Chapter 1, Light propagation in Media

Introduction to Light
Light is basic to almost all life on Earth.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Light represents energy transfer from the source to the
observer.
Many phenomena depend on the properties of light.
Seeing a TV or computer monitor
Blue sky, colors at sunset and sunrise
Images in mirrors
Eyeglasses and contacts
Rainbows
Many others
1
 The Nature of Light: Particle Nature

Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, light was

considered to be a stream of particles.
The particles were either emitted by the object being
viewed or emanated from the eyes of the viewer.
Newton was the chief architect of the particle theory of
light.
He believed the particles left the object and stimulated the sense
of sight upon entering the eyes.

2
 Nature of Light Alternative View (wave)

Christian Huygens argued that light might be some sort of

a wave motion.
Thomas Young (in 1801) provided the first clear
demonstration of the wave nature of light.
He showed that light rays interfere with each other.
Such behavior could not be explained by particles.

3
 Particle Nature again
Some experiments could not be explained by the wave model of light.
The photoelectric effect was a major phenomenon not explained by
waves.
When light strikes a metal surface, electrons are sometimes ejected
from the surface.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is dependent on the
frequency of light but independent of the light intensity.
Einstein (in 1905) proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect
that used the idea of quantization.
The quantization model assumes that the energy of a light wave is
present in particles called photons.
E = h
h is Plancks Constant and = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s

Critical Thinking Question: Can we track a single photon? 4

Wave-particle duality

c , E h , P k

5
 Optical Phenomena

Geometric optics or Ray Optics: Wave Optics: Applicable to

Adequate for phenomena where problems where refractive index
refractive index (dielectric constant) changes appreciably over the
varies slowly over the wavelength of wavelength of light. Reduces to ray
light. optics if the refractive index variation
is weak.

The basic physics behind vast spectrum with wavelength ranging from
Anstrons to kilometres is described by Maxwell equations. Although
the complete description of electromagnetic wave propagation should
employ Maxwell equations, geometric optics, or ray optics is useful
and adequate for many applications. We will use both geometric optics
and wave optics to study optical effects in various devices.

6
 Maxwell Equations
B
E 0 Faradays Law
t

D
H J Ampere-Maxwells Law
t

D Gausss Law

B 0 Gausss Law in magnetism

D 0E P

Material equations: B 0 H M

J E

D 0 E P 0 r E
Special case:
B 0 H M 0 r H

Where E and H are the electric and magnetic fields, J and are the current
and charge density, 0 is the absolute permeability, r is the relative
permeability, 0 is the absolute permittivity, r is the relative permittivity.

Everything we know about classic electromagnetics is

based upon these equations.
7
From Maxwell equation, assuming neutral material (=0) we can derive
the EM Wave Equation:
2
E E
2 E
t 2 t
If =0, the above equation is a standard wave equation with wave velocity of v:

E
2 1 E
2
2 E 2 2 E 2 2
t v t

1 1 c
v
r r 0 0 r r

General solution: Wave function

E E0 exp{i(k r t )}
r i 12
k ( r r )
c 0
1
c ( 0 0 ) 2
3 108 ms1 8
Similarly, we can derive the wave equation for magnetic field.

H 2
H
H
2

t 2
t
Which has propagating solution similar to electric field,

H H 0 exp{i(k r t )}
Again,
r i 12
k ( r r )
c 0

Note: for pure dielectric material, is very small, then k is a real number.

9
Special solution: Plane Wave
In real number, a monochromatic plane wave with electric field in
x-axis and propagation in z direction can be written as (consider
=0),
Ex Re( E0 exp{i(k r t )}) E0 cos(t kz 0 )
k propagation constant, or wave number
2 / k wavelengt h
2 angular frequency
t - kz 0 phase

10
The optical field is generally refers to electrical field.

A surface over which the phase of a wave is constant is referred to

as a wavefront. A wavefront of a plane wave is obviously a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
11
 Phase velocity

The relationship between time and space for a given phase is described by
At time t, position z, t kz 0
After time interval t, at position z+ z, the phase is the same.
This is equivalent to that the phase has moved z distance in t interval.
t kz 0 (t t ) k ( z z) 0
t kz 0
z z
v phase velocity
t t t 0 k

r i 12
Recall : k ( r r ) ; for 0, k r r
c 0 c

c c
v
k r r n
n r r is called refractive index. In vacuum, the phase speed of a plane
EM wave is c
12
 Recall slides 8, 9, 12
But, generally if 0,
r i 12
k ( r r )
Phase velocity can be modified by dividing c by c 0
a complex refractive index given by c c
v
ck r i 12 r r n
n ( r r ) k
0
We can write the complex refractive index in terms of its real and imaginary parts

n n in n
k in
c c
The electric field propagating in the +z direction can be given by
nz nz
E E0 exp[i ( t )] exp( )
c c
As we can see, the wave velocity is reduced to v c / n
The amplitude of the electric field is damped exponentially is n >0, which is
characterized by an absorption coefficient
2n
Critical Thinking Question: What if is negative? 13
c
Note that in the absence of absorption or gain, n=n, and the refractive
index will be simply denoted by n, n .
r r r

The absorption coefficient can be measured for any material system

and it provides information of n.

In non-crystalline materials (glasses and liquids), the material structure

is the same in all directions and n does not depend on the direction.

The refractive index is isotropic. ( D 0 E P 0 r E )

Crystals, in general, have anisotropic properties. The refractive index

seen by a propagating EM wave will depend on the direction of the
electric field relative to crystal structures, which is further determined by
both the propagation direction and the electric field oscillation direction
(polarization). n should be described by a tensor.

14
Returning to the plane EM wave, we indicate the direction of propagation with
a vector k , called the wave vector, whose magnitude is the propagation
constant, k=2/. It is clear that wave vector is perpendicular to the constant
phase planes

E (r , t ) E0 cos(t k r 0 )
15
 Plane EM wave is a special form of EM wave.
Its wave fronts are planes extended in real
space infinitely. We say that plane wave has
no divergence. The amplitude of planar wave
does not depend on the distance from any
reference point, and it is the same at all points
on a given plane perpendicular to K. This is an
idealised case.

Critical Thinking Question: Is the light from my laser pointer a pane wave?

16
 In reality, electrical field of EM wave does not
extend to infinity, and usually light has divergence.

Optical divergence refers to the angular

separation of wavevectors on a given wavefront.
17
 Spherical Wave

A
E cos(t kr)
r

The spherical wave has 360o of divergence.

It is apparent that plane and spherical waves represent two
extremes of wave propagation behaviour from perfectly parallel
to fully divergence.

18
19
 Gaussian Beams
The intensity across the beam follows a Gaussian distribution

I(r,z) = [2P/(w2)]exp(2r2/w2)
qo = w/z = /(wo) 2qo = Far field divergence
21
 Power in a Gaussian Beam

I (r )2 I (0)2 exp[ 2(r / w)2 ]

Area of a circular thin strip (annulus) with
radius r is 2rdr. Power passing through
and this strip is proportional to
I(r) (2r)dr

Fraction of I ( r )2rdr
optical power = 0

0.865
within 2w
I ( r )2rdr
0
23
24
25
Correction note: Page 26 in textbook, Equation (1. 1.11), w should
be wr as above and wor should be squared in the parenthesis.

For far field: 2wr M 2 2w

26
q r M 2q
27
1.3 Magnetic Field, Irradiance and Poynting Vector
The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the energy flux.
That is why EM wave are called transverse wave. If an EM plane wave
is travelling along the z-direction, the E and B fields are in the x-y plane
and the electric and magnetic field components are related by the relation
vt

Ex
z
E Area A
k
By
Propagation direction k
B

A plane EM wave travelling along k crosses an areaA at right angles to the
t, the energy in t he cylindrical volume
direct ion of propagation. In time Avt
B k E
(shown dashed) flows through A .

1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)

The energy density (energy per unite volume) associated with electric and magnetic fields can be
expressed by 1
Eden ( E D H B) 0 r Ex2
2
While the power density associated with radiation (or energy flux) is given by Poynting vector S-
Energy flow per unit time per unit area
S EH
A photo detector has a response rate much slower than the frequency of the wave. Only average
irradiance is measured; 28
29
 1.4 Group velocity and Group Index

Since there are no perfect monochromatic waves in practice, we have to

consider the way in which a group of waves differing slightly in wavelength
travel along the same direction.
For two harmonic waves of frequencies and + and
wavevectors k k and k + k interfering with each other and traveling
along the z direction:
E x ,1 z, t E0 cos t k k z
E x , 2 z, t E0 cos t k k z
By using
1 1
cos A cos B 2 cos A B cos A B
2 2

We can obtain,
Ex Ex ,1 Ex , 2 2 E0 cos t k z cost kz

30
 Group velocity
A wave with angular frequency is modulated by a wave with angular frequency .

Ex 2E0 cos t k z cost kz

d c
Group velocity vg Phase velocity v p
k dk k n

The group velocity defines the speed with which energy is propagated since it defines the
speed of the envelop of the amplitude variation.
31
In a dispersive medium with n as a function of ,

= ck / n
d c ck dn c ck dn dk
vg 2 2 /
dk n n dk n n d d

2n dk 2 dn 2n
Remember, k and 2
d d
dn
So we have,
vg 2 d
c ck
n n 2 dn 2n
( 2 )
d

dn dn
c 2c

vg d c
(1 d ) c

c
n n 2 dn 2n n
dn
n n
dn N g
d 2
d d

dn
Ng n
d
N g is defined as the group index of the medium 32
 1.49

1.48

Ng
1.47 For silica, Ng is minimum around 1300
1.46 nm, which means that light waves with
n
1.45
wavelengths close to 1300 nm travel
with the same group velocity and do not
1.44
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
experience dispersion.
Wavelength (nm)

Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure

SiO 2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)

Both n and Ng are functions of the free space wavelength. Such a

medium is called a dispersive medium. n and Ng of SiO2 are
important parameters for optical fiber design in optical
communications.

33
 1.5 Snells Law and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

At
t
kt
Reflection
Refracted Light
Bt
v1t v1t
A AB '
y
qt qt
sin q i sin q r
n2

O
z A B
n1
qi q r
qi qr qi qr
A B Refraction
ki
vt vt
AB ' 1 2
kr sin q i sin q t
Ai Br
sin q i v1 n2

Incident Light Bi Ar Reflected Light sin q t v2 n1
A light wave t ravelling in a medium with a greater refract ive index
n1 > n( 2) suffers
reflection and refraction at t he boundary.
1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)
This is Snells Law , which
relates the angles of incidence
and refraction to the refractive
indices of the media. 34
 Transmitted
(refracted) light
kt
qt n2 Evanescent w ave
n 1 > n2
ki qi qi kr qc qc qi >qc
T IR
Incident Reflected
light light
(a) (b) (c)

Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. Depending on
the incidence angle wit h respect qtoc, which is determined by the ratio of t he refract ive
indices, t he wave may be transmit ted (refracted) or reflected.qi (a)
< qc (b) q i = qc (c) qi
> q c and t otal internal reflection (T IR).

1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)

Lets now consider a situation where light is incident from a denser medium on a
boundary with a rarer medium. Obviously the refractive angle is greater than the incident
angle. When the refractive angle reaches 90o, the incidence angle is called Critical
angle, which is given by
n2
sin q c
n1
It is natural to ask what happens if the incidence angle is greater than the critical
angle. Apparently we cannot imagine a refracted light that follows the Snells law.
As a matter of fact, in this situation, the incident light is totally reflected. This
phenomenon is called total internal reflection (TIR). In this case, there is a wave
that propagates along the boundary called evanescent wave. 35
Can you explain?

36
 Question: What about negative refractive index?

Negative refraction. Light incident on a This arrangement of fibreglass sheets (1

normal material refracts at a positive angle cm high) in which is embedded an array
(blue), but in a negative-index material the of copper loops and wires was the first
refraction angle is negative (red). Negative material for which negative refraction
refraction occurs only in specially was seen.
engineered materials.

John Pendry, Nature, 423, 22(2003)

37
 Superlens

Negative refraction can be used to focus light at sub-wavelength scale.

http://www.cmth.ph.ic.ac.uk/photonics/Newphotonics/index.html
38

1.6 Fresnels Equation B k E

The incidence plane is the plane containing the incident and reflected
light rays.

We can resolve the electric field into two components:

Transverse electric field (TE, s-polarized) waves: Ei,, Er,, and Et,.
Transverse magnetic field (TM, p-polarized) waves: Ei,//, Er,//, and Et,//.

39
We describe the incident, reflective and refractive waves as

Ei Ei 0 exp j t ki r


Er Er 0 exp j t k r r


Et Et 0 exp j t kt r

We are interested in finding Er0 and Et0 relative to Ei0,

including any phase changes. Maxwell equations
require the following boundary conditions apply.
B
E 0
y E ( y ) E ( y ) 0
t
H
D
t
J
y H ( y ) H ( y ) js We only discuss the
case with =0 and J=0.
D D( y ) D( y ) y

s
B 0
B( y ) B( y ) y 0

40
 B n / c E//
Remember: B k E
B// n / c E

y ( E( y ) E( y )) 0 Ei , Er , Et , (1)
y ( H ( y ) H ( y )) J s Bi , Br , Bt ,
n1 / c Ei , // n1 / c Er , // n2 / c Et , // (2)
( D( y ) D( y )) y s Ei , // cos q i Er , // cos q r Et , // cos q t (3)
Bi , // cos q i Br , // cos q r Bt , // cos q t
( B( y ) B( y )) y 0 n1 / c Ei , cos qi n1 / c Er , cos q r n2 / c Et , cos qt (4)

Be careful with the definition of direction!!!

41
Considering simultaneous equations (1) and (4),

Ei , Er , Et ,
n1Ei , cos qi n1Er , cos q r n2 Et , cos qt

Er , Et , Ei ,
n1Er , cos q r n2 Et , cos qt n1Ei , cos q i

n2 cos q t n1 cos q i
Er , Ei ,
n2 cos q t n1 cos q r
n1 cos q i n1 cos q r
Et , Ei ,
n2 cos q t n1 cos q r

42
 n n2 / n1
q i q r sin i n sin t
Considering n1 sin q i n2 sin q t

n cos t n n sin t
2 2 2
1/ 2

n sin i
2 2

1/ 2

n2 cos q t n1 cos q i
Ei ,

cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i 1/ 2

Er , Ei ,
n2 cos q t n1 cos q r cos q i n sin q i
2 2 1/ 2

n1 cos q i n1 cos q r 2 cos q i

Et , Ei ,

Ei ,
n2 cos q t n1 cos q r cos q i n sin q i
2 2 1/ 2

43
 Similarly, considering simultaneous equations (2) and (3),

n1 / c Ei ,// n1 / c Er ,// n2 / c Et ,// (2)

Ei , // cos qi Er ,// cos q r Et ,// cos qt (3)

n1 / c Er ,// n2 / c Et ,// n1 / c Ei ,//

Re-organize
Er ,// cos q r Et , // cos qt Ei , // cos q i

n1 cos q t n2 cos q i
Ei , //

n 2 sin 2 q i n 2 cos q i
1/ 2

Er ,// Ei , //
n1 cos q t n2 cos q r n sin q i n cos q i
2 2 1/ 2 2

n1 cos q i n1 cos q r 2n cos q i

Et ,// Ei , //

Ei , //
n1 cos q t n2 cos q r n sin q i n cos q i
2 2 1/ 2 2

44
 Fresnels equations

r
Er 0 ,


cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i 1/ 2

cos q n q
1/ 2
Ei 0, i
2
sin 2 i r and r// are reflection coefficients. t
Et 0, 2 cos q i and t// are transmission coefficients.
t
Et 0,
cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i
1/ 2 n=n2/n1

r//
Er 0, //

n 2
sin 2 q i 1/ 2
n 2 cos q i
These relations are called Fresnels equations.

Ei 0, // n 2
sin 2 q i
1/ 2
n 2 cos q i Further, the coefficients above are related by
Et 0,// 2n cos q i r// nt // 1
t //
Ei 0, // n 2
sin q i2

1/ 2
n cos q i
2

r 1 t

Fresnels equations are very important, because they allow both the amplitudes and
the phases of the reflected and transmitted waves to be determined. When reflection or
transmission coefficient is a positive real quantity, it means there is no phase change;
when reflection or transmission coefficient is a negative real quantity, it means that
there is a phase shift of 180o. Complex coefficients means that there is a phase shift
with other degrees.

45
 1 n n1 n2
When qi=0-Normal incidence r// r
1 n n1 n2

There is no phase change when n1>n2; when n1<n2, phase change=180o.

It is noted that, at a special incidence angle, r// becomes zero at an angle

qp. This angle qp can be found by letting r//=0.
r//
1/ 2

Er 0, // n 2 sin 2 qi n 2 cos qi
Ei 0, //
n 2 sin 2 qi n 2 cos qi
1/ 2

n2
tan q p
n1
qp is called the polarization angle or Brewsters angle.

In this case, the reflected wave is then said to be linear polarized because it
contains electrical oscillations that are contained with a well defined plane, which
is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and also to the direction of propagation.

Question: what is the polarization state of the reflected light? s-polarized (TE) or p-polarized (TM)?

46
 Lets discuss the case with n1>n2-internal reflection
When i = p, reflected light is linearly polarized and is perpendicular to the incidence plane.
When qi<qp, there is no phase change in r//.
When p < i < c, there is a phase shift of 180 in r//.
|r| and |r//| increases with i when i > p.
When i > c there are phase shifts (other than 0 or 180) in r and r// because only in this
case they are complex.

r
Er 0 ,


cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i 1/ 2

cos q n q
1/ 2
Ei 0, i
2
sin 2 i

Et 0, 2 cos q i
t
Et 0,
cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i
1/ 2

r//
Er 0, //

n 2
sin 2 q i 1/ 2
n 2 cos q i
Ei 0, // n 2
sin 2 qi
1/ 2
n 2 cos q i
Et 0,// 2n cos q i
t //
Ei 0, // n 2
sin 2 q i
1/ 2
n 2 cos q i

47
 n1<n2, external reflection,

At the normal incidence, both

1
coefficients are negative, 0.8
External reflection
which means that in external 0.6
reflection at normal incidence 0.4
qp r//
there is a phase shift of 180o. 0.2
Further, r// goes through zero 0
at the Brewster angle. -0.2
-0.4
Transmitted light in both
-0.6
internal (when qi<qc) and r
-0.8
external reflection does not -1
experience a phase shift 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

r
Er 0 ,


cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i 1/ 2
Incidence angle, qi
cos q n q
1/ 2
Ei 0, i
2
sin 2
i

t
Et 0,

2 cos q i The reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle
Et 0,
cos q i n 2 sin 2 q i
1/ 2
of incidence qi for n1 = 1.00 and n2 = 1.44.
r//
Er 0, //

n 2
sin 2 q i 1/ 2
n 2 cos q i 1999 S.O. K asap,Optoelectronics(P rentice H all)
Ei 0, // n 2
sin 2
q
i
1/ 2
n cos q i
2

Et 0,// 2n cos q i
t //
Ei 0, // n 2
sin 2 q i
1/ 2
n 2 cos q i
48
 More detailed discussion of TIR
We start with Fresnels equation, consider reflective light first.

cos qi (n 2 sin 2 qi ) 2 cos qi j (sin 2 qi n 2 ) 2 r1e j1

1 1

r j 2
cos qi (n sin qi ) cos qi j (sin qi n )
2 2 1 2 2 12
2
r2e

Apparently, amplitude r1 r2 cos 2 qi sin 2 qi n 2 1 n 2

And r 1 The energy is in deed totally reflected.

1 tan 1

sin 2
q i n
2 1/ 2


1 2 2 tan 1
sin
2
q i n
2 1/ 2

cos q i cos q i


2 tan 1

sin 2
q i n
2 1/ 2
tan
2

1 sin q i n
2

1/ 2

cos q i 2 cos q i

49
 Similarly, we can get

r//
n 2
sin 2 q i 1/ 2
n 2conq i


n 2 cos q i j sin 2 q i n 2
1/ 2
r1e j1
j2
n 2
sin 2
q
i
1/ 2
n conq i
2

n 2 cos q i j sin 2 q i n 2
1/ 2
r2e

sin 2 q n 2 1/ 2 sin 2 q n 2 1/ 2
1 tan 1 i
2 tan 1 i

n cos q i n cos q i
2 2

sin 2 q n 2 1/ 2
1 2 2 tan i 1

n 2
cos q i

Note that =- when qi approaches qc . We only take - for the continuity.

See the figure in slide 47.

// 2 tan 1
sin 2
q i n
2 1/ 2

n cos q i
2

1 1 sin 2 q i n 2
tan //

1/ 2

2 2 n 2 cos q i
50
What about transmitted light in the situation of TIR?

(Snells law is still assumed.)

51


Et Et 0 exp j t kt r
Et 0 exp j t kty y ktz z

2 2
n n
At TIR : qi q c 1 sin 2 q i 1 sin 2 q c 1
n2 n2
1

2 n1
2 2

kty j n2 sin q i 1 j 2
2

n2

1/ 2

2n2 n1
2

2 sin q i 1
2

n2

52
 1/ 2
2n2 n1 2

2 sin q i 1
2

n2

j (t kty y ktz z )
Et ( y, z, t ) Eto e
Eto e[( 2 y )] exp j (t kiz z )
The plus sign apparently does not apply, because it does not make sense
physically. Therefore, at TIR, there is a field propagating along the
interface but decay exponentially in the normal direction. The penetration
depth is

2 2
2 2
1

n1 sin q i n22
1/ 2

514.5 nm (green light)

n1 1.44 (glass)
n2 1.00 (air)
514.5
2

1.442 sin 2 50o 1
1/ 2

176 nm
q i 50o ( q c 43.98o )
53
 B. Intensity, Reflectance, and Transmittance

1
Light Intensity : I v r 0 E02 nE02
2
2
I r Er 0 , Er20, //
Reflectanc e : R 2 r ; R// r//
2 2

Ii Ei 0, Ei20, //
2
I t n2 Et 0, n2 2 n2 Et20, // n
Transmittance : T t ; T// 2 t //
2
2
I i n1 Ei 0, n1 n1 Ei20, // n1

2
n n 4n1n2
With normal incidence: R R R// 1 2 T T T//
n1 n2 n1 n2 2
Naturally, R+T=1, indicates the energy conservation.
Note: If the incident angle is not zero, we must consider that the angle of
refractive light is different from the incident one.
n1Ei2 cos qi n1Er2 cos qi n2 Et2 cos qt

cos q t 2 cos q t
r
2
nt 1 R T 1
cos q i cos q i
54
Example: Reflection at normal incidence. Internal & external reflection

Consider the reflection of light at normal incidence on a boundary

between a glass medium of refractive index 1.5 and air of refractive
index 1.
a. If light is traveling from air to glass, what is the reflection coefficient
and the intensity of the reflected light with respect to that of the
incident light?
b. If light is traveling from glass to air, what is the reflection coefficient
and the intensity of the reflected light with respect to that of the
incident light?
c. What is the polarization angle in the external reflection in (a) above?
How would you make a polaroid device that polarizes light based on
the polarization angle?

55
Solution:
(a) The light travels in air and becomes partially reflected at the
surface of the glass that correspond to external reflection. Thus n1=1
and n2=1.5. Then

n1 n2 1 1.5
r// r 0.2
n1 n2 1 1.5

This is negative, which means that there is a 180o phase shift. The
reflectance (R), which gives the fractional reflected power, is

R r//2 r2 0.04

56
 (b) The light travels in glass and becomes partially reflected at the glass-air
interface that correspond to internal reflection. Thus n1=1.5 and n2=1. Then

n1 n2 1.5 1
r// r 0.2
n1 n2 1.5 1
There is no phase change. The reflectance is again 0.04

(c) Light is traveling in air and is incident on the glass surface at the polarization
angle. Here n1=1, n2=1.5 and

n2
tan q p 1.5 So that qp=56.3o.
n1

57
 When qi=qp, r//=0

r

cos q i n sin q i
2 2
1/ 2

cos q n sin q
2 2 1/ 2
i i

For qi =56.3o, n=1.5, r= -0.3845, R =14.79%, R// =0

(T = 85.21%, T// =100%)?
Pile of plates constructs a good polarizer, invented by F. J. Arago in 1812

GaInNAs negative
SBR feedback

Isle-optics
Q-switch roc=500mm
Nd:YLF / Nd:YAlO R=98%

f y =100mm

f=125mm

Peak pump power=360W

quasi-cw (200s@100Hz)

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