EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

The Synchronous Generator

by Olof Samuelsson1

1. Introduction
The synchronous generator is the absolutely dominating generator type in power
systems. It can generate active and reactive power independently and has an important
role in voltage control. The synchronizing torques between generators act to keep large
power systems together and make all generator rotors rotate synchronously. This
rotational speed is what determines the mains frequency, which is kept very close to the
nominal value 50 or 60 Hz. The generator studied here is connected to the national grid,
but since it is very small it has virtually no impact on the rest of the system which
therefore can be modeled as a stiff three-phase AC voltage.
2. Theory
The stator of a synchronous generator holds a three-phase winding where the individual
phase windings are distributed 120 apart in space. The rotor holds a field winding,
which is magnetized by a DC current the field current If. When the rotor is rotated (by
the turbine) the rotating magnetic flux induces voltages Eq in the stator windings. These
voltages are sinusoidal with a magnitude that depends on If, differ by 120 in time and
have a frequency determined by the angular velocity of the rotation.
In steady state, one phase can be modeled as an AC voltage source E q feeding the
current I against the terminal voltage V through the d-axis synchronous reactance, X d:
Eq(If)=V+jXdI
The stator windings also have a resistance Ra, which however is very small and is
usually neglected. The voltage V is transformed a number of times and finally appears
at the mains outlet. The mains frequency thus originally comes from the mechanical
rotation of the rotor of the generator!
Synchronous generators come with round (or cylindrical) rotor or with salient pole
rotor. The number of poles (magnetic N and S poles in the rotor) ranges from two to
almost one hundred. The above description is valid for a round rotor generator with two
poles, which is the simplest to describe.
2.1. Synchronizing a generator to an AC system
Connecting a generator electrically to an AC system is called synchronizing the
generator to the AC system. Before this is done, the generator is accelerated to correct
speed and the rotor is magnetized. The current I resulting at the moment of
synchronization depends in how close Eq and V are to each other. To avoid large
currents the phasor values of Eq and V should be equal. This gives four conditions:
same magnitude of Eq and V;
same phase of Eq and V.
and even more important (already assumed when working with phasors)
same frequency of Eq and V;
same phase order of the three-phase systems Eq and V.
2.2. The synchronous generator at steady state
As the expressions for active and reactive power are made more complicated by rotor
saliency, the round rotor case is treated first.

1 Partly revised in November 2004 by Niklas Strth

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

Round rotor machine

The phasor equation E q=V+jXdI can be illustrated graphically:

where cos is the power factor of the load. Here the load is inductive, I lags V and <0.
The power supplied to the load is (per phase):
S = Pe + jQe = V I * = VI cos + jVI sin
Scaling the phasor diagram with V/Xd gives:

Active and reactive power can now be expressed as:

S = VI
EV
Pe = VI cos = q sin (1)
Xd
Eq V V2
Qe = VI sin = cos
Xd Xd
The control inputs at steady state are turbine power P m and field current If. Changing
Pm while keeping If constant shows that Eq is constant, while and Q e are changed.

Pe2

Pe1
Eq

1 2
V Qe2 Qe1
If instead If is increased while Pm is kept constant, it becomes evident that the sign of
Qe can be controlled.
Pe
Eq2
Eq1
1 2
V

Qe2 Qe1

Salient pole rotor

The difference between a salient pole rotor and a cylindrical rotor is shown below:
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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

The direct-axis (or d-axis) is defined as the main flux direction of the rotor. The voltage
induced in the stator Eq lags the d-axis by 90, which is the quadrature-axis (or q-axis)
direction. The fundamental (phasor) voltage equation for a salient pole generator is:
Eq = V + jX d Id + jX q I q
which graphically appears as below:
Iq Vq Eq
q-axis

jXq Iq
Vd
V
Id jXd Id

d-axis

Using the d- and q components of current and terminal voltage,

(
S = Pe + jQe = V I * = Vd + jVq Id + jIq )( )*
Vd + jVq = V sin + jV cos
Eq Vq
Id =
Xd

I = Vd
q Xq

the active and reactive power output of the generator can now be expressed as:
Eq V V2 1 1
Pe = sin + sin 2 = Pfield + Preluctance
Xd 2 Xq Xd

Eq V cos2 sin2
Qe = cos V 2 +
Xd Xd Xq
Note that Pe and Qe for a round rotor generator are obtained by setting Xd=Xq.

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

2.3. Dynamic model of the synchronous generator

Assuming that Eq is constant a second order model describes the dynamics:
2H d e
= Pm-Pe() (2)
s ,e dt
d
= e-s (3)
dt
Here e is the mechanical angular frequency of the rotor, while s,e is its nominal
value. Both these frequencies are given in electrical rad/s (2f, where f is 50 or 60 Hz),
independent of number of rotor poles.
H is the inertia constant of the machine defined as kinetic energy in Ws divided by the
VA rating. This value is typically in the range 1-10 s. The interpretation of H is the time
it takes (in seconds) to reach standstill if the generator rotating at rated speed with rated
load, is disconnected from the turbine.
is the mechanical angle (in rad) between the voltage vector of the network and the
internal voltage Eq vector which is fixed to the rotor. is thus measured in a coordinate
system fixed to the rotating rotor.
Pm is the mechanical power input from the turbine, while Pe is the electrical power fed
to the electrical system. Note Pe is obtained from the above expressions but with Xd
replaced by X'd and similarly Eq by E'q.
2.4. The synchronizing torque
At no-load in steady state , Pe and P m are all zero while e=s,e. Assume that, for
some reason, e becomes too high (this could be at the moment of synchronization).
This causes an increase in (3), but also in P e (1). The minus sign in (2) shows that
de/dt becomes negative since Pe>Pm. The deviation in e is thus corrected and after
some time e is equal to s,e again. This mechanism synchronizes all synchronous
generators in a network to each other and is the reason for the term synchronization of a
generator. The torque caused by the deviation in is called synchronizing torque and is
the reason why systems covering entire continents can be kept together electrically.
The synchronizing power (coefficient) is dPe()/d.
2.5 The Automatic Voltage Regulator
The reactive generation capability of the synchronous generator can be used to control
the voltage at the generator bus. This is done by letting an Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR) control the rotor field current which in turn determines the internal voltage E.
The AVR measures the voltage V at the generator terminals and adjusts the field current
so that V is close to a reference value Vref.

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

3. Preparatory Exercises
The synchronous generator used in the lab has the following rating:
Im=1.4 A Ia=5.25 A Ua=220 V Sn=2kVA cos=0.8 (ind)
Xd=1.17 pu X'd=0.23 pu Xq=0.6 pu T'd=0.06 s n=1500 rpm (4-pole rotor)

a) Determine H for the generator and driving motor if Jtotal=0.12 kgm2. (It is
small!)
b) Determine Xd, X'd and Xq in .
c) Sketch the vector diagram for the generator at the rated operating point with
=27.
d) Assume Eq=235V and V=235V and fill in the column below. Draw (if possible
using Matlab) Pe() for =0-180. Also compute dPe/d at = 2.5.

Computed Pe (W)
0
5
15
25

e) What happens to the synchronizing power dP e/d when Pe passes its maximum
value?

f) The generator is connected to the strong three-phase mains via a series reactance
of 10.0 /phase. This reactance X should be added to the Xd and X q . Assume
Eq=235V and V=235V and fill in the column below. Remember that the
reactance X should be added to the Xd and X q. Draw (if possible using Matlab)
Pe() for =0-180. Also compute dPe/d at = 2.5.

Computed Pe (W)
0
5
15
25

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

4. Experiments
Parameters and rated values of the machines used for the experiments are:
DC motor Im=0.45 A Ia=8.3 A Ua=230 V Ra=1.8 k=2.7 Nm/A2
Four-pole synchronous generator with salient pole rotor
Im=1.4 A Ia=5.25 A Ua=220 V Sn=2kVA cos=0.8 (ind)
Xd=1.17 pu X'd=0.23 pu Xq=0.6 pu T'd=0.06 s n=1500 rpm (4-pole rotor)
4.1. Setup
The equipment is partly controlled with a power converter and dSpace. dSpace is a
control system with analog inputs and PWM modulated outputs (beside a number of
digital inputs and outputs). dSpace is programmed with Simulink. The lab instructor
will give further instructions on how to use dSpace in the lab.

Computer
with
dSpace

Figure 1. The equipment used during the experiments.

UsSM V
Ia
Udc
Ua DC SM Mains

IsSM

Udc
240V Im ImSM

Figure 2. The diagram showing measured quantities.

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

4.2. Strong network

In this section the generator is connected directly to the three-phase mains.
Synchronization
Check that the generator breaker on the synchronization unit is set to zero. Switch on
single-phase 220V and both three-phase voltages (220V and 380V). Set the field current
of the DC motor to 0.45 A. Start and connect the converter in the basement. Then go
through the following steps:
1. Accelerate the DC motor to 1500 rpm by increasing Ua;
2. Turn on the exciter and change nref so that the stator voltage Ur=230V;
3. Await zero reading of V and dark lamps on the synchronization unit;
4. Turn the generator breaker while lamps are still dark.
After the synchronization the generator should be running at no load check that Pe and
Qe are zero (<100 W/VAr).
Do another synchronization and study P e() and determine the frequency of the
resulting oscillation at synchronization.
fosc= Hz
Inputs and outputs
Measure Pe for = 0, 5, 15, 25.

Computed Pe (W) 2 Measured Pe (W)

0
5
15
25

dPe/d( = 2.5)= W/
Fill in the table below.

Pm (W) ImSM (A) Qe (VA) V (V)

0 0.5
0 0.75
0 1.0
900 0.5
900 0.75
900 1.0
Ignore saliency and sketch three separate vector diagrams for the first three rows and
one for the last three.

2 From preparatory exercise d.

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

Effect of load at generator terminals

Xnetwork
Pm

Figure 3. One-line diagram of the test system.

Select Pm and If for P e+jQe=900-j260 VA. Switch R (drawing 2.5A/phase) and C load
at the generator terminals and determine the steady state impact on P, Q and V.

Pe Qe V
R
C
Since the network is strong (Xnetwork small), V is not supposed to change and R and C are
fed from the network rather than from the generator.
If you would model the generator in a load flow program like PowerWorld would it
be a PQ or PV node now?

4.3. Weak network

In this section the generator is connected to the strong three-phase mains via a series
reactance of 10.0 /phase. The generator is now strong relative to its network
connection.
Hands-on experience of synchronizing torque
The angular frequency of the stator voltage is the sum of the mechanical angular
frequency of the rotor and the angular frequency of the rotor current:
stator,el=rotor, mek+rotor,el
Normally the rotor rotates at a speed corresponding to 50 Hz, while the rotor is DC-
magnetized, which gives a stator frequency of 50 Hz. The same stator frequency can be
obtained by swapping the frequencies of rotor rotation and rotor magnetization, so that
the rotor is at standstill while being magnetized with a 50 Hz current. This is done in
two very small synchronous generators (see Figure 4). is now the difference in angle
between the two rotors.

Uf

Figure 4. Two synchronous generators synchronizing torques act to align rotors.

Try to turn one rotor out of phase with the other the correcting torque that you feel is
the syncronizing torque. What happens when passes 90?

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

The damping of the system is low, which is characteristic for synchronous generators.
Try to find the resonance of the system by moving one rotor so that varies
sinusoidally.

Inputs and outputs

Measure Pe for = 0, 5, 15, 25.
Computed Pe (W) 3 Measured Pe (W)
0
5
15
25

dPe/d( = 2.5)= W/
Fill in the table below.

Pm (W) ImSM Qe (VA) V (V)

0 0.5
0 0.75
0 1.0
900 0.5
900 0.75
900 1.0
Ignore saliency and sketch three separate vector diagrams for the first three rows and
one for the last three.

Effect of load at generator terminals

Select P m and ImSM for P e+jQe=900-j260 VA. Switch R (drawing 2.5A/phase) and C
load at the generator terminals and determine the steady state impact on P, Q and V.

Pe Qe V
R
C

The network is now weak so terminal voltage and reactive power output will vary with
R and C. Since the turbine determines Pe, this is expected to be constant.
From the transients you can determine the oscillation frequency with weak network:

fosc= Hz

4.4. Weak network and AVR

In this section the generator is connected to the strong three-phase mains via a series
reactance. The field current of the generator is controlled by an AVR (implemented in
dSpace) to keep the terminal voltage close to the reference value Vref.

3 From preparatory exercise f.

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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

Inputs and outputs

Fill in the table below.

Pm (W) V(V) Qe (VA)

0 220
0 230
0 240
900 220
900 230
900 240
Ignore saliency and sketch three separate vector diagrams for the first three rows and
one for the last three.

Effect of load at generator terminals

Select P m=900W and Vref so that V=230V. Switch R (drawing 2.5A/phase) and C load
at the generator terminals and determine the steady state impact on P, Q and V.

Pe Qe V
R
C

When R and C are changed, the AVR is expected to provide constant V by adjusting
reactive output. Pe is still governed by the turbine and should be insensitive to changes
in R and C load.

If you would model the generator in a load flow program like PowerWorld would it
be a PQ or PV node now?

4.5. Islanding
Connect the R load, adjust it for 1.0 A/phase and disconnect it again. Open the
generator breaker. Connect the R load. The generator now supplies a small island
network and is alone responsible for the frequency.
Adjust R for currents between 0.5 and 1.5 A. The speed of the DC motor decreases
linearly as the loading torque increases. This is equivalent to having a proportional
regulator as turbine governor to control the active power of the DC motor (turbine). The
proportional gain measured in p.u. Pm per p.u. speed of all governors in a large system
are normally the same. This makes all generators share the increased load demand in
proportion to their rated power.
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EIE030 Electric Power Systems The Synchronous Generator

Change the active load and study the impact on the frequency. The proportional
governor will not return the frequency to 50 Hz. This requires a PI controller, which
often can be selected for island operation. To keep the frequency at 50 Hz here you
must adjust Pm manually.
Change the reactive load and check that the AVR maintains the voltage at an acceptable
level.

4.6. Transient stability

Synchronize the generator to the system. Study Pe() as P m is slowly increased to
1000W.
Quickly turn the generator breaker half a turn (180). This temporarily makes P e zero
which, as seen from the generator, corresponds to a three-phase short-circuit.
Test different fault times at Pm = 1000, 1350 and 1700 W, to see if the generator goes
transiently unstable that is a stable equilibrium is not found after the breaker is closed
again.

11 November 2004