14

Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through

Earth Dams and Earth Structures
Raul Flores-Berrones1 and Norma Patricia Lopez-Acosta2
1Mexican Institute of Water Technology
2Institute of Engineering, National University of Mexico
(UNAM)
Mexico

1. Introduction
This chapter describes the earth erosion caused by the water flow and seepage that occurs
through earth dams, earth embankments and some other structures constructed with earth,
such as canal systems, dikes, reservoirs and levees. The erosion in levees on river banks and
in levees constructed to protect urban areas exposed to flooding is also discussed. It first
describes the mechanism of the soil erosion and the importance of such phenomenon,
particularly the damages and consequences that such erosion might produce when it
becomes out of control. For instance, one of the main causes of earth dam failures all over
the world is the so called piping event, which occurs due to the constant migration of soil
particles towards free exits or into coarse openings; this event might occur through the earth
embankment or its foundation soil. Another cause of constant earth structure failures is due
to uncontrolled saturation and seepage forces. In this context, phenomena known as rapid
filling and rapid drawdown, which occur in earth structures subjected to sudden changes of
water level (increments or decrements) that modify flow conditions inside a soil mass are
assessed. Examples of both failures are given in this chapter.
Each one of the main factors that affect the occurrence of the earth erosion phenomenon is
described with detail. Among these factors are: a) the erodibility of the soil; b) the water
velocity inside the soil mass; c) geometry of the earth structure. Other important factors
discussed here are the homogeneity or anisotropy of the earth structure and its foundation
soil, the soil graduation and degree of compaction of the materials used during the
construction process; the hydraulic conductivity of such materials, the upstream water
energy head, as well as the hydraulic gradient. The importance and the way that each of
these factors affect the earth erosion are presented. The calculation of the seepage forces and
their effects in slope stability are also described.
The main graphical and numerical methods used for the analysis of the erosion problem
considering steady-state and transient flow conditions are discussed. The advantages and
shortcomings of each one are emphasized.
Description of the existing procedures for preventing damages due to soil erosion is given in
this chapter. Some remediation methods for solving hydraulic problems related to piping or
internal erosion, such as impermeable flexible walls, impermeable blankets, grouting

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284 Soil Erosion Studies

procedures and drainage blankets are also presented. A short section with some
recommendations to protect river banks from the erosive attack of water (such as rockfill,
bolsacreto or colchacreto system concrete bags, breakwaters, sheet pile walls, etc.) is also
included. The construction of graduation filters to prevent piping and movement of erodible
soils is also presented. Special emphasis is given in the actual filter design criterion that is
recommended by the US Army Corps of Engineers (2000), U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
(2000) and the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (1994). Together with these recommendations,
those given for earth dams design by A. Casagrande (1968) for avoiding piping and internal
erosion in earth dams are given.
Several devices that have been developed to assess how resistant earth materials are to
water flow are presented. Additionally, the main recommended laboratory and field tests to
analyze soil dispersion or erosion are discussed. A description of laboratory tests to verify
the best suitable material to use as a filter and protect a dam core against piping or internal
erosion is also given.
Two practical examples related to drainage failures caused by piping and by uncontrolled
saturation and seepage forces are presented to illustrate the content of this chapter. In
particular, analyses to assess how transient flow caused by rapid filling and drawdown
affects soil erosion in typical levees constructed to protect urban areas exposed to flooding
are performed by numerical modeling based on finite element method (FEM).
Finally, several recommendations for preventing or solving problems related to soil erosion
are presented, together with the main conclusions of this chapter.

2. Soil erosion mechanism in earth structures

Erosion in earth structures due to water flow occurs when the erosion resistant forces are
less than the seepage forces that tend to produce it, in such a way that the soil particles are
removed and carried with the water flow. The resistant forces depend on the cohesion, the
interlocking effect, the weight of the soil particles and the kind of protection they have
downstream, if any. Since the seepage through an earth structure is not uniform, the erosion
phenomenon increases where there exists a concentration of seepage and water velocity; in
places where this concentration emerges at the downstream side, the erosive forces on the
soil particles might become very significant. This accentuates the subsequent concentration
of seepage and erosive forces there.
This erosion process might occur at any crack that exists in the earth structure, due to
differential settlements, seismic movements, tension stresses, or holes caused by dry roots or
gnawing animals (rabbits, rats, etcetera). The existence of cracks is also due to shrinkage
drying or swelling due to saturation. Favorable internal erosion conditions also exist in
contacts between soils and rigid walls, concrete structures, interface with bedrock
foundation, etcetera. Areas where ark effect is present are also very susceptible to internal
erosion. In all the previous cases, if the vertical effective stresses are reduced by the effect of
the water flow, then the existing crack might propagate in such a way that it will create the
hydraulic fracture phenomenon.
The erosion starts at any point where the seepage water discharges and works toward the
reservoir, gradually enlarging the seepage channel. Depending of the stage of this process,
the occurred damage might be classified as a simple incident, an accident, or a complete
failure.

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 285

The first engineers that analyzed this problem were Blight (1910) and Lane (1935), as cited in
Casagrande (1968), who defined the susceptibility to soil erosion through a percolation
factor C, in terms of the horizontal and vertical paths of the water flow, the type of soil and
the water head between the upstream and downstream water levels of a hydraulic structure.
Figure 1 illustrates the definition of the percolation factor and Table 1 gives the minimum
values of C recommended by these engineers to avoid soil erosion. Unfortunately, this
criterion did not work well for all cases and its use is not recommended (Flores-Berrones,
2000).

Fig. 1. Dam example given by Blight (1910) to define the percolation factor CB (Casagrande,
1968)

b t t 13 b
CB CL
Material
h h
(Blight criteria) (Lane criteria)
Fine sand and silt 18 8.5
Coarse sand 12 6.0
Gravel and sand 9 3.0
Boulders, gravel and sand 4 2.5
Table 1. Minimum values of percolation factors to avoid piping, according to Blight and
Lane criteria (Casagrande, 1968)
In 1967 Sherard et al. published a table which gives a rough empirical relationship between
piping resistance in earth dam embankments and soil types. Such table indicates that soils
with the greatest piping resistance are the well compacted high plasticity clays, the
intermediate are the well graded coarse sand and sand gravel mixtures, and the least piping
resistance are the uniform fine cohesionless sands.
The soil erosion in earth structures, particularly in earth dams and levees, might occur
through the embankment, the foundation or from the embankment to foundation (Figs. 2a,
2b and 2c). This kind of erosion has the following phases: a) initiation and continuation of
erosion, b) progression to form a pipe, and c) formation of a breach (Fell et al., 2003). The
initiation of the soil erosion usually starts at the exit point of the seepage, and retrogressive
erosion results in the formation of a pipe. In fact, this is the reason why this erosion
phenomenon is also called piping (see Fig. 2c). The removal of a small portion of the earth
embankment or foundation by erosive action at any point, particularly at the exit part of the
downstream slope, accentuates the subsequent concentration of seepage and erosive forces
in that zone.

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286 Soil Erosion Studies

This effect, due to concentrated water leaks, varies somehow from what is called suffusion or
internal instability, which implies the internal movement of soil particles due to the
adjustment of internally unstable soils; this is the case of gap graded or very broadly graded
soils, such as coarse sands and gravels with small quantities of fine soils.

INITIATION CONTINUATION PROGRESSION BREACH/FAILURE

Concentrated leak
forms and erosion Enlargement of Breach mechanism
Continuation of erosion
initiates along walls concentrated leak forms
of crack
Fig. 2a. Piping in the embankment initiated by concentrated leak (After Fell et al., 2003)

INITIATION CONTINUATION PROGRESSION BREACH/FAILURE

Leakage exits from
Backward erosion in
the foundation and Breach mechanism
Continuation of erosion progresses to form a
backward erosion forms
pipe
initiations
Fig. 2b. Piping in the foundation initiated by backward erosion (After Fell et al., 2003)

INITIATION CONTINUATION PROGRESSION BREACH/FAILURE

Leakage exits from
Backward erosion in
the foundation and Breach mechanism
Continuation of erosion progresses to form a
backward erosion forms
pipe
initiations
Fig. 2c. Piping from embankment to foundation initiated by backward erosion (After Fell et
al., 2003)
The soil erosion problems also might occur in river banks. In tropical regions the intense
rainfalls originate large and quick variations of the water surface of rivers. Problems related

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 287

to rapid filling and drawdown conditions due to these oscillations of river water level and
also to the seepage forces generated by rain infiltration at the crown of the levees protecting
the margins of rivers are observed. Instability problems in river banks commonly begin with
erosion, which in some parts (depending on the type of soil) causes piping and might result
in landslides as shown in Figure 3 (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010).

Landslide

Beginning of erosion

Piping

Fig. 3. Evidences of instability in river banks caused by erosion (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta,
2010)

3. Factors affecting the earth erosion phenomenon

Main factors affecting the erosion phenomenon are: a) the erodibility of the soil; b) the water
velocity inside the soil mass or the water velocity on a river; c) geometry of the earth
structure through its size and shape.
Erodibility can be defined as the relationship between the velocity of the water flowing over
the soil and the corresponding erosion rate experienced by the soil. This definition of
erodibility presents some problems because water velocity is a vector quantity which varies
everywhere in the flow and is theoretically zero at the soil-water interface. It is preferable to
quantify the action of the water on soil by using the shear stress applied by the water on the
soil at the water-soil interface. Thus, erodibility of a soil can be defined by the relationship
between the erosion rate Z and the shear stress at the soil-water interface (Briaud, 2008):

Z f
.
(1)

Fig. 4. Proposed erosion categories for soils and rocks based on shear stress (Briaud, 2008)

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288 Soil Erosion Studies

As explained later in section 7.1, this erosion function can be obtained by using a laboratory
device called the erosion function apparatus EFA (Briaud et al., 2001). Recently, based on
erosion testing experience, erosion categories have been proposed in terms of water velocity
or shear stress. Erodibility as a function of water velocity is less representative and leads to
more uncertainties than using shear stress, as mentioned above. Then, Figure 4 shows these
proposed erosion categories for soils and rocks based on shear stress (Briaud, 2008).
According to this figure, it seems that grain size controls coarse grained soil erosion and
plasticity seems to have a significant influence on fine grain soil erosion.
Additionally, some of the most important properties influencing erodibility of soils are
listed in Table 2.

Soil water content Soil dispersion ratio

Soil unit weight Soil cation exchange cap
Soil plasticity index Soil sodium absorption rat
Soil undrained shear stress Soil pH
Soil void ratio Soil temperature
Soil swell Water temperature
Soil mean grain size Water salinity
Soil percent passing #200 Water pH
Soil clay minerals
Table 2. Soil properties influencing erodibility (Briaud, 2008)
On the other hand, the velocity of the water flow through the soil mass depends on the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the hydraulic gradient. According to several
experimental tests, the water flow through fine soils is considered to be laminar (water
particles move parallel each other), and such flow follows the Darcys law, giving the
following expression:

V = ki (2)
Where V = discharge velocity, k = hydraulic conductivity and i = hydraulic gradient.
The hydraulic conductivity of the soil is determined through laboratory or field tests; for
clean sands and gravel mixtures the hydraulic conductivity varies from 10-1 to 10-3 cm/sec,
whereas for very fine sands to homogeneous clays the k value varies from 10-4 to 10-9 cm/sec
(Lambe, 1951). The hydraulic gradient is given by the difference of the water head h1 at the
entrance and the water head h2 at the exit of a soil section, where there exist a water flow,
divided by the length L of the flow path. Using the information provided by Figure 5, the
hydraulic gradient is given by the following expression:

i = (h1 h2)/L = h/L (3)

As it can be observed in Eq. (3), the hydraulic gradient is dimensionless. Later in this
chapter, we demonstrate the existence of a hydraulic gradient that makes the effective
stresses among soil particles become zero, in such a way that the friction resistance forces
against erosion become nullified. The smallest hydraulic gradient that nullifies such stresses
is called critical and its value usually ranges between 1 0.20.
Some other factors affecting the internal soil erosion or piping in soils are: a) the degree of
compaction of the soil layers on the earth structure; b) the homogeneity and quality control

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 289

on the construction of the earth structure; for instance, if the permeability of the soil layers
varies from one another, there might exist a mayor seepage concentration on those layers of
higher permeability; c) the type of preventive measures in the downstream side of an earth
structure, such as graded filters designed to prevent displacement of the fine particles; d) the
compaction control along the installation of pipeline conduits; along such installations,
many initial leaks and piping effects have been reported in the literature (Flores-Berrones et
al., 2011); e) existence of hydraulic fracture in certain zones of an earth structure, where the
water pore pressure becomes larger than the minor principal stresses (Peck, 1976); f) as it
was already mentioned, the high plasticity soils, such as clays of high plasticity, are less
vulnerable to erosion than cohesionless soils.

Fig. 5. Constant water head permeameter

4. Analysis of seepage forces and their effect in slope stability

There are several practical cases where it is necessary to consider the forces produced by the
water flow for the slope stability analysis of an earth structure. In the case of earth dams and
levees, the water flow conditions that might occur and have to be consider for slope stability
analysis are the following: a) transient flow that occurs during the first filling or a rapid
drawdown conditions; b) constant flow which occurs sometimes after the reservoir is
operating under regular water flow conditions; c) anisotropic water flow when the
horizontal permeability is different than the vertical one. These three conditions might be
more complicated when seismic forces have to be considered.
The water flow effects on the stability of an earth structure are the following: a) internal soil
erosion o piping by removing and transporting soil particles, starting a duct that might
increase rapidly, producing a complete failure; b) water pressure increase that will decrease
the effective stresses and therefore decrease in the shear strength of the soil; c) increment on
the water flow forces due to gravity might significantly decrease the safety factor and
produce a slope failure.
Using either the graphical or numerical analysis, as it is explained later in this chapter, it is
possible to obtain the hydraulic gradient at any point of the flow region.
For the most common practical cases that exist in earth dams and levees, Flores Berrones et al.
(2003) have demonstrated that the water flow analysis can be reduced to a two dimensional
system, so equation (4) is the one that must be considered for steady-state conditions:

2h 2h
0
x 2 y 2
(4)

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290 Soil Erosion Studies

Fig. 6. Water flow forces over a soil element from the flow net (Flores et al., 2003)
This expression is the so-called Laplaces equation, which can be solved by different
methods. The most common technique is the graphical solution to such equation, which is
represented by two families of curves that intersect at right angles to form a pattern of
square figures known as a flow net. In hydromechanics one set of these lines is called the
streamlines or flow lines, and the other equipotentials. The flow net is constructed by setting
first the boundary flow and equipotential conditions, and later on some additional flow
lines are drawn in such a way that there will be, between each pair of flow lines, the same
amount of water volume q. The equipotential lines are constructed in such a way that there
exist equal head losses, h, between adjacent equipotential lines. Most flow nets are
composed of curves that form curvilinear squares. A detail description to construct a flow
net for any particular problem is given by Cedergren (1989) and Flores-Berrones (2000).
From a flow net it is possible to obtain the total volume of water per unit of length at any
part of the flow region, and also the water pressure, hydraulic gradient and flow velocity at
any point of the studied domain.
On the other hand, the force over a soil element of a flow net, produced by a water flow, is
analyzed in Figure 6. It can be observed in such figure that the force J per unit of length over
the soil element is given by:

J = h w A (1) = hw A (5)
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the soil element, and w is the volumetric unit weight
of water. The seepage force per unit of volume is:

h w A h
j w i w (6)
cA c
Where i is the hydraulic gradient.
For regions in which there exists a uniform water flow, with a constant hydraulic gradient,
the seepage force is given by:

J = i w V (7)

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 291

Where V is the soil volume through which the water flow is taking place. If the hydraulic
gradient is not constant but is a point function, the seepage force is the vector sum of all the
forces applied in the volume of each element; for this case such seepage force is given by:

J idV (8)
V

To illustrate the effect of the seepage force on soil erosion and slope stability, in Figure 7a are
given the total, neutral and effective stress distribution of a saturated soil sample, where there
is not a flow, whereas Figure 7b shows those stresses under the existence of an upward water
flow. In the last figure (Fig. 7b), it can be observed the decrease of the effective stresses as a
function of the water head h. It is important to notice that such stresses are nullified when:

h = Dm/w (9)
Where m is the submerged weight of soil, and w is the unit weight of water. Since for most
soils m w, the effective stresses become null when h/D = 1. As it was mentioned before,
this case is known as critical hydraulic gradient, and when it takes place, the resistance
friction forces of the soil particles against erosion also become zero. Under such conditions,
the probability of soil erosion, particularly for fine cohesionless soils, is very high.

Fig. 7a. Total (), neutral (u) and effective () stress distribution in a soil sample without
any water flow (Flores et al., 2003)

Fig. 7b. Total (), neutral (u), and effective () stress distribution in a soil sample with an
upward water flow (Flores et al., 2003)

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292 Soil Erosion Studies

As it has been demonstrated by some authors (Cedergren, 1989; Flores-Berrones et al., 2003),
seepage forces might decrease (or increase in some particular cases) the factor of safety on
the stability of earth dams and levees.

5. Graphical and numerical methods for analyzing the erosion problem

Solving soil erosion problems involves the calculation of hydraulic gradients, seepage
forces, water or pore pressure, flow velocities, flow rates, among other variables. The
assessment of such properties is carried out by solving partial differential equations. For
steady-state conditions, water flow is calculated by Laplaces equation (see eq. 4, applicable
to homogeneous and isotropic soils). For transient flow conditions in a homogeneous and
isotropic soil domain the following partial differential equation is used:

h
div kgrad h c Q
t
(10)

Where k is hydraulic conductivity of soil, h is hydraulic potential (also named hydraulic

head), c is specific capacity of soil, t is elapsed time and Q is a discharge quantity
corresponding to a possible source within the medium.
The above equations (eqs. 4 and 11) combine Darcys law and continuity of flow. They can
easily be generalized to the case of heterogeneous and anisotropic soils (Auvinet & Lopez-
Acosta, 2010; Lam et al., 1987). In the case of partially saturated soils, specific capacity
depends on porosity and degree of saturation. Deformability of soil skeleton is commonly
ignored. At the same time, degree of saturation and permeability depend on local pressure
(Van Genuchten, 1980).
The resolution of the above equations can be performed in an exact or an approximate form,
by analytical or numerical techniques (Alberro, 2006; Cedergren, 1989; Lopez-Acosta et al.,
2010; among others). Thus, the methods that can be used for evaluating steady and transient
state flow conditions include:
- Analytical solution of partial differential equations (Alberro, 2006).
- Approximate graphical method simply named flow nets for steady conditions, or
transient flow nets for transient conditions (Cedergren, 1989; Flores-Berrones, 2000).
- Numerical techniques such as finite element method (e.g. Plaxflow, Delft University of
Technology, 2007), or finite differences (e.g. Flac3D, ITASCA Consulting Group Inc.,
2009).
In general, exact and analytical solutions are laborious when geometric, hydraulic and
boundary conditions become complex. Approximate solutions are usually used. Nowadays,
numerical methods are preferred with increasing frequency due to their easy adaptation and
automation to widely varying conditions, and in general because of their capability for
solving complex problems. Numerical methods have been applied by different authors
(Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010; Freeze 1971; Huang & Jia, 2009; Lam & Fredlund 1984; Lam
et al., 1987; Ng & Shi, 1998; among others). The present chapter focuses on the finite element
method (FEM), using the Plaxflow algorithm (Delft University of Technology, 2007), a
specialized computer program which is applied to solve steady and transient flow problems
by means of the approximate solution of Laplaces equation and equation 11. This algorithm
utilizes the previously mentioned Van Genuchten model to represent flow in unsaturated
soils and allows carrying out steady-state analyses following the methodology indicated in

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 293

Figure 8a; and transient flow analyses in two different ways: 1) Step-wise conditions and, 2)
Time-dependent conditions as illustrated in Figure 8b. The Plaxflow algorithm provides
hydraulic potential field, flow velocity field, pore pressure, degree of saturation field,
among others, as exposed below.

- Geometry
- Boundary conditions
- Hydraulic conductivity
of materials

Steady-state flow
analysis

Hydraulic head, pore pressure,

flow velocity, flow rate, but
also degree of saturation, free
surfaces, upper flow lines, etc.

(a)

Transient-state flow analysis

Step-wise conditions Time-dependent conditions

Each stage is It explicitly considers the continuous
defined by constant variation of water level, which can
boundary be represented by linear or harmonic
conditions, that is, functions of time, or by particular
data of variation of water level
a specific water introduced by tables.
surface level
corresponding to
certain time
interval is assumed
in each phase.
18
(m)
agua (m)

17
16
Nivel delevel

15
14
13
Water

12
11
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
Time (day)
Tiempo (das)

(b)
Fig. 8. Types of flow analyses performed with Plaxflow algorithm (Lopez-Acosta & Auvinet,
2010)

6. Procedures and practical recommendations for preventing damages due to

soil erosion
The design of an earth dam or a levee is based on analytical studies of the site of
construction and on personal experience of the individual designer. At a given site, it is
possible to design a variety of earth dams which would be both, economical and safe. The
final design depends on the quantities, types and location of the soil available for
constructing the embankment, as well as the size and shape of the valley and the nature of
the foundation. Sherard et al. (1967) present several typical designs of earth and earth-rock

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294 Soil Erosion Studies

dams that have been constructed in the USA. Such dams vary from homogeneous earth
dams (constructed on rock or impervious stratum) to dams with embankments constructed
with different graduation materials and founded on either impervious or pervious soil
stratums.
As it was mentioned before, internal erosion might occur through the embankment or
through the dam foundation. To prevent earth erosion through the embankment, several
measures might be taken. The following recommendations should be considered:
a. Obtain the best selection of the available construction materials.
b. Control the homogeneity of the materials during the construction process.
c. Use transition zones between the coarse and fine materials.
d. Use properly designed filters and drains for all earth facilities exposed to the damaging
actions of water in their foundations or around the impervious core.
Properly designed filters should satisfy the following characteristics:
a. The filter should intercept water flowing through cracks or openings in protected soil
and block the movement of eroding soil particles into it. Therefore, there must be a
relationship between the size of the particles of the protected soil and the openings of
the filter.
b. Filters should have enough permeability to avoid high seepage gradients or water
pressures; this hydraulic condition means that the filter should act as a good drain.
c. Filter grain particles should not have migration or suffusion due to the water flow
action. This means that the filters should be designed to keep its internal structure
always stable.
In relation to the drain design, Cedergren (1989) recommends that designers should
analyze every component of a drainage system (filters, conducting layers, collectors, outlets,
and so on) to ensure that the entire system will have the necessary capacity and will
function as intended. On the other hand, the criteria for the filter design was first
established by Karl Terzaghi (1929) and later on modified by several authors (Sherard &
Dunnigan, 1989; Wan et al., 2002) and several institutions (ICOLD, 1994; USACE, 2000;
USBR, 2000; US Soil Conservation Service, 1994; among several others). Applications of
these criteria to a case history and its implications are reported by Flores-Berrones et al.
(2011). Sometimes it is necessary to use multi-layer filter systems, in which the
characteristics for each layer should satisfy the selected design criteria for those materials
surrounding the one under analysis.
For preventing soil erosion or piping through a pervious foundation of an earth structure,
the following measures might be taken:
a. Continuation of the impervious zone of the embankment up to an impervious soil
stratum or bedrock (Fig. 9a).
b. Construction of a grout curtain or a steel sheet piling or a concrete cutoff wall, below
the impervious core (Fig. 9b).
c. Impervious upstream blanket, in order to decrease the exit hydraulic gradient (Fig. 9c).
d. Combination of recommendations 1), 2) and 3) referred above. Sherard et al. (1967)
present several examples of earth and earth-rock dams that have been constructed
around the world, in which it is possible to observe alternative design solutions.
Cedergren (1989) recommends the use of high standards for all facets of design and
construction, use relatively wide impervious cores and other features that hold seepage
quantities and hydraulic gradients to the lowest practical levels, and provide well designed
and constructed filters and drains wherever needed. It is also recommended special

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 295

precaution when designing filters to protect gap-graded soils, and to avoid severe
segregation during the construction stage of any filter.
To protect the upstream faces of earth dams, levees, and in any other situations in which
erodible soils must be protected from rain currents and wave action, a layer of rock should
be placed. One or more filter layers should be placed between the rock slope protection
layer and the soil material that forms the earth embankment. Each transition filter layer
must also satisfy the filter criteria in such a way that internal erosion or piping effect does
not occur. For multi layer filters, the US Corp of Engineers (2000) and the US Bureau of
Reclamation (USBR, 2000) recommend that grading curves of such filters should be more or
less parallel between each other, in order to avoid segregation or clogging.
When filter fabrics are used, the protective filter is only the thickness of the fabric, which
may be as little as 1mm. It is therefore very important that no holes, tears or gaps be allowed
to form in the fabric. In this case, the openings between the filaments of a fabric should not
be so large that significant loss of soil can occur. If the D85 of a soil is larger than the near
maximum opening size of the fabric, little soil should be able to move through the mesh of
the fabric (Cedergren, 1989).

(a) Extension of the impervious core to (b) Impervious curtain through the pervious
bedrock or impervious stratum foundation

(c) Construction of an impervious upstream blanket

Fig. 9. Measures for preventing soil erosion or piping through a pervious foundation of an
earth structure

Fig. 10. Recommendations to protect levees on river banks (Auvinet et al., 2008)

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296 Soil Erosion Studies

Fig. 11. Recommendations to protect levees in urban areas exposed to flooding (Auvinet et
al., 2008)
In addition, Figures 10 and 11 illustrate respectively some practical recommendations that
should be taken into account for the protection of levees on the river banks, and levees that
are built in order to protect urban areas exposed to flooding (Auvinet et al., 2008).

7. Laboratory and field tests for analyzing erodible and special soils such as
dispersive
7.1 Analysis of the soil erodibility
Several devices have been developed to evaluate how resistant earth materials are to water
flow. Some of them are the rotating cylinder to measure the erosion properties of stiff soils (e.g.
Chapuis & Gatien, 1986); the jet test to evaluate the erodibility of surface soils (e.g. Hanson
1991), and the hole erosion test to measure the erosion properties of stiff soils (e.g. Wan and Fell
2004). Another popular device developed in the early 1990s to measure the erosion function is
the called Erosion Function Apparatus EFA (Briaud et al., 2001). The EFA test (Fig. 12) consists
of eroding a soil sample by pushing it out of a thin wall steel tube and recording the erosion
rate for a given velocity of the water flowing over it. Several velocities are used and the erosion
function is defined through the results of this test (Briaud et al., 2001).

(c)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 12. Erosion Function Apparatus EFA (Briaud et al., 2001)

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 297

7.2 Identification of dispersive soils

Additionally, as it was mentioned before, soil erosion is likely to occur in certain types of
soils. Among those are certain types of clay which erode by a process called dispersion or
deflocculation, that occurs when the clay mass is in contact with water. If water is flowing,
individual clay particles are detached and carried away through erosion channels or pipes
that can form rapidly. As it is established by Cedergren (1989), one of the problems related
with dispersive clay action, is that the deflocculation process starts as soon as there is a
significant flow of water, as it can occur through poorly compacted or cracked layer in an
impervious core, or along inadequate bonded contacts with rock foundations, abutments, or
outlet conduits extending across the impervious core.
The practical relevance of dispersive clays in dam engineering, started about 60 years ago
after realizing that it was the main cause of piping failure of several small earth dams and
levees. Most of the earth embankment failures caused by dispersive soils occur during the
first filling. If there are no well designed and constructed filters upstream and downstream
of the core embankment that has these clays, the probability of an internal erosion failure
will be very high. This probability might increase when preexisting surface erosion caused
by rainfall contributes to the formation of superficial channels that become connected to
tunnels originated by internal erosion. As this type of soil is not possible to identify through
the conventional index tests, it was necessary to develop certain laboratory and field
procedures for its identification.
Whereas the susceptibility to erosion in cohesionless soils, such as fine sands and silts, is due
to high values of water flow velocity, hydraulic gradients and seepage forces, normal clays
are usually erosion resistant, except for water velocity higher than 1 m/sec. Nevertheless,
for dispersive clays the erosion phenomena occur due to causes that are different to those
associated with granular soils. Such causes are due to the following characteristics:
a. Physic-chemical characteristics. The erosion resistance property that normal clays
have, due to the electrochemical attraction between clay particles, is reduced to a
minimum in dispersive clays, due to their physic-chemical characteristics. Therefore,
under a low water flow the dispersive clay particles tend to separate and taken away
easily by the water current. The rate of erosion of these clay particles might be higher
than the one that takes place in fine sands and silts. There are several factors that affect
the dispersive action of these clays, among which are their chemistry and mineralogy,
as well as the kind of salts that exist in the pore water and the circulated water. The
principal difference between dispersive clays and ordinary erosion-resistant clays
appear to be the nature of the cations in the pore water of the clay mass. Dispersive
clays have a preponderance of sodium, whereas ordinary clays have a preponderance
of calcium, potassium, and magnesium cations in the pore water (Knodel, 1988).
b. Physical characterization. Dispersive clays are not related to any specific geological
origin, but they have been founded under alluvial environment, in lakes and in flood
plain deposits. They are very important in hydraulic structures, such as earth dams,
levees and channels, since many of them are constructed over such soils. In some cases
marine deposits have the same pore water salts as dispersive clays, and the residual
soils from such deposits are also dispersive.
c. Mechanical characterization. The external erosion or piping, caused by a water flow is
very obvious and it occurs in granular or cohesionless soils. As it has been said, in this
case it starts at the discharge end of a leak, at the downstream side of an earth

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298 Soil Erosion Studies

embankment, where there exists a high hydraulic gradient; such phenomenon

progresses upstream, forming a kind of pipe until it reaches the water source. With
dispersive clays, however, the internal erosion is due to a deflocculation process and it
might start at the upstream side where there is the water source; the tunnel-shape
passage or pipe, that is formed, is propagated toward the downstream side. If such
dispersive soils exist in areas where there are already some cracks, or not well
compacted zones as those presented along conduits, such cracks might increase and
propagate very rapidly causing a dam failure.

7.2.1 Field and laboratory test for dispersive soils

During the field investigation to construct an earth dam, particularly when looking for the
materials that might be used to construct the embankments, it is very important to identify
the existence of dispersive soils. This identification should be done first through one of the
special field tests that exist for this purpose. Although the results of such tests must be
verified through laboratory tests, field tests might give a good preliminary evaluation of the
dispersivity of the soils under investigation. Knodel (1988) presents a good description of
the most common laboratory and field tests that are used in the engineering practice to
identify the dispersivity of soils. Among them are the following: a) for field: crumb test, water
drop test, dissolved sodium test, and turbidity test; b) for laboratory: crumb test, the double
hydrometer test, pinhole test and chemical test.

7.2.2 Design considerations when constructing with dispersive clays

For any earth construction it is necessary to investigate, by using one or more of those
methods mentioned above, the existence of dispersive soils; this investigation can be carried
out through soil samples obtained in open wells during the soil exploration phase. Once the
construction materials have been identified, a decision to use or refuse them has to be taken.
Sometimes dispersive soils might be used in earth structures if they are mixed with lime or
if well designed filters and drains are installed. If for economical reason it is decided to use
dispersive clays, the following conditions have to be taken into account:
a. Arching. This problem might occur in zones around conduits through the embankment,
near concrete structures, and at the foundation interface. In order to avoid negative effects,
special control of compaction and moisture content during construction should be taken.
b. Cracking due to differential settlements caused by soil consolidation, stress
concentration, two or three dimensional effects, etcetera, should be avoided.
c. Soil improvement of the dispersive clay, by adding hydrated lime or non dispersive
clay of medium to high plasticity. Special care should be taken in compacting soil
adjacent to rigid structures such as conduits.
d. Construction control. Special standards and specifications should be used when
dispersive soils are involved in the construction of earth structures, particularly those
related to soil density and compaction procedures. For instance, there should not be
moisture concentration while adding water to obtain the specified water content during
layers compaction. Special monitoring consideration to dams with cores containing
dispersive soils, should be giving during the first filling, in order to prevent any piping
or internal erosion effect. Observation instruments are particularly recommended to
periodically measure water pressures, water leaks and water levels at different zones of
the embankment.

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 299

8. Practical examples to illustrate the analysis of earth erosion problem

caused by rapid filling and drawdown conditions in embankments
8.1 General settings
The wet slope of an earth dam, lake or river banks and channel slopes are frequently
subjected to sudden changes of water level (increments or decrements), which modify flow
conditions inside the soil mass. Flow velocities, hydraulic gradients and seepage forces
might, in extreme conditions, cause soil erosion problems ranging from slight to severe,
such as piping or even the total failure of the structure. These phenomena, known as rapid
filling and rapid drawdown, are complex problems in which the magnitude and rate of filling
or drawdown, hydraulic conductivity and porosity of materials constituting the earth
structure, geometry of slope and initial boundary conditions of flow are involved (Auvinet
& Lopez-Acosta, 2010). By using the Plaxflow algorithm (Delft University of Technology,
2007), analyses to assess how these two phenomena affect soil erosion in earth structures are
carried out through a numerical modeling based on finite element method (FEM) (Auvinet
& Lopez-Acosta, 2010; Lopez-Acosta et al., 2010).

8.2 Analysis considering only rapid drawdown phenomenon

In this practical example, the effect of rapid drawdown phenomenon on erosion problems in
a typical embankment is analyzed (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010). Simplified geometry of
the studied domain and boundary conditions considered in this analysis are shown in
Figure 13. Rate of drawdown was established at 1.1m/day. Thus, a total dewatering of 5.5m
in 5 days was assumed in this analysis. In the same way, it was accepted that embankment
is constituted by a homogeneous and isotropic material with hydraulic conductivity k=110-
5 m/s and porosity n = 0.3 (void ratio e = 0.43).

Initial level
5.5 m

Homogeneous and 6m
isotropic soil

=26.57
Final level
0.0 m
12 m Impervious boundary
30 m
Fig. 13. Simplified geometry and boundary conditions of the studied embankment (Auvinet
& Lopez-Acosta, 2010)
From results of analyses (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010), Figure 14 shows, for a typical time
interval during drawdown (t=4 d), the free surface line which separates unsaturated material
(upper part) from saturated material. Variation of this free surface, called desaturation line (for
drawdown), obtained at different time intervals during rapid drawdown is illustrated in
Figure15. Other authors prefer to call it phreatic line (Huang & Jia, 2009; Lam & Fredlund 1984;
Lam et al., 1987). It must be underlined that this free surface line is not rigorously a flow line
since velocity vectors cross it (see Figs. 16a and b). In the same way, results from analysis
demonstrate that during drawdown, when water surface descends, large velocities are
generated at the contact between the level of water and the slope (which are proportional to
hydraulic gradients, and consequently to seepage forces in that zone); these velocities can

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300 Soil Erosion Studies

facilitate local piping of material of these regions and jeopardize slope stability. The
existence of this maximum flow velocity close to the slope and under the level of water can be
observed in Figures 16a and 16b (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010).
(%)

Free surface

Fig. 14. Variation of degree of saturation for t = 4 d (345200 s) (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta,
2010)

7.0
t=1.6 h
6.0
t=1 d
Values of H (m)

5.0 t=2 d
4.0 t=3 d
t=4 d
3.0 t=5 d
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0
Distance X (m)
Fig. 15. Variation of desaturation line at different time intervals during rapid drawdown
(Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010)

(a) t = 1 d (86000 s) Desaturation line

Vmx=2.4610-6 m/s

(b) t = 4 d (345200 s) Desaturation line

Vmx=4.6610-6 m/s

Fig. 16. Velocity vectors (magnitude) for two different time intervals during rapid
drawdown (Auvinet & Lopez-Acosta, 2010)

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 301

Figure 17 shows the maximum exit hydraulic gradient (imax=0.499) reached at the toe of
slope at the end of the rapid drawdown (t=5 d). Additionally, Figure 18 illustrates how the
free surface line and velocity vectors change due to the placement of a horizontal drain
inside the embankment (Lezama, 2010). The most conspicuous difference can be observed in
the reduction of hydraulic gradient at the toe of slope at the end of rapid drawdown (t=5 d),
from imax=0.499 to imax=0.25. This demonstrates the usefulness of placing drains in order to
reduce soil erosion problems in earth structures.

Desaturation line

imax = 0.499

Fig. 17. Hydraulic gradients (magnitude) at the end of rapid drawdown (t=5 d) (Lezama,
2010)

Desaturation line

imax = 0.25 Horizontal drain

Fig. 18. Changing in velocity vectors and reduction of hydraulic gradient (magnitude) at the
end of rapid drawdown (t=5 d) due to the placement of a horizontal drain into the levee
(Lezama, 2010)

8.3 Analysis considering both rapid filling and drawdown phenomena

This example focuses on studying the effects on soil erosion due to transient flow within a
levee as water level of a river increases and decreases because of the rain cycles in a tropical
region. Simplified geometry of studied domain including foundation soil of the levee is
illustrated in Figure 19. Properties of materials are specified in Table 3 (Lopez-Acosta et al.,
2010).

4.0m

1 2 3 6.7m
7

4
5 10.4m
6
100.0m
Fig. 19. Simplified geometry and material number of the studied domain (Lopez-Acosta et
al., 2010)

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302 Soil Erosion Studies

N Material Hydraulic conductivity, k Void ratio, e

-6
1 Clay sand (SC) 0.0864 m/d (110 m/s) 0.43
2 Sandy clay of low plasticity (CL) 0.0864 m/d (110-6 m/s) 0.50
Organic sandy-clay silt of high
3
plasticity (OH) 0.00864 m/d (110-7 m/s) 0.90

4 Clay sand (SC) 0.0864 m/d (110-6 m/s) 0.43

-6
5 Silty sand (SM) 0.0864 m/d (110 m/s) 0.43
-7
6 Organic clay of high plasticity (OH) 0.00864 m/d (110 m/s) 0.90
7 Clay levee 0.00864 m/d (110-7 m/s) 0.70
Table 3. Properties of material layers (Lopez-Acosta et al., 2010)
Boundary conditions assumed for analyses were as follows:
- For filling: water surface ascends from initial level of 13.7m up to maximum level of
16.4m, in a period of 17 days (variation is illustrated in Figure 20).
- For drawdown: water surface descends from maximum level of 16.4m up to final level of
11.3m, in a period of 27 days (variation is shown in Figure 20).

Fig. 20. Boundary conditions assumed for analyses (Lopez-Acosta et al., 2010)
From results of analyses (Lopez-Acosta et al., 2010), it is interesting to note that during
transient flow certain regions of higher hydraulic gradients and flow velocities are
generated, as appreciated in Figures 21 and 22, respectively. Predominantly, the highest
values of hydraulic gradients and velocities take place at the toe of downstream slope of
levee. Specifically, the gradient values of those areas greater than the so-called critical
gradient (>1) could facilitate global piping through the body of levee or through the
foundation soil (Figure 21). These above mentioned highest values occur when maximum
level of water surface is achieved (day 17 of filling). Additionally, it can be observed that
during rapid filling velocity vectors are directed towards downstream (Figure 22a) and
during rapid drawdown the direction of some of these vectors changes towards upstream
(Figure 22b). Particularly, during rapid drawdown it can be observed that velocities and
gradients generated near the upstream slope, as water level descends, are not negligible; in
extreme conditions they could facilitate local erosion of material in those zones (Lopez-Acosta
et al., 2010).

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 303

In the same way, from Figures 21 and 22, it can also be observed that in general the highest
values of flow velocity occur in the more pervious materials of the studied domain; in
contrast, the highest values of hydraulic gradient arise in the less pervious materials of this
domain. This is a suggestion that instability problems of levees could not be solved by
constructing them with more impervious material, but rather building them with more or
less pervious material or even placing drains in strategic areas of the body of levees (Lopez-
Acosta et al., 2010). Some authors have indeed concluded that soils with a low hydraulic
conductivity, such as clayey and silty soils, are more prone to slope failure than more
pervious materials such as granular soils (Pradel & Raad, 1993).
Based on previous results, it can be said that in the case of slope stability analysis, it should
be considered on the one hand, the susceptibility to erosion of the material used for
constructing the levee; but on the other one, the analysis must also consider measures to
decrease the hydraulic gradients and seepage forces generated within the soil mass.
Quite recently, some types of analyses based on probabilistic methods have been suggested
for the study of levees in general. Hubel et al. (2010) presented a practical approach to assess
combined levee erosion, seepage forces, and slope stability failure modes; they developed
response curves for landside and waterside slope stability, as well as landside seepage
failure modes for various hydrostatic water loads. In a similar context, the Army Corps of
Engineers (Lee & Wibowo, 2007, as cited in Hubel et al., 2010) used the limit state approach
for estimating the probability of levee erosion that might induce a breaching failure.

Fig. 21. Hydraulic gradients (magnitude) for three different times during rapid filling and
drawdown (Lopez-Acosta et al., 2010)

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304 Soil Erosion Studies

V=1.1910-2 m/d Vmax=1.3810-2 m/d

V=1.2310-2 m/d

(a) Day 17 of filling

V=3.5410-3 m/d Vmx=7.5510-3 m/d

(b) Day 44 of drawdown

Fig. 22. Velocity vectors (magnitude) for two different time intervals during rapid filling and
drawdown (exaggerated scale) (Lopez-Acosta et al., 2010)

9. Conclusions and recommendations

The main conclusions and recommendations derived from this chapter are the following:
If internal erosion caused by water flow or seepage through earth dams, levees, and
other earth structures that contain water is not detected in time and if corrective actions
are not taken to stop or control such erosion, the consequences may be a complete

failure of that structure.

The process of soil erosion might occur through the mass of the earth structure or
through its foundation. The initiation of this process usually starts at the exit point of

the seepage and retrogressive erosion results in the formation of a pipe.

The main factors that affect the erosion phenomenon are: a) the erodibility of the soil; b)
the water velocity inside the soil mass; c) geometry of the earth structure. The
erodibility of the soil depends on several factors, such as water content, plasticity index,
undrained shear strength, mean grain size, percent passing #200, soil clay minerals, soil

dispersion ratio, water salinity, soil pH and water pH, among other factors.
The seepage forces that affect the erosion problem are related to the hydraulic gradient that
exists in the soil mass. This gradient might be computed and analyzed through the graphical

flow net method or through one of the numerical methods that exist in the literature.
Several procedures and practical recommendations were presented for preventing
damages due to soil erosion. Among those are: a) Obtain the best selection of available
construction materials; b) Control the homogeneity of the materials during the
construction process; c) Use transition zones between the coarse and fine materials; d)
Use properly designed filters and drains for all earth facilities exposed to damaging

actions of water in their foundations or around the impervious core.

The erodibility of soils might be analyzed through laboratory and field tests. Some of
the most common of these tests were mentioned in this chapter, particularly the ones
related to the identification of dispersive soils.

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Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through Earth Dams and Earth Structures 305

The applicability of the concepts presented in this chapter was illustrated through some
examples related to the analysis of soil erosion problems caused by rapid filling and
drawdown conditions in earth embankments.

10. References
Alberro, J. (2006). Effect of transient flows on the behavior of earth structures, 8th Nabor Carrillo
Lecture, Mexican Society of Geotechnical Engineering SMIG, Tuxtla Gutierrez,
Chiapas Mexico (in Spanish)
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Project of Tabasco (PHIT), Research Report of Geotechnical Department, Institute of
Engineering UNAM, Mexico (in Spanish)
Auvinet, G. & Lopez-Acosta, N.P. (2010). Rapid drawdown condition in submerged slopes,
In: 15 Presentations of friends and colleagues in tribute to Eng. Jess Alberro Aramburu,
Edited by Institute of Engineering UNAM and the Mexican Society of Geotechnical
Engineering (SMIG), pp. 167-189, ISBN 978-607-02-0866-9, Mexico (in Spanish)
Briaud, J.-L.; Ting, F.; Chen, H. C.; Cao, Y.; Han, S.-W. & Kwak, K. (2001). Erosion function
apparatus for scour rate predictions. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 2, pp. 105-113
Briaud, J. L. (2008). Case histories in soil and rock erosion: Woodrow Wilson bridge, Brazos
river meander, Normandy cliffs and New Orleans levees. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 134, No. 10, (October 1, 2008), ASCE, pp. 1424-1447
Brinkgreve, R.B.J.; Al-Khoury, R. & Van Esch, J. M. (2006). Plaxflow User Manual Version 1.4,
Balkema, The Netherlands
Casagrande, A. (1968). Notes of engineering 262 Course, Vol. 1, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Cedergren, H. (1989). Seepage, drainage and flow nets, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
New York
Chapuis, R. P. & Gatien, T. (1986). An improved rotating cylinder technique for quantitative
measurements of scour resistance of clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, No. 23, pp.
83-87
Fell, R.; Wan, C. H. & Foster, M. (2003). Progress report on methods for estimating the probability
of failure of embankment dams by internal erosion and piping, The University of New
South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Flores-Berrones, R. (2000). Water flow through soils, Avances en Hidrulica, Mexican Hydraulic
Association and Mexican Institute of Water Technology, Mexico (in Spanish)
Flores-Berrones, R.; Alva-Garcia, F. & Li Liu, X. (2003). Effect of water flow on slope stability.
Hydraulic Engineering in Mexico, Vol. 18, No. 2, (April-June), pp. 35-52 (in Spanish)
Flores-Berrones, R.; Ramirez Reynaga M. & Macari, E. J. (2011). Internal Erosion and
Rehabilitation of an Earth Dam. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, Vol. 137, No. 2, (February 1, 2011), ASCE, pp. 150-160
Freeze, R. A. (1971). Influence of the unsaturated flow domain on seepage through earth
dams. Water Resources Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 929-941
Hanson, G. J. (1991). Development of a jet index to characterize erosion resistance of soils in
earthen spillways. Transaction ASAE, Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 2015-2020
Huang, M. & Jia C-Q. (2009). Strength reduction FEM in stability analysis of soil slopes subjected
to transient unsaturated seepage. Computers and Geotechnics, No. 36, pp. 93-101
Hubel, B. A.; Letter, Jr. J. V.; Goodhue, M. & Lee, L. T. (2010). A practical approach to asses
combined levee erosion, seepage, and slope stability failure modes, Geotechnical

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Special Publication No. 210, American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),

Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Scour and Erosion (ICSE-5), ISBN 978-
0-7844-1147-6, San Francisco, CA, USA, November 7-10, 2010, pp. 273-282
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and Rehabilitation, pp. 176-182, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
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model for geotechnical engineering. Advances in Water Resources, No. 7, pp. 132-136
Lam, L.; Fredlund, D.G. & Barbour, S. L. (1987). Transient seepage model for saturated-
unsaturated soil systems: a geotechnical engineering approach. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, No. 24, pp. 565-580
Lambe, T. W. (1951). Soil Testing for Engineers, John Wiley and Sons, New York
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areas exposed to flooding, Thesis work (for Geophysical Engineering degree), Faculty
of Engineering (Division of Earth Sciences), National University of Mexico
(UNAM), Mexico (Directed by N.P. Lopez-Acosta, in Spanish)
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rapid filling and drawdown in protection levees, Geotechnical Special Publication
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dams, Chap. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York
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(April 2000)
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No. 13, Embankment Dams, Denver
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and gravel filters, In: National Engineering Handbook, pp. 633, United States
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conductivity of unsaturated soils. Journal of Soil Science Society of America, Vol. 44,
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Wan, C. F.; Fell, R. & Foster, M. A. (2002). Experimental investigation of the rate of piping erosion
of soils in embankment dams, ANCOLD Conference on Dams, Sidney, Australia
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Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 4, pp. 373-380

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 Soil Erosion Studies
Edited by Dr. Danilo Godone

ISBN 978-953-307-710-9
Hard cover, 320 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 21, November, 2011
Published in print edition November, 2011

Soil erosion affects a large part of the Earth surface, and accelerated soil erosion is recognized as one of the
main soil threats, compromising soil productive and protective functions. The land management in areas
affected by soil erosion is a relevant issue for landscape and ecosystems preservation. In this book we
collected a series of papers on erosion, not focusing on agronomic implications, but on a variety of other
relevant aspects of the erosion phenomena. The book is divided into three sections: i) various implications of
land management in arid and semiarid ecosystems, ii) erosion modeling and experimental studies; iii) other
applications (e.g. geoscience, engineering). The book covers a wide range of erosion-related themes from a
variety of points of view (assessment, modeling, mitigation, best practices etc.).

How to reference
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Raul Flores-Berrones and Norma Patricia Lopez-Acosta (2011). Internal Erosion Due to Water Flow Through
Earth Dams and Earth Structures, Soil Erosion Studies, Dr. Danilo Godone (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-710-9,
InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/soil-erosion-studies/internal-erosion-due-to-water-
flow-through-earth-dams-and-earth-structures

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