ee | Gating Systems for Casting Objectives After completing the chapter the reader will be able to © Understand the importance of the various elements present in a gating system © Design the gating system for different castings © Appreciate the risering requirements and design them for different castings 41 INTRODUCTION As defined earlier, gating systems refer to all those elements, which are con from the ladle to the mould cavity. The various elements that are connected with a gating system (Fig. 4.1) are, ected with the flow of molten metal Pouring basin * Sprue base well * Sprue * Ru ¢ Runner extension ner Open top or |-— bob riser Open top or __ bob riser Casting Fig. 4.1 Typical gating system126 Manufacturing Technology In this chapter, the functions and the design of the various elements of a gating system will be discussed. Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect-free casting. This can be achieved by making provision for certain requirements while designing the gating system. These are as follows: 1. The mould should be completely filled in the smallest time possible without having to raise the metal temperatures or use higher metal heads. The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A turbulent metal flow tends to form dross in the mould. 3. Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould material should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity. 4. The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented. 5. A proper thermal gradient be maintained so that the casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions. 6. Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould erosion takes place. 7. The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould cavity. 8. The gating system design should be economical and easy to implement and remove after casting solidification. 9. Ultimately, the casting yield should be maximised. v To have all these requirements together is a tall order, still mould designer should strive to achieve as many of the above objectives as possible. Before going into the mechanics of gating design, let us describe some of the functions and types of the various gating-system elements. 41.1 Elements of a Gating System 1. Pouring Basin The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity because it may cause mould erosion. Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin, which acts as a reservoir from which it moves smoothly into the sprue. The pouring basin is also able to stop the slag from entering the mould cavity by means of a skimmer or skim core, as shown in Fig. 4.2, It holds back the slag and dirt which floats on the top and only allows the clean metal underneath it into the sprue. The pouring basin may be cut into the cope portion directly or a separate dry sand pouring basin may be prepared and used as shown in Fig. 4.2, The molten metal in the pouring basin should be full during the pouring operation, otherwise a funnel is likely to form through which atmospheric air and slag may enter the mould cavity. One of the walls of the pouring basin is made inclined at about 45° to the horizontal. The molten metal is poured on this face such that metal momentum is absorbed and vortex formation is avoided. In some special cases, the pouring basin may consists of partitions to allow for the trapping of the slag and maintaining constant metal height in the basin. The main function of a pouring basin is to reduce the momentum of the liquid flowing into the mould by settling first into it. In order that the metal enters into the sprue without any turbulence, it is necessary that the pouring basin be deep enough, and also the entrance into the sprue be a smooth radius of at least 25 mm. Experience shows that the pouring-basin depth of 2.5 times the sprue entrance diameter is enough for smooth metal flow and to prevent vortex formation, as shown in Fig. 4.3.ating Systems for Casting = ADT ‘Skim core | ae BR AN woe po) SOM Cope (a) Green sand (b) Dry sand Fig. 4.2. Pouring basin Fig. 4.3 Pouring-tasin proportions In order that a vortex is not formed during pouring, it is necessary that the pouring basin be kept full. Further provision should be made in the pouring basin so that constant conditions of flow are established. This can be achieved by using a strainer core, as in Fig. 4.4a. A strainer core is a ceramic-coated screen with many small holes. The strainer restricts the flow of metal into the sprue and thus helps in quick filling of the pouring basin. It helps in providing a smooth flow while restricting the flow of slag into the mould. A ceramic filter as shown in Fig. 4.4b completely stops slag allowing only clean metal to go into the sprue, and also ensures a constant flow of metal. The metal should be poured steadily into the pouring basin keeping the lip of the ladle as close as possible. Pouring basins are most desirable with castings in alloys which form troublesome oxide skins (aluminium, aluminium bronze, etc.) 2 Sprue Sprue is the channel through which the molten metal is brought into the parting plane, where it enters the runners and gates to ultimately reach the mould cavity. The molten metal when moving from top of the cope to the parting plane gains in velocity, and as a consequence, requires a smaller area of cross section for the128 Wanufacturing Technology (a) ) Fig. 4.4 Pouring-tasin designs witha strainer coe (a) and caramic-foam fer (b) i i i 1 I! i I! 1 Air \ H 1 i (a) Straight sprue (b) Tapered Fig. 45 Sprue design: (a) Straight () Tapered same amount of metal to flow at the top. If the sprue were to be straight-cylindrical as shown in Fig. 4.5(a) then the metal flow would not be full at the bottom, but some low-pressure area would be created around the metal in the sprue. Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air would be breathed into this low-pressure area, which would then be carried to the mould cavity. To eliminate this problem of air aspiration, the sprue is tapered to gradually reduce the cross section as it moves away from the top of the cope as shown in Fig. 4.5(b) | The exact tapering can be obtained by the equation of continuity. Denoting the top and choke sections o1 the sprue by the subscripts r and c respectively, we get AV, = AM, Ve or At= Ac Ve Since the velocities are proportional to the square of the potential heads, it can be derived from Bernoulli’ equation, he hy Ai=AcGating Systems for Casting 123 The square root suggests that the profile of the sprue should be parabolic if exactly done as per the above equation, But making a parabolic sprue is too inconvenient in practice and, therefore, a straight taper is preferable. It has been found in practice that a straight tapered sprue is able to effectively reduce the air aspiration, as well as increase the flow rate, compared to a cylindrical sprue, In order to arrive at the dimensions of the sprue at the top and the subsequent taper, one has to consider the head of the metal in the pouring basin as shown in Fig. 4.6. Metal at the entry of the sprue would be fh moving with a velocity of /2gh and, hence, hy _ [he h Cope p where H>= actual sprue height Drag « and ht Fig. 4.8 Sprue proportions Table 4.1 shows the theoretical values of area ratios of top and choke portions of the sprue based on sprue height and metal head in the pouring basin. ‘Though these ratios are theoretically correct, often it is not possible to control exactly the amount of the head in the pouring basin during the pouring. Hence, it is a general practice to neglect the effect of the pouring- basin head, and proportion the sprue top solely based on the sprue height alone. Table 41 Theoretical atin of srve tp and chole ares based on pouring basin depth era) Ey 150 300 Ea 1414 L1ss 1.118 1,095 1.732 1.291 1.225 1.183 2.000 1414 1,323 1.265 2.236 1.528 Lala 1342 2.450 1,633 1,500 1414 2.915 L871 1.696 1,581 3.317 2.082 1.871 1.732 3.742 2.309 2.062 1,897 8. Sprue Base Well This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue, to reduce the momentum of the molten metal. The molten metal as it moves down the sprue gains in velocity, some of which is lost in the sprue-base well by which the mould erosion is reduced. This molten metal then changes direction and flows into the runners in a more uniform way. Reasonable proportions for a sprue-base well are presented in Fig. 4.7. A general guideline could be that the sprue-base-well area should be five times that of the sprue choke area, and the well depth should be approximately equal to that of the runner. Fora narrow and deep runner, the well diameter should be 2.5 times the width of the runner in a two-runner system, and twice its width in a one-runner system.130 Manufacturing Technology 2.5W == Sprue-base-well design 4, Runner It is generally located in the horizontal plane (parting plane), which connects the sprue to its in-gates, thus allowing the metal to enter the mould cavity. The runners are normally made trapezoidal in cross section. It is a general practice for ferrous metals to cut the runners in the cope and the in-gates in the drag. The main reason for this is to trap the slag and dross, which are lighter and thus trapped in the upper portion of the runners. For effective trapping of the slag, runners should flow full as shown in Fig. 4.8(a). When the amount of molten metal coming from the down sprue is more than the amount flowing through the in-gates, the runner would always be full and thus slag-trapping would take place. But when the metal flowing through the in-gates is more than that flowing through the runners then the runner would be filled only partially as shown in Fig. 4.8(b), and the slag would then enter the mould cavity. I Slag Runner Slag Runner = = ey (a) Runner full (b) Runner partially full Fig. 4.8 Runner: (a) Full runner (4) Runner partially fol 5. Runner Extension The runner is extended a little further after it encounters the in-gate. This extension is provided to trap the slag in the molten metal. The metal initially comes along with the slag, floating at the top of the ladle, and flows straight going beyond the in-gate, and then trapped in the runner extension.‘ating Systems for Casting 131 41.2 Gates or In-gates These are the openings through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity. The shape and the cross section of the in-gate should be such that it can readily be broken off after casting solidification, and also that it allows the metal to enter quietly into the mould cavity. Depending on the application, various types of gates are used in the casting design. They are the following: 1 Top Gate This is the type of gating through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity from the top as shown in Fig. 4.9. Since the first metal entering the gate reaches the bottom and hotter metal is at the top, a favourable temperature gradient towards the gate is achieved. Also, the mould is filled very quickly. But as the metal falls directly into the mould cavity through a height, it is likely to cause mould erosion, Also, because it causes turbulence in the mould cavity, it is prone to form dross and as such the top gate is not advisable for those materials, which are likely to form excessive dross. It is not suggested for nonferrous materials and is suggested only for ferrous alloys. It is suitable only for simple casting shapes, which are essentially shallow in nature. To reduce the mould erosion, pencil gates (Fig. 4.9a) are provided in the pouring cup. This type of gate requires minimum of additional runners to lead the liquid metal into the cavity, and as such provides higher casting yield. Capabilities of top-gating system are significantly extended by using direct pour-top gating system, incorporating insulating sleeve with a ceramic foam filter as shown in Fig. 4.9b. Insulating /sleeve Pouring cup Strainer core / Ceramic > filer = Cope Cope Drag PE Brag Mold cavity (a) (b) Fig. 4.8 Topgate 2 Battam Gate When molten metal enters the mould cavity slowly as shown in Fig. 4.10, it would not cause any mould erosion. The bottom gate is generally used for very deep moulds. It takes somewhat higher time for the filling of the mould. These gates may cause unfavourable temperature gradients compared to the top gating. Thus, the system may have to use additional padding of sections towards risers, and large riser sizes to compensate for the unfavourable temperature distribution. Bottom gating may sometimes be preferable in conjunction with the use of side risers, since the metal enters the riser directly without going through the mould cavity.132 Weanufecturng Technology Pouring basin Sprue Casting Sprue base well Runner _— Runner extension Fig. 4.10 Bottom gate 3. Parting Gate This is the most widely used gate in sandcastings. As the name implies, the metal enters the mould at the parting plane, when part of the casting is in the cope and part is in the drag as in Fig. 4.11. For the mould cavity in the drag, it is a top gate and for the cavity in cope, it is a bottom gate. Thus, this type of gating tries to derive the best of both the types of gates, viz. top and bottom gates. Of all the gates, this is also the easiest and most economical in preparation. However, if the drag portion of the mould cavity is deep, it is likely to cause mould erosion and aggravate dross formation and air entrapment in the case of nonferrous alloys. This can be somewhat reduced by making the gate area large such that the liquid-metal velocity is minimised and it flows slowly along the walls into the mould cavity. Mould cavity Fig. 4.11 Parting gateGating Systems for Casting = 133 4, Step Gate Such gates are used for heavy and large castings. The molten metal enters (Fig. 4.12) mould cavity through a number of in-gates, which are arranged in vertical steps. The size of in-gates are normally increased from top to bottom such that metal enters the mould cavity from the bottom-most gate and then progressively moves to the higher gates. This ensures a gradual filling of the mould without any mould erosion and produces a sound casting, In designing a casting, it is essential to choose a suitable gate, considering the casting material, casting shape and size so as to produce a sound casting. Pouring basin PL Mould cavity Drag Fig. 412 Step gate 5. Riser Most foundry alloys shrink during solidification, Table 4.2 shows the various volumetric shrinkages for typical materials. As a result of this volumetric shrinkage during solidification, voids are likely to form in the castings, as shown in Fig. 4.13, unless additional molten metal is fed into these places which are termed hot spots, since they remain hot till the end. Hence, a reservoir of molten metal is to be maintained from which the metal can flow readily into the casting when the need arises. These reservoirs are called risers. As shown in Table 4.2, different materials have different shrinkages and hence the risering requirements vary for the materials. In grey cast iron, because of graphitisation during solidification, there may be an increase in volume sometimes. This of course, depends on the degree of graphitisation in grey cast iron, which is controlled by the silicon content. In order to make them effective, the risers should be designed keeping the following in mind. ‘© The metal in the riser should solidify in the end. © The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating the shrinkage in the casting.134 Nanufscturing Technology Table 4.2 —olumetic quid srintages eee Eero Medium-carbon steel 2.50 to 3.50 High-carbon steel 4.00 Nickel 6.10 Monel 6.30 Aluminium, 6.60 Aluminium alloy (11 - 13% Si) 3.50 Aluminium bronze 4.10 Copper 492 70-30 Brass 450 Bearing bronze 730 Grey cast iron 1.90 to negative White cast iron 4.00 to 5.7 Magnesium 420 Zine 6.50 Shrinkage 6 minutes 1 minute 5 seconds Void \ Fig. 4.13 Shrinkage cavity formation In order to satisfy the above requirements, risers of large diameters are generally used. But it proves to be a very expensive solution since the solidified metal in the riser is to be cut off from the main casting and is to be melted for reuse. Higher the riser volume, lower is the casting yield and as such it is very uneconomicalating Systems fr Casting 13 The risers are normally of the following types: top risers which are open to the atmosphere; blind risers which are completely concealed inside the mould cavity itself and internal risers which are enclosed on all sides by the casting. The top riser is the most conventional and convenient to make. But the position where it ean be placed is limited. The top being open loses heat to the atmosphere by radiation and convection. To reduce this, often insulation is provided on the top such as plaster of paris, asbestos sheet, etc, The blind riser, since it is surrounded by the moulding sand, would lose heat slowly and thus would be more effective. Also, it can be located more conveniently than an open riser. The best is the internal riser, which is surrounded on alll sides by the casting such that heat from the casting keeps the metal in the riser hot for a longer time. These are normally used for castings, which are cylindrically shaped or have a hollow cylindrical portion. 6. Chill In a casting, metallic chills are used in order to provide € solidification or to avoid the shrinkage . Chills are essentially large heat sinks. Whenever is not possible to provide a riser for a part of the casting which is heavy, a chill is placed close to it as shown in Fig. 4.14, so that more heat is quickly absorbed by the chill from the larger mass, making the cooling rate equal tothat Fig 44 Chil of the thin sections. Thus, this does not permit the formation of a shrinkage cavity. But use of a chill essentially means providing higher cooling rate, which is also likely to form a hard spot at the contact area with the chill, and may, therefore, cause a problem if that areas need further processing by way of machining. 41.3 Casting Yield Alll the metal that is used while pouring is not finally ending up as a casting. Typical routes the metal would take in a foundry are shown in Fig. 4.15. There will be some losses in the melting. Also, there is a possibility that some castings may be rejected because of the presence of various defects. On completion of the casting process, the gating system used is removed from the solidified casting and re-melted to be used again as raw Metal chill Shrinkage cavity New material }————+| Metal melted Scrap metal Melting losses Metal cast |————+|_Sorap castings i Runners and Fettling losses Actual casting u— ieore 415 Utilization of the metal in the foundry136 anufecturing Technology ‘material. Hence into the mould, . the casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting ma expressed as a percentage as follows. . WV, to the mass of metal poured Casting yield = “ x10 i Higher the casting yield, higher is the economics of the foundry practice. It is therefore, desirable to give consideration to maximising the casting yield, at the design stage itself. Casting yield depends to a great extent on the casting materials and the complexity of the shape. Generally, those materials which shrink heavily have lower casting yields. Also massive and simple shapes have higher casting yield compared to small and complex parts. Typical casting yields are presented in Table 4.3 as a guide. Table 4.3 Casting yields oes ote kd Simple shape and massive Steels simple shape heavy machinery parts small pieces Cast iron heavy machinery parts smalll pieces Aluminium 4.2 _ GATING-SYSTEM DESIGN The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys Bernoulli's theorem, which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section. The same stated in the equation form ignoring frictional losses is, nee ~ constant w 2g where /= potential head, m P= pressure, Pa V = liquid velocity, m/s w = specific weight of liquid, N/m> g = gravitational constant on Earth, 9.8004 m/s”, Though quantitatively Bernoulli's theorem may not be applied, it helps to understand the metal flow in the sand mould qualitatively. As the metal enters the pouring basin, it has the highest potential energy with no kinetic or pressure energies. But as the metal moves through the gating system, a loss of energy occurs because of the friction between the molten metal and the mould walls. Also, heat is continuously lost through the mould material though it is not represented in the Bernoulli's equation. This lets the casting solidify.ating Systems for Casting 137 Another law of fluid mechanics, which is useful in understanding the gating-system behaviour, is the law of continuity, which says that the volume of metal flowing at any section in the mould is constant, The same in equation form can be Q=AV, = AW rate of flow, m‘/s where Q A= area of cross section, m? V= velocity of metal flow, m/s It was suggested earlier that sprues are tapered to reduce the aspiration of air due to the increased velocity as the metal flows down the sprue. This conclusion was drawn by applying the above equation of continuity along with Bernoulli’s equation. 4.21 Pouring Time One of the objectives as mentioned earlier, for the gating-system design is to fill the mould in the smallest time. The time for complete filling of a mould termed pouring time, is a very important criterion for design. Too long a pouring time requires a higher pouring temperature and too less a pouring time means turbulent flow in the mould, which makes the casting defect-prone. There is thus an optimum pouring time for any given casting, The pouring time depends on the casting materials, complexity of the casting, section thickness and casting size. The various relations used are not theoretically obtained but established generally by the practice at various foundries and by experimenters. The general considerations for choosing pouring time for grey cast iron may not be much relevant for steels since they lose heat very fast and, therefore, the pouring time should be very less. For nonferrous materials, a longer pouring time would be beneficial since they lose heat slowly and also tend to form dross if metal is poured too quickly. Since the thickness of casting is effected to a great extent, by the ratio of surface area to volume of the casting, it is an important variable in calculating the optimum pouring time in addition to the mass of the casting itself. Normally, while considering the mass of the casting, it may not be necessary to consider the mass of the gating system because the gating system is completely filled before metal starts entering the mould cavity. However, if the gating systems are in comparable size to the actual casting, it may be desirable to include them for the calculation. The following are some standard methods to calculate the pouring time for different casting materials. |. Grey Cast Iron, Mass less than 4.20 kg ae x 7 Pouring time, 1 k(1a1+ ) W ouring time, ta )¥"s a c= Fluidity of irom in inches 40 T= average section thickness, mm W = mass of the casting, kg138 Naruactrng Techy 2 Grey Cast Iron, Mass greater than 450 kg Pouring time, t= x (1236+) ir s Typical pouring times for cast iron are Casting mass Pouring time in seconds 20kg 61010 100 kg 15030 100 000 kg 60 to 180 3. Steel Castings Pouring time, 1 (2.4335 - 0.3953 log W) W's 4, Shell-moulded Ductile Iran (vertical pouring) Pouring time, 1= K, JI s where K, = 2.080 for thinner sections 670 for sections 10 to 25 mm thick = 2.970 for heavier sections 5. Copper Alloy Castings Pouring time, 1= K, Ws K, is a constant given by Top gating 130 Bottom gating 1.80 Brass 1.90 Tin bronze 2.80 Russian practice &. Intricately Shaped Thin-walled Castings of Mass up to 450 kg Pouring time, = K, VW’ s where iV” = mass of the casting with gates and risers, kg and K, =a constant as given below T (mm) K; 1502.5 1.62 2.51035 1.68 3.5 10 8.0 1.85 8.0 to 15.0 2.20ating Systems for Casting © 1B. 7. Far Castings Above 450 kg and up to (000 kg Pouring time, = Ky {WT s where K;, is a constant given by T (mm) Ky up to 10 1.00 10 to 20 1.35 20 to 40 1.50 above 40 1.70 Typical pouring times for castings whose mass is less than 200 kg and average section thickness of 25 mm are Grey cast iron 40s Steel 20s Brass 1510 45s Typical pouring rates used for different casting alloys are given in Table 4.4. The calculated values from any of the above formulae may be checked from Table 4.4. Table 4.4 Hpicalpawing rates fr sandcastngs Pouring rate in kg/s for castings of mass, kg Pee 10-50 Est 100-500 Pig iron ill 15-20 3.0-4.0 35-60 Steel 12-14 19-25 4.0-5.0 45-7.0 Aluminium alloys 0.25-0.3 0.5-0.7 10-13 12-20 EGER 4.1 YJ calculate the optimum pouring time for a average section thickness of 15 mm. The materials of the casting are grey cas of iron as 28 inches. sting whose mass is 20 kg and having an n and steel. Take the fluidity Grey cast iron : T P time, Ki 141+—— | VW ouring time t= k(1a1+ 2) vir s 141+- ) 20 = 7.6325 nl 1455) V20 = 7.632 Steel Pouring time, t= (2.4335 — 0.3953 log W) VW s = (2.4335 — 0.3953 log 20) ¥ 20 = 8.5825 s140 Manufacturing Technology EXAMPLE @'94 ] Calculate the optimum pouring time for a casting whose mass is 100 kg anda thickness of 25 mm. Fluidity of iron is 32 inches. Calculate both for cast iron and steel. Grey cast iron Pouring time, 32 25 - =| 141+ V100 = 24.988 s 40 ( a) Steel Pouring time, (2.4335 — 0.3953 log 100) J100 = 16.429 s 42.2 Choke Area Having calculated the optimum pouring time, it is now required to establish the main control area which meters the metal flow into the mould cavity, so that the mould is completely filled within the calculated pouring time. This controlling area is called choke area. Normally, the choke area happens to be at the bottom of the sprue and hence, the first element to be designed in the gating system is the sprue size and its proportions. The main advantage in having sprue bottom as the choke area is that proper flow characteristics are established early in the mould. The choke area can be calculated using Bernoulli’s equation as Ww ae —L_ ac 2 gH where hoke area, mm? asting mass, kg += pouring time, s d= mass density of the molten metal, kg/mm* g= acceleration due to gravity, mm/s? H = effective metal head (sprue height), mm C= efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system used The effective sprue height H, of a mould depends on the casting dimensions and the type of gating used. The effective sprue heads can be calculated using the following relations. Top gate, H=h Bottom gate, H=h- $ Parting gate, H= h-— 2e where = height of sprue, p= height of mould cavity in cope, and c= total height of mould cavity. The values of 4, p and c are shown in Fig. 4.16 for the various types of gating.ating Systems for Costing tat Fig. 4.16 Different gating systems The efficiency coefficient of the gating system depends on the various sections that are normally used in a gating system. The elements of a gating system should normally be circular in cross section since they have lower surface area to volume ratio, which would reduce heat loss and have less friction. Moreover, streamlining the various gating elements would greatly increase the volumetric efficiency of the gating system and allow for smaller size gates and runners which would increase the casting yield Whenever a runner changes direction or joins with another runner or gate, there is some loss in the metal head, all of which when taken properly into consideration would give the overall efficiency of the gating system. Hence, c where Kj, Ky... are loss coefficients occurring at changes in direction or area as given in Table 11.2, Aj, 43, are areas down stream from changes, and A is the choke area. Though this is the most rigorous way of calculating the efficiency factor, it may not be necessary to go to this length all the time. Average values of the efficiency factor are provided for typical gating systems in Table 4.5, which may be used for calculating the gating.42 Menufacturing Technology Table 4.5 Valves of loss coefficients for various gate elements eee Sprue entry from pouring cup 0.75 0.20 Bend of sprue into runner 2.00 1.00 Right angle bend in runner: square cross section 2.00 1.50 round cross section 1.50 1.00 Junction at right angles to runners 4.010 6.0 = Junction with 25 % or more area reduction from runner into in-gates 0.50 Runner choke when choke area approximately one- 2.00 third runner area, plus bend of sprue into runner 13.00 Losses from wall friction Round channel loss = 0.02 L/D. Square channel loss = 0.06 L/D 0.07 L (A+B) Rectangular channel loss = ——————- 24B where = length, D = diameter of round or side of square, A= one side of rectangle, and B= other side of rectangle. Though it is preferable to have the choke in the sprue, it may sometimes be convenient to mould a straight sprue in which case the choke is provided in the runners. The efficiency factors for such systems are also provided in Table 4.6. For aluminium castings, a metal flow rate of 4.044 g/min for 1 sq mm of sprue area in an unpressurised gating is found to be sufficient for achieving sound castings. Table 46 ficiency coffins £ for various yes of gating systems pied Peer ns er ree tr tee tetas Boo Single runner entering runner 0.90 0.73 Two runners with multiple in-gates, no bends in runners 0.90 0.73 Two runners with multiple in-gates, 900 bends in runners 0.85 0.70 QUEER 4.3 YJ Forthe casting shown in Fig. 4.17, which is to be made in cast iron, calculate the choke area, Volume of the casting = 500 x 250 x 50= 6.25 x 10°mm* Weight of the casting = 7.86 X 10° x 6.25 x 10°= 49.125 kg Assuming a composition factor of 4.0 and a pouring temperature of 1300°C, the fluidity, obtained from Fig 3.32, is 22 inches. - = 22 50 _ Pouring time,1= 22 (1.414 it) Vins 18.646 s~ 19s aia 3 ( 14.59. .ating Systoms for Casting = NH Fig. 4.17 Ezmple Calculate effective sprue height. Assuming a top gating system with 100 mm cope height, effective sprue height = 100 mm (Figure 5.21) Select efficiency factor C from Table 4.6, assuming that gating system is pressurized and consists of two runners with four in-gates; C= 0.73 Assuming the density of the liquid metal = 6.90 X 10° kg/mm? 49.125 2 Choke area, A = = = 366.648 mm? 6.90 x 1076 x 19% 0.73 /2 x 9800 x 100 Ina pressurised gating system, the choke is located in in-gates, with four in-gates, each of which has an area of 90 mm”. Assuming rectangular cross sections for in-gates, the in-gate dimensions would be 15 X 6 mm. 4.2.3 Gating Ratios The gating ratio refer to the proportion of the cross-sectional areas between the sprue, runner and in-gates, and is generally denoted as sprue area, runner area, and in-gate area. Depending on the choke area there can be two types of gating systems: © Nonpressurised * Pressurised A nonpressurised gating system has choke at the bottom of the sprue base, and have total runner area and in-gate areas higher than the sprue area. In this system, there is no pressure existing in the metal-flow system and thus it helps to reduce turbulence. This is particularly useful for casting drossy alloys such as144 ‘Manufacturing Technology aluminium and magnesium alloys. These have tapered sprues, sprue-base wells and pouring basins. When the metal enters the mould cavity through multiple in-gates, the cross section of the runner should accordingly be reduced at each runner break up, to allow equal distribution of metal through all the in-gates. The gating ratio of a typical example is Sprui : The disadvantages of nonpres: 1g are, the gating system needs to be carefully designed to see that all parts flow full. Otherwise some elements of the gating system may flow partially allowing the air aspiration. Tapered sprues are invariably used with nonpressurised system, Also, the runners are maintained in drag while the gates are kept in cope to ensure that the runners are full. : runner Casting yield gets reduced because of the large metal involved in the runners and gates. In case of a pressurised gating system, normally the in-gate area is the smallest, thus maintaining a back pressure throughout the gating system. Because of this back pressure in the gating system, the metal is more turbulent and generally flows full and thereby, can minimise the air aspiration even when a straight sprue is used (after the initial stages of pouring). When multiple gates are used, this system allows all the gates to flow full. These systems generally provide a higher casting yield, since the volume of metal used up in the runners and gates is reduced. Because of the turbulence and the associated dross formation, this type of gating system is not used for light alloys but can be advantageously used for ferrous castings. Gating ratio of a typical pressurised gating system is sprue: runner : in-gate :: 1:2: 1 ‘These are the general considerations on the choice of a gating system. But a lot depends on the specific foundry practice, as evidenced from Table 4.7, of the various gating ratios recommended or used in practice Table 4.7 Some gating ratios used in practice Aluminium 12:1 13: 1 Aluminium bronze 1:2.88:4.8 Brass 1 1 1.6:1.3:1 Copper 2:8:1 3:9:1 Ductile iron 1AS:L1:1 1.25:1.13:1 Grey cast iron Magnesium Malleable iron 1:2:9.5 SteelsGating Systems for Casting 145 While designing the runner system, care should be taken to reduce sharp corners or sudden change of sections since they tend to cause turbulence and gas entrapment. Though from the heat-loss factor cireular cross-section runners are preferable, traditionally trapezoidal runner sections are employed to reduce the turbulence. The approximate proportions are from a square to rectangle with width twice as that of the depth of the runner, When multiple in-gates are used, the runner cross section should be suitably restricted at the separation of each runner in the interest of uniform flow through all the sections. Also, it is a general practice to cut the runner in the cope and the in-gate in the drag to help in the trapping of slag, In some cases it was also found to be good to have half of the runner in the cope and the rest with in-gate in the drag, which effectively reduces slag inclusions. But for aluminium alloy castings, it is recommended that the runners be placed in the drag and the in-gates in the cope so that the dross which is heavier (3.99 gicm’) compared to aluminium (2.70 giem’) is restricted, Also, the entry into runners from sprue-base well should be made as smooth as possible in such castings; otherwise the direction the flow would tend to be turbulent and leads to drossing when any change abruptly occurs in the cross-sectional area. For cylindrical castings, the sprues may be located on the axis of rotation with sufficient number of radial runners feeding the casting. An alternative arrangement is that the sprue is located to one side of the casting and a runner around the periphery with the properly positioned in-gates. In case of thin castings, misruns are a problem and, therefore, they should be fed as quickly as possible with a number of in-gates all around the casting. A preferred gating system for grey cast iron plate like casting is presented in Fig. 4.18. Sprue 115 high 50 dia. at top 34 wide 38 long Fig, 41B Gating system for patel castings In-gate Design The in-gates are generally made wider compared to depth, up to a ratio of 4, This facilitates in the severing of gating from the casting after solidification, It may sometimes be preferable to reduce the actual connection between the in-gate and the casting by means of a neck-down, wash-bum or dry-sand core, so that the removal of the gating is simplified. ‘The following points should be kept in mind while choosing the positioning of the in-gates. # In-gate should not be located near a protruding part of the mould, to avoid the striking of vertical mould walls by the molten metal stream,165 Hanafcturing Technotogy * In-gates should preferably be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould wall, * In-gates should not be placed near a core print or a chill, # In-gate cross-sectional area should preferably be smaller than the smallest thickness of the casting, so that the in-gates solidify first and isolate the castings from the gating system. This would reduce the possibility of air aspiration through the gating system in cases of metal shrinkage. (o) Fig. 419 Mutiplen-gtes designed to induce unifam flow trough al the gates for various type of castings: a lt, rectngua:(b) Hallow cylinder Small castings may be designed with a single in-gate. However, large or complex castings require multiple in-gates to completely fill all the sections of the castings effectively. In the case of multiple in-gates, care has to be taken to see that all the gates would be distributing the molten metal uniformly. To make for more uniform flow through all the gates, progressively the runner area should be reduced after each in-gate, such that restriction on the metal flow would be provided. A typical method followed in the case of plate like castings with a tapered runner is shown in Fig, 4.19a, 4.2.4 Slag-Trap Systems In order to obtain sound casting quality, itis essential that the slag and other impurities be removed from the molten metal fully, before it enters the mould cavity, To do this, foundries employ a number of methods, Apart from the use of pouring basins and strainer cores, some other methods used to trap the slag are described below, 1. Runner Extension Normally the metal which moves first into the gating system is likely to contain slag and dross which should not be allowed to get into the mould cavity, This could be achieved by extending the runner beyond the in-gate, so that the momentum of the metal will carry it past the gates and into a blind alley, i.e the runner extension, as shown in Fig 4.18, If the gating system is properly planned, clean metal can be expected to go into the mould after completely filling the runner extension. A runner extension having a minimum of twice the runner width is desirable.2. Whirl Gate Another method employed successfully to trap the slag from entering steel castings is a whirl gate, the design of which is presented in Fig 4.20. This utilises the principle of centrifugal action to throw the dense metal to the periphery and retain the lighter slag to be retained at the centre. In order to achieve this action, itis necessary that entry area should be at least 1.5 times the exit area so that the metal is built up at the centre quickly. Also, the metal should revolve 270° before reaching, the exit gate, so as to gain enough time for separating the impurities. UE 4.4 YJ catcutate the gating requirements for the casting shown in Fig. 4.21 to be cast in C30 steel. Calculate the volume of the casting as a sum of hemisphere, cylinder and flange volumes. ating Syste for Casting © AT [Casting 15 Ay Downsprue Fig, 4.20 Mh! goto Fig. 421 Hemisphere = $x Ecos! = 60°) = 206 156 mm? Top cylinder = Foe =307)-42 = 81279 mm* Flange = F @o0? 1207 )10 = 201 062 mm? Total volume = 206 156 + 201 062 + 81 279 = 488 497 mm* Mass of the casting = 488 497 X 7.86 X 10°= 3.84 kg. 50 $30 i i 42 ' i i Example for gating colevatons{6B Hanafcturing Technology There are two castings in the mould and their weight 3.84 X 2 = 7.68 kg Weight of metal poured = ssuming a casting yield of 0.60) 0.60 . Pan Pouring time = (2.4335 ~ 0.3953 -log12.80) V12.80 = 7.14 7 12.8 Pouring rate = —=> = 1.793 kg/ ouring rate = /s Choosing parting ingates and two castings in the mould, the e: Fig, 4.22 and effective sprue height equal to 150 mm. 8 B C > _Pouring basin Riser Riser ting arrangement would be as shown in Runner extension Fig. 422 Casting arrangement for component shown in Fig 421 Assume that this is a nonpressurised gating system (the choke is located in a sprue) with one runner and two in-gates. For this combination, the efficiency coefficient of the gating system from Table 4.6 is 0.73. 12.8 ae = 186.53 Choke area = 719 50.73% 7.7 x10-® x (2x 9800x150 ~ 186-53 mn Choke diameter = 15.41 mm = 16mm Calculate runner area and dimensions. Assuming a gating ratio of 1: 2:2 Runner area = 2x 1x aa = 402.12 mm? Assuming a rectangular cross section, the runner dimensions would be approximately 16 X 25 mm. Calculate in-gates area and dimensions.ating Systems for Casting 4g Each gate area = 0.5 X 402.12 = 201.06 mm? Assuming an aspect ratio of 4 (the width to height ratio), the size of the gate is approximately 7 28 mm. 4.3 RISERING DESIGN The function of a riser is to feed the casting during solidification so that no shrinkage cavities are formed. The requirement of risers depends to a great extent upon the type of metal poured and the complexity of the casting. As shown in Table 4.2, various materials have different volumetric shrinkages. Of particular interest from among them is grey cast iron, which sometimes may have a negative shrinkage. This happens because with higher carbon and silicon contents, graphitisation occurs which increases the volume and, therefore, would counteract the metal shrinkage and as such risering may not be very critical in these situations. But for some metals such as aluminium and steel, the volumetric contraction being very high, elaborate risering is required. In order to consider as to how a shrinkage cavity may develop, let us consider the mould of « cube, Figure 4,23(a) shows a cube which is completely filled with liquid metal, As time progresses, the metal starts losing heat through all sides and as a result starts freezing from all sides equally trapping the liquid metal inside, as in Fig 4.23(b). But further solidification and subsequent volumetric shrinkage and the metal contraction due to change in temperature causes formation of a void (Fig 4.23c). The solidification when complete, finally results in the shrinkage cavity as shown in Fig 4.23(d). 4 — Void Liquid Liquid Liquid Solid Solid (@) (b) (o) @) Fig 4.23 Soffication of cube casting ‘The reason for the formation of the void in the above cube casting is that the liquid metal in the centre which solidifies in the end is not fed during the solidification; hence the liquid shrinkage occurred ends up as.a void. Such isolated spots, which remain hot till the end, are called “hot spots’. It is the endeavour of the casting designer to reduce all these hot spots so that no shrinkage cavities occur. In this connection, the term directional solidification is normally used in the casting terminology. It means that the solidification of the metal should start at the remotest point of the casting from the feeder. Since the cooling is achieved by the removal of heat from all surfaces which are exposed to the atmosphere or sand, cooling normally starts from point which is the thinnest or is exposed over a larger surface area 431 Caine's Method Since solidification of the casting occurs by losing heat from the surfaces and the amount of the heat is given by the volume of the casting, the cooling characteristics of a casting can be represented by the surface area to volume ratio. Since the riser is also similar to the casting in its solidification behaviour, the riser characteristic can also be specified by the ratio of its surface area to volume.150 MorufeturingTachnatogy If this ratio of the casting is higher then it is expected to cool faster. Chvorinov has shown that the solidification time of a casting is proportional to the square of the ratio of volume-to-surface area of the casting. The constant of proportionality called mould constant depends on the pouring temperature, casting and mould thermal characteristics. where 1, = solidific volume of the casting SA = surface area k= mould casting ion time, s The “freezing ratio’, of a mould is defined as the ratio of cooling characteristics of casting to the riser. SA, viser “Veser In order to be able to feed the casting, the riser should solidify last and hence its freezing ratio should be greater than unity. It may be argued that the sphere has the lowest surface-area-to-volume ratio and hence, it should be used as a riser. But in a sphere, the hottest metal being at the centre, it is difficult to use for feeding the casting. The next best is the eylindrical type which is most commonly used for their ease in moulding. Based on the Chvorinov’s rule, Caine developed a relationship empirically for the freezing ratio as follows: x +e Y-b where ¥= riser volume/easting volume, and a, b and c are constants whose values for different materials are given in Table 4.8. Table 4B Constants for Coie equation Steel 0.10 0.03 1.00 Aluminium, 0.10 0.06 1.08 Cast iron, brass 0.04 0.017 1.00 Grey cast iron 0.33 0.030 1.00 Aluminium bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00 Silicon bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00 The following equations are used for calculating (Cuy-4%; Siy-6%) and LMI (Cu 4-5%). When height to diameter ratio of the riser equal to 1 the risering requirements for aluminium alloys LM4 33.45 LM4: X= 55 ogyating Systems for Casting {51 1A 12.58-¥ is equal to 1.5, LMI When height-to-diameter ratio of the ri LM4: LMI: 12.58-Y For nodular iron in CO, moulds, the following equation may be used. 39.44 27.78-¥ 16 | ee Boab 2 E10} 3 Sound casting 3 og 3 06 + & 3 oak 3 Shrinkages: ont es ee 0.0 09 10 11 12 13 14 18 16 17 18 19 Freezing ratio Fig. 426 Caines equation The above equation when plotted will be as shown in Fig, 4.24. The line shows the locus of the points that separate the sound castings and castings with shrinkages in steel castings. BRUNE 4.5 J catcutate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and diameter equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting 25 X 25 X 5 em, with a top riser casting poured horizontally into the mould. Volume of the casting = 25 x 25 X 5 = 3125 em? Surface area of the casting = 2 X 25 x 25+4 x 25 x $= 1750 em? we Volume of the rises152 Manofecturing Technology where D is the riser diameter, 2D 7 Surface area of the riser =» D?4—— = 1.25 p D* | 1750/3125 Freezing ratio, ¥= "= 0.12 1.25 27/025 rps 0.25 p3 _ _Volume of riser D* 9.000251 D® Volume of casting 3125 Substituting this in the Caines” equation for steels 0.12 p= ——210_419 0.000251 p*— 0.03 On simplification, we get D*~8,9286 D* — 119.52 D = 2490 By trial and error, we get D=1144em= 12m 4.3.2 Modulus Method Another method for finding the optimum riser size is the ‘modulus method’, extensively documented by Wlodawer. It has been empirically established that if the modulus of the riser exceeds the modulus of the casting by a factor of 1.2, the feeding during solidification would be satisfactory. The modulus is the inverse of the cooling characteristic (surface area/volume) as defined earlier. In steel castings, it is generally preferable to choose a riser with a height to diameter ratio of 1 3 n Volume = 72 where D = diameter of the riser, The bottom end of the riser is in contact with the casting and thus does not contribute to the calculation of surface area. aD Surface area = =P + xp? The modulus of such a cylindrical riser, M, would be M,=0.2D Since M, = 1.2 M, D=6M, where M,= modulus of the casting.ating Systems for Casing 153 this method, the calculation of the riser size is simplified to the calculation of the modulus of the casting itself and no trial and error solution as is given in the previous case, Though this takes into account the cooling effect of the riser, it does not consider exactly the amount of feeding metal required to compensate for the shrinkage of the casting, If allowance is made for the volume of metal to be fed to counteract the contraction of the casting, the equation would change to DS -5.46 M, D? 0.050 93 V, where V7, = volume of the casting, The above is valid when the height to diameter ratio of the riser is one. When the third term in the equati relating to feed volume is neglected, the previous simplified equation would be arrived at. With ‘chunky’ castings, e.g. cubes, the volume component may be negligible, but for those ‘rangy’ cast similar to plate like, the influence of volume component becomes increasingly significant. It is sometimes useful to have a parameter called “ranginess factor” R to define the casting type, It may be defined as _ Modulus of a cube of same volume as casting Modulus of casting Table 4.9 gives the moduli of simple geometrical shapes. For calculating the modulus of a complex shape, it is useful to consider it as a combination of the above simple shapes shown in Table 4.9 or by a suitable approximation. For example, a ring on a plate of thickness t can be considered as a ring with noncooling surface of thickness f, as shown in Fig 4.25. | = Noncooting (a) Fig. 4.25 Madulus method Let the mean ring diameter, Dm where 1 is a suitable constant based on the geometry. volume Dyna area Mc= tan (1+n)(H-c)+an(n-1)H 2(a+H)—e(n+ bin In the limiting ease when the ring becomes a bar as shown in Fig 4.25(b) then m tends to infinity and thus aH 2(@+H) Mc154 Manufacturing Tecnoagy Modulus, Me Plate _ 051 (a| Cylinder ‘s D 6 Sphere oD. D ee e Hollow cylinder ‘s 2(r+H)Eating Systors for astng 1S Alternatively, when the boss becomes solid as in Fig 4.25(c) then n= 1, and oH 2a+H—o) In the case of massive ring-shaped bodies with a very small bore, the core would reach a temperature of the order of 1450 to 1480°C by the time the casting starts solidifying. As a result, the core sand would not be able to extract any further heat and, therefore, can be treated as a solid body itself for risering purposes. The ratio of outer diameter to core diameter of such bodies, if exceeds 3.75, can be treated as solid bodies. In such situations, the core material should be highly refractory in nature or the core should be eliminated Mc Irregular cross sections can be approximated by an equivalent rectangle as shown in Fig 4.26 and the modulus obtained as for the long bar from Table 4.9. But if the adjacent cross sections vary greatly then they should be calculated individually. Fig. 4.28 Modus of ned sections EXAMPLE @23 ] Calculate the riser size for the Example 4.5 using the modulus method, Since it is a slab of 25 X 25 X 5 em, it can be considered as a long bar with cross section 25 X 5. Modulus, M, 2.0833 cm ‘The riser diameter, D = 6 Mc = 6 X 2.0833 = 12.5 cm. 4.3.3 Naval Research Laboratory Method This method, which is essentially a simplification of Caine’s method, defines a shape factor to replace the freezing ratio. The shape factor is defined as, Length + Width ‘Thickness ‘The underlying argument is that, calculating volumes and surface areas is too complicated and, therefore, simplification would be desirable, The length, width and thicknesses are computed from the maximum dimensions of the casting section. Then, the ratio of the riser volume to casting volume can be obtained from the graph shown in Fig. 4.27. This shows when the sound castings would be obtained for C20 to C50 steels. Having obtained the riser volume, the reference may be made to Fig. 4.30 to obtain riser diameter and height for the obtained riser volume. It has been proven empirically that for side risers, the height-to-diameter ratio be 1 and for top risers it be 0.5, UTA 4.7 J Recalculate the riser dimensions for Example 4.5. Shape factor = 25156 Marufecturing Technology 10 og 08 07 06 os | o4 os Riser volume/ Casting volume 02 o4 0.0 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 16 20 2 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 +W Shape factor 4 Fig. 4.27 ser volume selection chart From the chart in Fig. 4.29, V,, Riser volume = 0.47 X Casting volume = 047 X 25 X 25 x S$ = 1468.75 em? For a cylindrical riser of equal diameter and height V,=0.25 X xx D* D oe 187 = 12.32 em z The same can also be directly read off from Fig. 4.28. For circular plates, the length and width are same as that of the diameter. But for cylinders, the width and thickness are same as the diameter for calculating the shape factor. But for calculating the riser volume, the actual casting volume is to be used. The values obtained by NRL method are generally conservative in nature and correspond to Caine’s method for most of the simple geometries. Normally, the risers should be located at the heaviest sections as they themselves act as feeders for the thin sections. But when smaller sections are connected to the thicker sections, the riser should have larger volume to cater to this appendage. But if this branch is thin, no change in riser volume is required.Batg Sten for Casing AST Riser diameter, cm 1014 2 13 14 15 16 2 1" Riser height, em 500 900 1300 1700 2100 2500 Riser volume, cm? Fig 4.28 Selection chart for riser dimensions based on NRL method BEET 48 J} catcutate the risering requi ent for the casting shown in Fig, 4.29, Fig 4.29 Erample158 Manutoctucing Technology First neglect the branch shown and calculate the shape factor for the main plate. 25+ 12.5 Shape factor = <= = 7.5 Volume of the casting = 25 X 12.5 X 5 = 1562.5 cm* Volume of the riser = 0.575 x 1562.5 = 898.4375 cm? The branch volume = 2.5 x 2.5 x 10 = 62.5 cm’ This is a plate feeding the bar with a thickness ratio of 0.5. Hence, from Fig. 4.30, we get parasitic volume as 30%. Hence, riser volume = 0,30 X 62.5 + 898.4375 = 917.1875 em? Riser diameter, D = 10.531 em The other shapes of interest are the hollow cylindrical shapes. In these, since the heat removal is restricted, a correction factor, k needs to be applied to get the effective plate thickness. If 7 is the true wall thickness then the correction factor is given by core diameter OST T 2T 4T correction factor, ALAT 1a 1.02 1.00 L+w Shape factor = EXAMPLE @2%} }j Calculate the riser diameter for an annular cylinder of 30 cm outside diameter, 10 cm inside diameter and 30 cm height. Core diameter = 10.em Plate thickness = 10 em Correction factor = 1.14 200 +30 Shape factor = ———— = 8,143 114-10 Casting volume = 0.25 X @ x (30? 107) x 30 = 18 849 cm? 48 x 18 $49 = 9047.52 cm* Riser diameter = 22.585 em Riser volume As explained earlier, during solidification, grey cast iron has different rates of volumetric changes depending, on the carbon and silicon compositions in the final melt. Hence, not enough data is available on the risering practice. Wallace and Evans have calculated the riser sizes required, based on the surface area and volume of ing for high-strength grey cast iron (3% C; 1.5% Si; 0.05% P; 0.10% S; 0.8% Mn) being a representative composition. The charts for green sand mould and dry sand mould are presented in Fig. 4.30 and 4.31. The soft grey cast iron (3.5% C; 2.2% Si) may not require any risering. If any doubt persists then a small shrink bob of 2 to 4 % of casting volume may be provided at the necessary point. the cas Whenever more than one riser is to be used for any casting, the casting is divided into a number of parts and the risering requirements are to be calculated separately for each part.Surface area of casting, square inches 10 Gating Systems for Casting Y riser 2 Riser fo Diameter Ue Riser Ghar ‘ 100 1000 10000 _ Volume of csting, cubic inches Fig. 4.30 Risering curves for grey cast iran in green-sand moulds .. Surface area of casting, square inches 104 108 10 10 2 10 i; Side riser U2 ee Vda. | 2" Riser | Diameter Y 100 1000 10000 Fig, 4.31 Risering curves for grey cast iran in dry-sand moulds , 15918D Wartactring acy The way the riser is connected to the casting is very important, The connection called the neek, should solidify first so that the shrinkage cavity is located in the riser itself, Also the removal of the riser should be made simpler by making the connection smaller. But if the neck size is too small then it may solidify before the casting itself and thus defeats the function of the riser. It is a normal practice to provide a thin ceramic or core material for the neck to reduce the cross-sectional area rs are presented in Fig. 4.32. These are called washburn cores. The neck dimensions for various types of ri JD a Ly a at — I riser |p } g b costng _|f : Win) (Rise) 3 1 ( yeba] fon I by ty 2by + 01D Lumaximum of 0/3; Hi varies from 6 to 8T, Wy = 25 by + 0.180 (b) Side riser for plate casting }—Riser Casting Ly maximum of D/2 Dy ky + 0.20 (©) Top round riser Fig. 4.32 Schematic riser-neck dimensions 43.4 Chills Chills are provided in the mould so as to increase the heat-extraction capability of the sand mould. A chill normally provides a steeper temperature gradient so that directional solidification as required in a casting can be obtained, The chills are metallic objects having a higher heat-absorbing capability than the sand mould. The chills can be of two types: * external, and © internal The external chills are placed in the mould cavity adjoining the mould cavity at any required position, Providing a chill at the edge may not normally have the desired effect as the temperature gradient is steeper at the end of the casting, since heat is removed from all sides as shown in Fig 4.33. However, if it is placed between two risers, it would have maximum effect. ‘The chills when placed in the mould should be clean and dry, otherwise gas inclusions will be left in the castings. Also, after placing the chills in the mould, they should not be kept for long, since moisture may condense on the chills causing blow holes in theSting Sten a Casing IB 2sT+s0nm la-2. 57! -_— ee I] fee Sound a nit 50mm Increased edge contribution een due to chill | 457+ 50mm — T chil cit Bars Centre line shrinkagh -LSEt027, 1.571027, TFET sound sana} rf Fess! chil Max. distance <— or+T — Fig. 433 fect of chil an feeding distance Max. distance Increased edge contribution due to chill chil The internal chills are placed inside the mould cavity where an external chill cannot be provided. The material of chill should approximately resemble the composition of the pouring metal for proper fusing. Cleanliness of internal chills is far more important because they are surrounded on all sides by the molten metal. Because of the larger problems associated with the internal chills they should be sparingly used. In those castings which have ribs or bosses, the joint is a source of hot spot. This hot spot could be eliminated by using a chill of appropriate size at the end of the rib or the appendage. To calculate the proportions of the chill, the results obtained by Myskowski are used, parent casting. jown in Fig 4.34, where “7” is the thickness of the162 Manufocturing Technology T= thickness of parent casting 760 patie 37.5 Thick chill 0.40 0.30 0.20 Chill thickness “T" 0.10 Appendage depth “T” ° 0.25 0s 0.75 on Rib thickness "T" 0 05 1 18 Boss thickness “T” Fig. 434 Dhilpraportions required i plate steel castings Grauping Castings Grouping of several castings around a single riser helps in increasing the casting yield, since the same riser will be able to feed to more than one casting, as shown in Fig 4.37(b). Also, by a small variation in the moulding practice, it is possible to reduce the risering requirement as shown in Fig. 4.35(c) as the heat from the castings would keep the metal hot in the riser for a longer period. 4.3.5 Feeding Aids To increase the efficiency of a riser, it is necessary to keep the metal in the riser in liquid form for as long a period as required, so that it would feed the casting till it solidifies. When this is done, the riser volume decreases, resulting in a higher yield. The aids used for this purpose are called feeding aids. They can be either exothermic materials or insulators. Exothermic materials when added at the top of the riser would give out heat and also act as heat insulators (through the reaction products) to the atmosphere, thus reducing the heat loss through radiation The exothermic materials that can be used are graphite or charcoal (st) fre) —— 254 — F | 50.8 foe (b) ch [=102- Feed Fig. 4.35 Grouping of castings ta improve yield powder, rice hulls and thermit mixtures. The carbonaceous materials are called anti-piping compounds, besides being cheap, provide the insulation and also get oxidised slowly. But thermit mixtures get oxidised very quickly and release heat over a very small period and subsequently, the effect would be that of only the residue acting as an insulator. As such, these are not generally usedGating Systems for Casting 163 For steel casting, an insulating shield on the top of an open riser is very effective since it reduces considerable amount of heat loss by radiation. Loose cellulose material such as rice ‘husk is used as top insulation. For example, the solidification time of a 100 X 100 mm cylindrical riser for steels increases from 5 minutes to 13.4 minutes, while for aluminium the same changes from 12.3 to 14.3 minutes. Thus, for steels this is the important way in decreasing the size of the riser. Alternately, riser sleeves which are either purely insulating or mildly exothermic may be used to reduce the heat transfer through the walls of the riser and thus improve the feeding of the castings. These are generally made of fire clay-sawdust for ferrous materials. These are fired before the use, to burn out the sawdust and leave air cells. Plaster of Paris is generally used as insulator for nonferrous materials, though it cannot be used for ferrous materials because of the possibility of sulphur pick up by the molten metal in the riser. For example, the solidification time ofa 100 * 100 mm cylindrical riser with insulating sleeve for steels increases from 7.5 minutes to 43 minutes, while for aluminium the same changes from 31.1 to 45.6 minutes. Thus, an optimum combination of insulating sleeves around the syindrical, riser along with the.top insulating shield would be useful for all casting metals... ~ : Since the feeding aids keep the métal i in liquid form i in ‘the riser ‘for longer periods, the modulus of the tiser needs to be reduced as compared to the conventional practice. This can be done by introducing a factor f,called ‘Modulus Extension Factor’ (MEF), which represents the increase in the modulus of the riser. Thus, My =m M, ‘The implicit assumption in the: above equation is that the’ ‘insulation effect at the sides and the top are same. If not, for example in the case of top risers, proper care needs to be taken to get an average value of f. In order to get the proper size of the riser, it is necessary to get the correct value of the factor f; which is difficult to obtain since a large number of proprietary sleeves are available. Typical values could be 1.8 for small insulating sleeves and 1.3 for large sleeves. The effect of the insulating sleeve in reducing the minimum volume of riser required for various types of castings is presented in Table 4.10. Table 440 Minimo required riser volume Wont Cy crseaemaetc of easting Sand Riser Insulated Riser ERs tt eee) i ye 02 te H=2D H=D H=2D - Ruddle has made an ‘esuriunitedl analysis for.various atest castings to.demonstrate thes wivinigs achieved y the insulating sleeves. One such:example:a.carrier bracket.whose shipped mass is 143 kg, is shown in ae 4.36 witha typical sand riser and the insulated sleeve riser. The various savings thus obtained are presented able 4.11,184 Manufacturing Technology Fig. 4.86 Carrier bracket with old and new practice Table 4.11 Estimated savings for carrier bracket casting Shipped mass, W = 143 kg Original eta ie va yea EW e betty (a) Mass of liquid metal in riser kg (c) Estimated feed out (7% of W) kg (@) ‘otal mass in the mould QW +a +5 — (c) Metal melted (assuming 6% los (With contributions from Scott Giese and Sairam Ravi, Metal Casting Center, University of Northern Iowa) With rapid developments in computer hardware and software technologies, the use of simulation tools in foundries has increased. Casting-process simulation is now a well-established tool for the optimisation of casting design as well as process design. They have reached a point where the simulation tools have no¥ become an integrated part of the entire casting-production Process, from casting design to adjusting production parameters. There are many aspects of the casting process that can be evaluated by using the casting-simulation process. As seen earlier, the casting process is extremely complex, and analytical (thermo-physical) procedures are very difficult to apply without using a large number of assumptions. Many of the assumptions, thoug simplify the calculation procedures, do not guarantee accurate results. This calls for some trial-and-err" methods to achieve sound casting which is both time-consuming and expensive.Gating Systems for Casting -165 oni Sacer Ee finite difference and finite-element procedures, depending upon the complexity of the problem. It provides a large range of results of the complete behaviour of the casting during solidification as well as in service. Typical results that can be obtained are the following: ° mee ST process allows for the prediction of microstructures and properties for different alloys and ~ urgy. or example, Properties such as hardness, tensile strength, yield limit can be estimated. ¢ The simulation process allows to establish the appropriate casting design and specific process parameters to control the manufacturing process. — e Itis possible to evaluate the flow of molten metal through the mould and thus establish the likely defects that will be caused by it. . Using the casting simulation as a virtual test foundry in the computer, it is possible to do a number of what-if-scenarios, to establish the optimum casting design and foundry process. e It is also possible to identify the residual stresses of the castings because of the process parameters and estimate the fatigue life of the part. MagmaSoft Magmasoft (www.magmasoft.com) is one of the casting simulation software widely used in the foundry industry for simulating casting processes and analysing casting defects: Magmasoft predicts casting quality by simulating mould filling, solidification and cooling, stresses and strains, and microstructure formation, utilising finite element formulation. A few examples of Magmasoft usage are presented here. Magmasoft is extremely effective in predicting casting defects that arise from misruns, turbulence, gas porosity, slag entrainment, metal penetration and shrinkage. For example, shrinkage defects can be easily - determined by viewing the solidification time, hot spot, solid fraction, liquid fraction, temperature, and porosity results, Shrinkage porosity occurs in locations with hot spots where liquid metal still remains after feeding becomes difficult. Figure 4.37 illustrates an example of the way Magmasoft 5.2 is utilised to perfect the gating design to avoid lated using steel as the pouring metal and the design of the casting shrinkage cavities. The casting was simu netal the cores were made using zircon phenolic urethane cold- is shown in Fig. 4.37a. The green-sand mould and . i box process. As shown in Fig. 4.37b, when the casting is simulated without any riser, prominent shrinkage cavities were noticed in the bigger end of the casting. Then a riser with feeding aids was added to remove the shrinkage cavities and its simulation is shown in Fig. 4.37¢. It can be noticed that the shrinkage cavities were not completely removed by riser alone. Then copper chills were used at the location to achieve the directional e cavities into the riser as shown in Fig. 4.37d. solidification and to move the shrinkag s an important aspect of casting quality, defects that arise during on. One important concern in the foundry iridustry is the travels through the gating system to the casting cavity. Turbulent flow of the molten metal can cause entrapped gases in the casting and mould erosion. Turbulence can be reduced by designi i which ensures a laminar flow of the molten metal. For example, sharp Y aestening a good Ene See will cause a turbulent flow of metal. The filling results in Magmasoft Comers an in sections . , } can be used : ct otk ae defects caused due to turbulence. These results include air entrapment, air i lent flow. Pressure, metal velocity et cetera. Figure 4. le of a turbulent flo Though predicting solidification defects i 5 mould filling also need to be taken into consideratt turbulent flow of liquid metal while it 38 shows an examp1BE Manufacturing Technology j te (©) Solidification with riser Fig. 4.37 Use of Magmasaft far casting-pracess design Temperature 1.8263 25.01 % Fig. 4.38 — Magmasoft representation of the casting shawing the molten metal flaw (laminar or turbulent) during the casting filling processGating Systems for Casting 167 The two case studies discussed -above are only a small part of the Magmasoft casting-simulation ‘software capabilities. Magmasoft is capable of helping the foundry industry from designing the pattern to machining the final casting. Also, Magmasoft is very useful for simulating different alloys of a metal and predicting many of the properties of the alloy such as liquidus temperature and solidus temperature. This can be done by placing thermocouples in the metal before simulation. Thermocouples can also be placed in the mould and the mould-metal interface to effectively calculate thermal diffusivity of the mould aggregate used. Magmasoft is very useful software for the casti process design. It is user-friendly and is very effecti ng industry and should be made part of the casting and ve for designing a process to obtain good quality castings. Gating and risering systems are important for the final quality of the casti ng achieved. To this extent, there are a number of elements that are present in the path of the molten metal. ort fnygeril < e Pouring basin, sprue, sprue-base well, runner and runner extension serve the purpose of allowing clean molten metal to enter the mould cavity. — Parting gate is the most widely used gate while the top and bottom gates are sometimes used for specific applications that favour them. ‘ , : - « Fluid mechanics laws together with empirical relations are applied to design the optimum gating system. Itis important to make sure that slag entering the gating system be removed completely before the metal enters the mould cavity. _— Bi er dIO! ; « Risers compensate for the volumetric shrinkage taking place during the solidification of the molten metal inside the mould cavity. oe es « Caine’s method provides a simple procedure to size the risers in sandcastings, while the modulus method is more elaborate and provides a better design. Mae Tt coe Sometimes chills may need to be added to reduce porosity at isolated sections that are not fed by risers. ¢ Toreduce the size of risers, feeding aids such as riser sleeves are often used. 7 GEG . What are the various elements that comprise the gating system? - Describe the objectives of gating systems in any casting. . What are the functions served by the pouring basin in a sandcasting? . Give the sketch of a design of a pouring basin with an arrangement for trapping slag. - Explain why the sprue should be tapered? - What are the various methods available to a casting designer to reduce the momentum of the molten metal? - How can slag be trapped in a runner? . Give the relevance of the following with reference to a casting: sprue, runner, in-gate. - Explain the function of a runner extension in a gating system. ' - What are the various types of in-gates that are normally used? oon nun fF WN ron o(EB: 1. 12: 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19, 20. 21. 22, 23. 24, 25, 26. 27. 28, 29, 30. 31. 32, 33. 34. 35, 36 37, 38. 39. 40. 41, 42. dis Manufacturing Technology What are the specific advantages of the top gate and what are its applications? Compare the bottom gate with the top gate vis a vis its merits and demerits. What is the most commonly used type of gate? Explain the reasons for ins enolee: Explain the reasons which make a riser a necessity in some castings. / Describe the types of risers and their uses with suitable sketches. What are the essential conditions that are to be kept in mind while designing risers? Explain the use of the chill with an example. Be “ . Define casting yield and explain its importance. ‘ State two functions served by chilling of a casting. ‘The size of gates should be neither too small nor too large’. Discuss the statement. Show by means of sketches the bottom and top gating systems. Explain the parameters which cause the pouring time of a given casting to vary. scree ta Define choke area in castings. Explain reasons why normally sprue base is used as the choke area for ferrous castings. Why is it necessary to streamline the gating-system elements? Explain with examples. What is the ideal profile of a sprue? Explain how it is actually practised. ‘What are the criteria to be used for designing the pouring basin? Explain about the various methods available for trapping slag in pouring basin. a Differentiate between pressurised and unpressurised gating systems with reference to the applications. Why is it necessary to use unpressurised gating system for the nonferrous metals? : What considerations should be observed while Positioning sprues based on the casting geometry and size? How are the in-gate position and size determined? — Describe how runner extension is helpful for good casting quality. __ Write a short note on whirl gate. - Explain the formation of shrinkage cavities in steel castings. hi Briefly explain the rationale of Caine’s empirical rules for risering. Oa us Compare the modulus method with that of Caine’s method of fixing riser dimensions. “NRL Method is a simplification of Caine’s”. Comment on this statement with a simple example. How is the shape factor obtained in the case of NRL method for cylindrical objects? What is the methodology for choosing the riser connection to the casting? What are the methods available to a casting designer to increase the casting yield? What precautions should one take while choosing chills? : — Describe briefly the feeding aids used in steel castings. Examine the following components from th and bad from processing. Design the patte and other casting requirements. Work out of parameters and values chosen. Give the gating elements, sandcasting point view, and comment as to the features gone ™, core and core boxes by considering the various allowane’ the details of gating design, explaining at each stage the cho! details of sand mould with dimensions and the arrangemenGating Systems for Casting 169 15 "Fig. 4.40 Pattern example 2 differ in weight by a factor of 3.8 but they are both cubes. An solidifies in 8.7 minutes. How much time would you estimate [21.18 min} 2. Two castings are moulded in green sand. They experiment has shown that the lighter casting s¢ that it would take for the larger casting to solidify.170 \ Manufecturing Technology 3. Below are given the solidification times for top cylindrical risers which are 100 mm diameter x 1 high for steel, copper and aluminium. Solidification times, min. Steel Copper 00 Mm Aluminium (a) Determine the effective constant for Chvorinov’s rule from the data for each of the metals listed above (b) Discuss the relative effect of radiation shielding for each metal listed, in terms of specific heat, latent heat of fusion and pouring temperature. (c) Repeat item (b) in terms of using an insulating sleeve only. (d) Discuss why the solidification times for steel and aluminium risers are about the same when they have both insulating sleeves and radiating shielding. Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Pouring basin is used in sandcastings to (a) reduce the momentum of the molten metal as it enters the sprue (b) remove the slag and dirt present in the molten metal j ' (c) reduce the mould erosion (d) all of the above ; 2. The best shape for sprue in sandcasting is (a) straight cylindrical (b) tapered (c) either straight cylindrical or tapered (d) shape will not matter ; 3. To reduce the mould erosion ina sandcasting, { (a) sprue is tapered (b) cylindrical sprue is used (c) sprue base well is provided (d) runner is made trapezoidal 4. The preferred shape of a runner in sandcasting is (a) spherical (b) cylindrical (c) trapezoidal (d) rectangular 5. Advantage of providing a top gate ina sandcasting is (a) favourable temperature gradient is achieved (b) slow filling of the mould cavity (c) smooth flow of metal into the matild cavity (d) none of the above 10. The advantage of providing a bottom gate ina sandcasting is (a) favourable temperature gradient is achieved (b) fast filling of the mould cavity (c) smooth flow of metal into the mould cavity (d) none of the above The advantage of providing a parting gate ina sandcasting is (a) favourable temperature gradient is achieved (b) best gating with minimum defects - (c) smooth flow of metal into the mould cavity (d) none of the above . Riser is used in a sandcasting to (a) reduce the slag inclusion “(b) reduce defects due to air aspiration (c) reduce mould erosion (d) reduce shrinkage cavities - ase aation fof . To improve the directional solidificatio® difficult casting geometries, use a (a) chill (b) parting gate (c) step gate (da) runner extension od by Pouring time for a given casting is increa® (a) using green sand mould (b). using sprue base well ‘(c) increased section thickness of the acasting aay" using V wide runners, ae “t The following i is a point. to! be. consitiere the design of in-gate ina sand mould: (a) In-gate should not be located Near a protruding-part of the mould to avoid the striking of. vertical ‘mould wall molten metal stream. * (b) In-gates should preferably be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould wall. (c) In-gates should not be placed near a core print or a chill. (d) All of the above 12. The following type of gate is is used for mapping the slag ina sand mould: ‘ (a) Bottom gate (b) Whirl gate (c) Parting gate RN (d) Step gate \ Answers ta Multiple-Choice Questions pe (D) sae ober dD) cis By (0) 4. ©), 10. ©... all, nl) 12.0) 1B, ®., d during s by the a 9. (a) 14. @) Gating Systems for Casting {71 13. Shrinkage gible ina asandcasting can be reduced by ie ae he eM oe i i, BG (a) ° vusinga riser of ei (b) pouring more molten Teer into the paid cavity - (¢) pouring just sufficient molten metal into the fd “mould cavity ; “(d) using arunner extension 14. Riser for a sandcasting can be designed using (a) Caine’s method Be ss oe (b) naval research laboratory method ‘, (c) modulus method (d) all of the above 15. To reduce the’ “risering ‘requirement in a '” ‘sandcasting, (a) use arunner extension (b) usea strainer core” _(c)_use a riser sleeve (d) .none ofthe above . GeO) cee, dy sD sirtoesBeu (Qc g 95 ON 15. (0), acai Ee