when boiled.

Advantages of Disperse dyes

The disperse dyes used for the dyeing hydrophobic advantageous from the
dyes used for cotton and wool fibers in the following respects:

80
 Essentially low molecular weight azo, anthraquinone and
diphenylamine derivates.
 Carry no charge groups but contain polar sites like –OH, -NH2, -CH2-
CH2-OH etc.
 Crystalline solids with low molecular weight that melt under pressure
at 200-250’C and sublime without decomposition.
 Low substantivity that increases with rise in temperature and by
addition of a dispersing agent. The solubility ranges from 0.2 to 100
mg/l at 80’C but completely dissolve at 130’C.
 Relatively high saturation value ranging from 30-200 mg/gm of
hydrophobic fibres.
 Particle size of marketed dye is low (about one micron) so as to
accelerate the rate of dyeing.

81
Vat dyes
Vat dyes form a very important class of dyes for the cellulosic fibers
because the dyeing produced with these have the highest overall fastness
properties. All of these dyes have good fastness against wet treatments
and crocking and most have light fastness in the region of 6-7. the vat dyes
can also with stand oxizing agents like hydrogen peroxide, sodium chlorite
and hypo chlorites, and extensively used for dyeing yarn that is to be
woven along with the grey yarn. This cloth can undergo the pretreatment
process like alkali boiling, bleaching and mercerizing without any damage
to the dyed yarn. It may however be mentioned that after the introduction
of hydrogen peroxide tolerant reactive dyes, a good proportion of the yarn
dyeing has been taken over by the reactive dyes. This is because the
reactive dyes are relatively less expensive ang are also easier to apply. In
spite of the great in roads made by the reactive dyes for dyeing cotton
woven and knit fabrics, vat dyes are still popular on account of the all
round high fastness properties. Vat dyes are commonly used for superior
quality shirting materials, military uniforms, furnishings, curtains, toweling
etc.
There are about 60 vat dyes in the market that cover the entire gamut of
shades except the deep red colors. Vat dyes are essentially insoluble
polycyclic aromatic compounds containing two or more pairs of quinone
groups. It may be interesting to remember that indigo and tyrian purple,
the earliest non natural dyes, also belong to this family. In order to apply to
the cellulosic fibers, vat pigments are made water soluble by reducing to
hydro-quinone forms in an alkaline media. The process is known as vatting,
a term referring to a historical link with the vegetable indigo dye that used
to be reduced in wooden vats with natural reducing agents like sugars. The
present day vatting chemicals are sodium hydroxide and a strong reducing
agents (one with high reduction potential) sodium dithionite (Na2S2O4)
commonly termed in industry as sodium hydrosulphite or simply hydros.
Sodium dithionite reduces the keto group of the dyes into the enol form
and sodium hydroxide forms sodium salt of the enol to make the dyes
water soluble. Caustic soda also neutralizes the acidic decomposition
products of the reducing agent dithionite that are produced during vatting
and dyeing. Quantity of the reducing chemicals depends upon the no of the
keto groups present in the dyeing molecules to the extent of exposure of

82
the dye bath to air. The reduction process may be represented as shown
below:

Reduction is accompanied by a change in color that is due to alteration in

the conjugation of the double bonds. The reduced indigo has a pale shade
and so it was called the leuco (white) dye. This term is still used although
the leucos of many vat dyes are deeply colored.

Chemical structure of vat dyes

Vat dyes were developed soon after synthesis of indigo but the earlier dyes
were either halogen derivatives or sulpher substituted indigo as shown
below:

83
 CI Vat Yellow 4 CI Vat Orange 1

The vat dyes are often classified as indigoid, thio-indigoid and

anthraquinonoid but majority of these belongs to the anthraquinonoid
group. The thio-indigoid class also includes the hydrone blues that are type
of hybrids of sulpher and vat dyes are often used as substitute of indigo.
The indigoid and thio-indigoid group of vat dyes have low substantives for
cellulose but the anthrax-quinone derivatives, on account of having more
complex structures, posses high affinity. These also have better all-round
fastness properties then the other two groups.

Dyeing structure of vat dyes

The vat dyes are divided into three main classes for application processes
and this division is based on the substanitivity characteristics of their leuco
derivatives. Due of the class one are IN (where I stands for indanthrene
and N for normal) in their leuco forms have a high substanitivity further
cellulosic fibers. These made high alkalinity for the dissolution and are
dyed at about 75’C. the class two ( or IW i.e. warm) dyes have moderate
substanitivity, require edium alkalinity, are dyed at temperature between
45-75”C and need electrolytes for complete exhaustion of the dyes. The
class three (or IK i.e. kalt/cold) dyes have low substanitivity, need
moderate alkalinity, or dyed at low temperatures between 20-30”C and
required electrolytes in higher a concentration then that needed for the
class two.

84
Machines for continuous dyeing
The basic equipment required for the continuous dyeing of fabric of cotton
and its blends with man-made fibers are dye padder, infra-red, predryer,
cylinder or hot air dryer, chemical/development padder, steamer or
thermo-fixation, heater, washing range and cylinder dryer. These machines
are in the process of continuous improvement but the basic function of the
equipment remains essentially the same. A brief description of the
important features of these machines is discussed below:

Padder:
The padder is the padding mangles are meant to apply dye liquor in an
even manner to the entire width and the length to a batch of fabric. The
padding operation consists of two parts:
 Immersion of the fabric in dye liquor in a trough.
 Passing the fabric between two rollers to force the dye liquor into the
fabric and also to squeeze the excess liquor back to the trough.
Padder is the most sensitive component of the continuous dyeing system
as any fault develop at the padding stage will not be corrected later.
Padders usually have two rollers although the three roller types with two
dip troughs where also marketed but these are used mainly for applying
finishes to the heavy weight fabrics. Diagram…

The padder roll has a steel mandrel that is covered with hard rubber, toped
by 15 mm of soft rubber that has the hardness of 60-70’ shore. Both the
rollers should have exactly the same hardness other wise there will be a
color difference in the face and back side of the fabric. The material of the
rubber should be chemically resistant to dye liquors and auxiliary products.
The bottom roller is coupled with a variable speed motor so that the fabric
may is run at the linear speed ranging fro 30-90 m/min. the usual liquor
pickup in a modern padder for different fiber is as under.
Cotton: 60-70% p/c: (50:50) 45-50%

Padding trough:

85
 The padding trough that was once considered to be just a container
for the dye liquor without realizing its importance in obtaining a uniform
shade and dye economy, has now, like padders, undergone vast
modifications in recent years. The trough is placed below and in front of
the padder and consist of the U shaped box with one or more free running
guide rollers of about 10cm diameter each, as shown in figure below:

. An expander roller is fitted before the nip of the roles to eliminate any
creases that may develop during passage of fabric through the trough. The
dye liquor is fed in through a perforated pipe running across the entire light
of the tank with perforations pointing towards the wall of the trough and
away from the fabric so as to avoid spraying of the dye liquor on fabric
Ideally a trough should contain the minimum quantity of the dye
liquor consistent with adequate pickup so as it reduce the wastage of the
unused dye at the end of the process and more importantly to have a high
liquor replacement value. In continuous dyeing, dye should have no or
minimum possible affinity with the fibers so that the dye liquor squeezed
out of the fabric during padding and returning to the trough should have
the same concentration as the freshly fed dye solution. In case the dye has
a slightly affinity, the trough should have as low of volume as possible so
that the liquor is replaced rapidly and concentration of the dye solution in
the trough remain constant and there is negligible or small tailing effect.
To reduce the volume of the dye liquor, or displacer is fitted above the
single roller trough. In oil roller troughs the displacer becomes unnecessary

86
while time of contact of fabric with dye liquor increases. The troughs are
double weld so that hat or cold water could be circulated through the
jacket to maintain, usually automatically, the dye liquor at constant and
optimum temperature. To ensure constancy of the fabric immersion time
through out its funning in the trough, level of the dye liquor is kept
constant by automatic controls.

Drying the dye padded fabric:

To get even and uniform results specially for medium and deep
shades, the dye padded fabric is required to be dried before the dye is
made to diffuse into the fibers by steam or thermofixation. A no of drying
machines such as cylinders, hot flue, infra red, stanter, suction dryers etc.
are available but their choice depends upon important consideration of
uniformity of drying, capital cost and thermal efficiency as well as some
special requirements. We have studied infra red dryers in Supphire mills
limited.

Infra red dryers:

…………………………………..

Continuous steamer:
In continuous roller steamer is used for the diffusion of the reactive,
vat and sulpher dyes into cotton fibers in an atmosphere of heat and
moisture that is created by saturated steam injected into the steamer. The
fabric is moved in open width around rollers in top and bottom horizontal
banks in a heat insulated steel chamber like that of a hot flue dryer. The
top rollers are driven by chains or preferably by a series of motors.
Capacity of the steamers varies between 30-60m and the time of steaming
ranges between 20-60sec depending on class of dye used and depth of its
shade. The steam coil heats ceiling of the machine to avoid condensation
of steam and subsequent dripping of water on the dye padded cloth.
Temperature of the steamer is maintained 102-104’c for getting the
optimum results. The fabric enters the steamer through a narrow and

87
heated slot so as to prevent entry of air into it and to eliminate
condensation of steam on the fabric. It is essential to have a minimum of
air in the steamer so that there Is no premature oxidation of sulpher and
wet dyes and also to avoid lowering of evaporation temperature of the
steam. The elimination is air is done before entry the fabric by blowing
steam and forcing air out of steamer through an outlet in the roof. In some
steamer air is rewove through a duct near the floor of the machine and is
claimed give better extraction because air is heavier than steam.
When leaving the steamer, the fabric passes through a cold water
seal so that steam doesn’t escape from the exit. The water in the seal
should be kept cool by continuous running of fresh cool water in it
especially when steaming the wet dyed fabrics as other vise the seal would
become a reducing dye bath. After steaming the fabric is fed into a
continuous washing range for removal of the unfixed dye and chemicals.
In Kusters, steam is generated by boiling water at atmospheric pressure at
100’c inside the steamer itself.

Thermofixation of dyes:
In the thermofixation (also incorrectly called thermosol) process of dyeing
the synthetic fibers, the disperse dyes diffuse into the polyester fibers on
bringing the dye padded fabrics to a temperature of 200-220’c for a
contact time of 60-30 sec. the machines commonly used for such dye
fixation are mainly hot flue, stanter and suction drums. The hot flue
machines are basically similar to the hot air dryers except that
temperature of the hot air is maintained at 200-220’c with heated oil. The
stanter, which was originally used as a finishing machine to stretch cloth to
a constant and specified width, has now been extensively modified and
technically upgraded for the thermofixation and heat setting purposes.

88
89
Machine details of Sapphire Mills ltd. pad-thermosol:

Pad-thermosol consists of following parts that dye and guide the fabric
during dyeing:

 Batcher
 Guide rollers
 Screy
 Cooling drum
 Trough
 Squeezing rollers
 Padder
 VTG rollers
 IR-dryers
 Drying chambers
 Radiator
 Heat exchanger
 Curing chamber
 Piller

90