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Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering:

Network Analysis

Elements and Components

General Remarks
Electric Connections
Electric Sources
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors Later, relevant in
AC-circuits only
Transformers
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General Remarks
Electric circuits are described by the lumped element model.
According to this model an electric circuits consists of two parts:

1. Electric elements, which are finite points in space and

2. The connection between the elements, which are ideal conductors
without any resistance, inductance or capacitance.

Electric
elements

Ideal electric connection

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General Remarks
An electric element yields a functional relation between the voltage and the current.
It has ideal properties and does not exist physically. It forms the elementary building-
block in electric networks.
There are 5 fundamental electric elements:
Resistance (ideal resistor)
Capacitance (ideal capacitor)
Inductance (ideal Inductor) Other elements can be defined, however,
(ideal) Current source all (linear) electric circuits can be expressed
(ideal) Voltage source by a network of these fundamental elements.

An electric component (device) is the physical realization of an electric element.

It has always some non-ideal properties. Its characteristic can be approximated by an
equivalent circuit of (ideal) electric elements.
Example:
Resistance Resistor
The element is realized
Capacitance Capacitor
by the component:
Inductance Inductor
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General Remarks
Classification of Elements
An active element provides electric energy to the electric circuit.

Note: Active elements are often called sources, however, there is no source
for energy. Energy can be converted only.
A passive element dissipates energy, which is taken from the electric circuit.
Note: If an element stores energy from the circuit temporarily and brings back
the energy to the circuit later, it is considered as a passive element.

Absorption active electric passive Dissipation

of Energy Element circuit Element of Energy

temporary energy storage

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General Remarks
Classification of Elements
Linear and Non-Linear Elements
For a linear element holds the principle of superposition. Non-linear elements are
important for information processing (switching), but they will not be considered here.

i1 = f (u1 ) i1 = f (u1 )

linear
i2 = f (u2 ) non-linear
element
element

f (u1 + u2 ) = f (u1 ) + f (u2 ) f (u1 + u2 ) f (u1 ) + f (u2 )

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General Remarks
Proportion of electric components
In order to fulfill the presumption of the lumped element model, field quantities have
to be constant in space with respect to the dimension of the component.
Therefore, the extension of the component has to be small compared to the wavelength
of an exciting electromagnetic wave.
This forms an upper limit for the frequency, where the lumped element model is valid.

c0

Electromagnetic Wave

c0
=
20 20 f
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Electric Connections
Ideal Connection
Ideal connections are presented by solid lines. They can have kinks.

Junctions / nodes of several electric

connections are symbolized by solid dots

Note: A missing dot means, there is no electric

connection between these lines!
(High risk of mistake)

Partially, a half loop emphasizes

the missing connection

Ideal electric connections have no resistance ( R = 0 ).

Thus, they can carry any current without a voltage drop
they are equipotential.
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Electric Connections
Real Connection
Most real connections are made of metals (Cu, Al, Au, Ag)
or highly doped semiconductors.

Structured Cupper films Gold wires for

Wire / Cable
on printed circuit boards chip bonding

Isolating
shell

Metal core

Note: All real connections exhibit a finite resistance. There occurs waste heat,
while carrying a current and the transportable current strength is limited.
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Electric Sources
Ideal Sources
(1) Ideal Voltage Source: (2) Ideal Current Source:
Not: The arrows of
u0 u reference for current
Symbol and voltage are
oppositely oriented
i i0 on sources!

(More about arrows

i-u- characteristics
u u of reference see
chapter networks!)

u0

i i0 i
u = u0 i
i = i0 u
short circuit: i
open loop: u
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Electric Sources
(Ideal) Dependent (or Controlled) Sources

u1 u1 (a) Voltage controlled

1 1 1 1
voltage source
(VCVS).
u0 = f ( u1 )
i0 = f ( u1 ) (b) Current controlled
2 2 2 2 voltage source
(CCVS).
a) c)
(c) Voltage controlled
i1 i1 current source
1 1 1 1 (VCCS).

u0 = f ( i1 ) (d) Current controlled

current source
i0 = f ( i1 )
(CCCS).
2 2 2 2
b) d)
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Electric Sources
Real Voltage Sources
As mentioned before, there is no source for energy. Electric sources transform a
given form of energy into electric energy.
On all real voltage sources the voltage depends more or less on the current
(in contrast to ideal voltage sources).

Types of real voltage sources

primary energy: chemical mechanical electric other

energy energy energy

Type of Battery Generator Transformer, Solar cell

Source: Power Supply
Thermoelectric
Generator
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Electric Sources
Real Voltage Sources
Batteries
Batteries using chemical reactions between electrodes
and an electrolyte to generate electric energy.

Types of batteries:

Primary (disposable) batteries: The chemical reaction is irreversible.

The battery can be used only once.
Most common types:
Zinc-carbon-battery, Alkaline battery

Secondary (rechargeable) The chemical reaction is reversible.

batteries: The battery can be recharged.
Most common types:
NiCd Batteries, Ni-metal hybride (NiMH)
batteries, Li-ion-batteries, Lead-acid
batteries
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Electric Sources
Real Voltage Sources
Generators

IE u

B
B

n u
A
a
t =0
b
Electromagnet generates Rotating loop inside a magnetic field
static magnetic field. generates a voltage by induction.
Voltage tap via collector ring.
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Electric Sources
Real Voltage Sources
Power Plant

Primary Energy
Oil, Gas, Coal, Wind power,
Nuclear, Water power

Creation of heat Transformation into Transformation into

by combustion/ mechanical energy / electric energy
radioactive decay rotation with turbines with generators
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Electric Sources
Real Current Sources

Current sources are usually realized by semiconductor devices and special

designed power supplies. Each real current source shows a more or less
strong dependency of the current on the applied voltage.

Precision current source

of the company Keithley.
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Resistors
Ideal Resistors (The Element Resistance)
Note: On passive elements
Definition: the arrows of reference
for voltage and current are
R R always oriented in the same
direction.

i
u
a) Symbol b) Arrows of reference

u= R i i= G u

u V i 1
[ R=] = = [=
G ] = =
i A u R

Electric Resistance Electric Conductance A

measured in Ohm.
= = 1 =S
measured in Siemens. V
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Resistors
Current-Voltage-Characteristics
R respectively G are the slope of the characteristic.

u i u
V R= 10 A G 1 = 1S R= =
3
i
6 R2 = 5 1,2 u2 u1
G 2 = 0,2 S =
5 0,2 i2 i1
4 0,8
u2 G 3 = 0,1S
3 0,6 i
u1 u G= =
2
i R1 = 1
0,4 u
1 0,2 i2 i1
=
0
i1 i2
0 u2 u1
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 A i 0 1 2 3 4 5 V u
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Resistors
Dissipation Loss on Resistors
Dissipation Loss as Function of Electric Quantities:
p p The power p is
W W dissipated from the
25,0 100 electric system
G1 = 1S R2= 4 Dissipation Loss.
18,75 75

square dependency.
12,5 50
G2 = 0,25 S
R1 = 1
6,25 25

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 V u 0 1 2 3 4 5 A i

2
u
p = u i = Ri 2 = [p ] = [u i ]= VA = W Power, measured
R in Watt.
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Resistors
Mounting Forms of Real Resistors
(1) Wire Wound Resistor:
Wire consists of metals
protective coating connecting caps like Nickeline, Manganine,
Values: 1 up to 100 k.
precise adjustable, but
expensive.
Suitable also for large
dissipation losses.
relative high inductance

metal wire isolating core

24 82 k / 6 W 1 22 / 50 W
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Resistors
Mounting Forms of Real Resistors
(2) Solid Resistor:

protective coating connecting caps The resistive solid consists

of graphite or other carbon
containing composites.
Values: 10 up to 1 G.
very low production costs,
but broad tolerance.
Suitable for mass
production

resistive solid Typically used in

consumer electronics.

2.4 M / 20%
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Resistors
Mounting Forms of Real Resistors
(3) Film Resistor:

protective coating connecting caps Thin metal or carbon -

films, yields resistance:

R=
i a
( a2 i2 )

Value: 1 up to 100 k.

Suitable for precise

resistive film isolating core resistors (small tolerances)
and large number of
pieces.

56 k / 1%
(metal film)
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Resistors
Mounting Forms of Real Resistors
(4) Color Code for the Resistance (DIN IEC 62):

Carbon-Film-Resistor

2.4 M / 5%

Metal- Film Resistor

Color A B C Multiplier Tolerance Temperature Coefficient

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Resistors
Mounting Forms of Real Resistors
(4) Color Code for the Resistance (DIN IEC 62):

Color A B C Multiplier Tolerance Temperature

coefficient
silver 0,01 10 %
5% gold 0,1 5%
black 0 0 1 25010-6 1/K
brown 1 1 1 10 1% 10010-6 1/K
red 2 2 2 100 2% 5010-6 1/K
orange 3 3 3 1 k 1510-6 1/K
yellow 4 4 4 10 k 2510-6 1/K
24 100 k green 5 5 5 100 k 0,5 % 2010-6 1/K
blue 6 6 6 1 M 0,25 % 1010-6 1/K
violet 7 7 7 10 M 0,1 % 510-6 1/K
2.4 M / 5% grey 8 8 8 100 M Without 110-6 1/K
tolerance strips
white 9 9 9 1 G
20 %
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Resistors
Mounting Forms of Real Resistors
(5) Indication on very small devices for example 0.2 mm 0.4 mm

2.4 2R4 R [1,10] 5%, 2%

24 24R R ]10,100] 5%, 2%
240 k 244 4: 104 R ]100,107] 5%, 2%

(6) International Norm Series for Resistance Values (E-Series, DIN IEC 63):

En = { Enk Enk = 10 round ( n

)
10 k ; k = 0,1, , n 1 }
E 6: 10 15 22 33 47 68 20%
E 12: 10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82 10%
E 24: 10 11 12 13 15 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 5%
E n: n = 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192.
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Resistors
Resistors for Extreme Applications
High Power Resistor: Resistive Sensor
(Locomotives) (Nano-Thermometer)

SMD-Resistors

110 kW / 1.8 m

Microwave-Resistors (SMD)
SMD:
Surface Mounted Devices
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Resistors
Load Resistors

Many electric devices, like

Heaters

Light bulbs are considered electrically simply as

resistor in an electric network and
are called Load Resistors

All real load resistors are non-ideal

Computers resistors.
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Summary: Elements
Active Elements u0

Voltage source
i u = u0 i
u

Current source
i0
i = i0 u
Passive Elements
R
Resistor u= R i
i u