Topicf7ffEnvironmentalfProtection

CoursefLBf7.3ffReductionfoffGasfEmissions

VDZfOnlinefCourses // Cement
Imprint

German Cement Works Association

Research Institute of the Cement Industry
P.O. box 30 10 63, 40410 Duesseldorf, Germany
Tannenstrasse 2, 40476 Duesseldorf, Germany
Phone: +49 211 45 781
Fax: +49 211 45 78296
[email protected]
www.vdz-online.de

[email protected]
www.elearning-vdz.de/en

Issued: 8th April 2016

Contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1
2 NOx Emissions and Reduction Methods......................................................... 1
2.1 Formation of NOx during the Clinker Burning Process ..................................... 1
2.2 Primary Measures for NOx Reduction................................................................ 2
2.3 Secondary Measures for NOx Reduction............................................................ 2
2.3.1 NOx Reduction by Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR Method) ................ 3
2.3.2 NOx Reduction by Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR Method) ...... 3
2.4 Operation and Quality......................................................................................... 6

3 SO2 Emissions and Reduction Methods ......................................................... 7

3.1 SO2 Formation During the Clinker Burning Process ......................................... 7
3.2 SO2 Reduction Using the Dry Sorption Process ................................................ 8
3.3 SO2 Reduction Using the Suspension Process ................................................... 8
3.4 Other Methods for Reducing SO2 Emissions ..................................................... 9
3.5 Factors Affecting Plant Operation and Quality .................................................. 10 i

4 Health and Safety Practice Measures ............................................................. 11

5 Questions on Course LB 7.3 Reduction of Gas Emissions ......................... 11
Solutions............................................................................................................................... 12
Glossary ............................................................................................................................... 13

Index..................................................................................................................................... 15

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1 Introduction
Combustion is a colloquial term used to refer to a chemical reaction in which a chemi-
cal element reacts rapidly with oxygen, releasing heat. Complete combustion occurs
when organic substances burn, and ideally carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are
produced. Realistically, in incomplete combustion, other products such as carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon (C) are produced in the form of soot. Nitrogen oxides
(NOx) are also produced from the nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) in the air in all combus-
tion processes and sulfur dioxide (SO2) is produced when fuels containing sulfur are
burnt.
In the cement industry, rotary kiln plants provide particularly favourable conditions for
the formation of nitrogen oxides owing to specific industrial constraints. In this case it is
predominantly nitrogen monoxide (NO) that is formed, and only a small amount of nitro-
gen dioxide (NO2) is formed owing to the low oxygen content, and these are collectively
referred to as nitrogen oxides. Increased sulfur dioxide emissions tend to be produced
during the clinker burning process if the raw materials contain readily volatile sulfur com- 1
pounds.
Both components enter the atmosphere via the kiln exhaust gas chimney and may harm
humans, animals and even plants when present in large quantities owing to their partly
poisonous and irritant properties. Emissions of these substances are therefore subject to
a legally defined limit.
This course will first discuss the formation of the two central gas components NOx and
SO2. Common primary and secondary measures for reducing emissions will then be pre-
sented. Other exhaust gas components that are formed during the clinker burning process,
Course Summary
for example carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), mercury (Hg) and hydrogen
chloride (HCl), will not be dealt with in this course.

2 NOx Emissions and Reduction Methods

2.1 Formation of NOx during the Clinker Burning Pro-
cess
High flame temperatures and excess air in the sintering zone are necessary in the produc-
tion of cement clinker for reasons of quality. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are therefore formed
during combustion and may be produced in three different ways, although in a rotary kiln
firing system two mechanisms contribute mainly to the NOx formation:

1. Formation of thermal NO

Thermal NO is formed during an endothermic reaction from the elements nitrogen (N)
and oxygen (O). This involves a large number of radical reactions, in which N2 (atmo-
spheric nitrogen) reacts with atomic oxygen according to the following equation:
N2 + O NO + N Production of Thermal
NO
The term thermal refers to the relatively high temperatures that are required to initiate
the formation reaction.

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 2 NOx Emissions and Reduction Methods

NO formation only becomes appreciable at temperatures of above 1,300 C, and then

rises exponentially with increasing temperature until reaching a maximum.

Influencing Factors The following factors influence the formation of thermal NO:
 residence time of the gases in the hot flame zone
 O2 content of the kiln atmosphere
 maximum combustion temperatures

2. Formation of Fuel NO

The source of fuel NOx is the fractions of nitrogen bound in the fuel that are converted
into NOx during combustion. NO formation from fuel nitrogen takes place at low temper-
atures ranging from 600 to 800 C and is decisive for NO formation in the secondary firing
system. The formation of fuel NO only plays a minor role in the primary firing system.
For the sake of completeness it should be mentioned that there is also a third mechanism
2 for NOx formation, but this only plays a secondary role in the clinker burning process and
is referred to as prompt NOx. In this instance, instead of conversion to N2, the reaction
of fuel radicals with N2 again leads to NOx formation .

2.2 Primary Measures for NOx Reduction

Primary measures for reducing NOx emissions have the purpose of actually preventing
the formation of nitrogen oxides during the combustion process.

Measures The following are important:

 use of low-NOx burners
 staged combustion in the calciner
Staged Combustion Staged combustion may only be used for NOx reduction in kiln plants that have a calciner
and a tertiary air duct. Reducing conditions are created by adding fuel to the calciner firing
system and NO is consequently decomposed. Oxidizing conditions, under which the fuel
and the CO are completely burnt out, are then created by adding oxygen-rich tertiary air.
Fig. 2.2-1 shows an example of the principle of staged secondary firing in a Thyssen
Krupp Industrial Solutions calciner. Other known calciner designs include the Pyroclon
Low-NOx Calciner from KHD Humboldt Wedag and the RSP Minox Calciner from
Technip CLE.

2.3 Secondary Measures for NOx Reduction

Secondary reduction methods are aimed at achieving the maximum possible reduction
of the NOx that has already formed in the exhaust gas.

Two methods are used for this purpose, in which nitrogen monoxide is broken down into
the environmentally neutral substances N2 and H2O by injecting a nitrogen-containing
reducing agent (e.g. a urea solution or processed photographic water) in accordance with
the following equation:
4 NH3 + 4 NO + O2 4 N2 + 6 H2O

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 2.3 Secondary Measures for NOx Reduction

meal from
mixing chamber preheater

tertiary air
for secondary
combustion

tertiary
air fuel (precalciner)

meal to
kiln inlet

rotary kiln fuel

(kiln inlet)
3
Figure 2.2-1: Calciner with Mixing Chamber .

2.3.1 NO x Reduction by Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR Method)

Selective catalytic decomposition of NO is carried out using suitable catalysts in a tem-

perature window of about 250 to 400 C.
In general, a distinction is made between two methods: the high-dust method, in which High-Dust and Low-
the exhaust gas laden with dust is passed directly through the catalyst, and the low-dust Dust

method, in which the NOx reduction takes place in the catalyst only after the exhaust gas
has been dedusted and reheated.
SCR plants exhibit greater reducing efficiency at a lower NH3 slip than SNCR plants. Comparison of SCR
Generally, 25% ammonia water is used as a reducing agent. An example of a SCR reactor and SNCR

of this type (high-dust variant) in a rotary kiln plant in the cement industry is shown in
Fig. 2.3-1.
A number of catalyst locations are normally incorporated into the SCR reactor, each
consisting of several individual catalyst modules and elements (Fig. 2.3-2).
The SCR method has been used successfully for a long time in, for example, incineration Past Experience
plants. So far there has been little experience with it in the cement industry owing to the
special specific conditions (e.g. extremely high dust contents). However, in view of further
future tightening of limit values and the improved reduction performance by comparison
with SNCR, it is expected that this method will be increasingly used in the near future.

2.3.2 NO x Reduction by Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR

Method)

In contrast to the SCR method, in the SNCR method NO is converted into N2 and H2O Comparison of SCR
without the action of a catalyst, as the name suggests. High temperatures in the range and SNCR

from approximately 850 to 1,050 C are therefore necessary. This temperature window is
provided in the gas riser pipe above the kiln inlet in kiln plants with a cyclone preheater
(Fig. 2.3-3).
The reducing agent (ammonia water) is generally injected through several lances that
are filled with two-material jets. Fig. 2.3-4 shows an example of a single-jet lance.

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 2 NOx Emissions and Reduction Methods

Figure 2.3-1: SCR Reactor in a German Cement Works .

flow align-
ment system

catalyst
module

catalyst
element catalyst
locations
Figure 2.3-2: Structure of a SCR Reactor .

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 2.3 Secondary Measures for NOx Reduction

III
III

meal IV
meal stage 3
stage 3
IV

tertiary air
900C
5
NH3 water
rotary kiln exhaust gas
1100 - 1200C

Figure 2.3-3: Addition of Aqueous Ammonia Solution (Ammonia Water) to a Rotary Kiln Plant with
Cyclone Preheater .

Figure 2.3-4: Single-Jet Lance for the SNCR Method .

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 2 NOx Emissions and Reduction Methods

If the reducing agent is added at too low a temperature, the reaction rate will be too slow
and significant amounts of unconverted NH3 may be emitted, i.e. NH slip may occur.
By contrast, if the temperature window is exceeded, NH3 may be oxidized to form NO,
considerably lowering the NOx reduction rate. Fig. 2.3-5 shows how the rate of NO de-
composition and the NH3 slip are dependent on temperature. The maximum reduction
rates that can be achievedwith this process are approximately 50 80%.

100 100
NO-decomposition
NO decomposition in %

NH3 slip in %
50 50
6

NH3 slip

0 0
800 900 1000 1100
gas temperature in

Figure 2.3-5: NO decomposition and NH3 slip within the temperature window of the SNCR method .

If the SNCR method is employed in kiln plants with staged combustion, care must
also be taken to ensure that the two processes do not have a negative effect on one
another. Temperatures, residence times and gas atmospheres (reducing/oxidizing) must
be coordinated with one another.

2.4 Operation and Quality

Emissions  With high NH slip, ammonia and ammonium compounds may accumulate in the EGR
dust (this must be borne in mind during further use of the dusts)
 If too much reducing agent is added this may lead to an increase in CO emissions
 If the temperature is too low in the injection zone then poor lance configuration and a
high NH3/NO molar ratio may lead to an increase in NH3 emissions (NH slip).
Wear and Corrosion If injection of the reducing agent is not optimal this will have a substantial negative effect
on the refractory lining near the injection zone.
Energy Consumption of  Evaporation of the water content in the reducing agent leads to an increase in heat
the SNCR Method consumption.
 The increase in the amount of exhaust gas leads to a failry small increase in the con-
sumption of electric power.
Energy Consumption of  An additional pressure loss in the SCR reactor leads to a substantial increase in the
the SCR Method consumption of electric power.

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3 SO2 Emissions and Reduction Methods
3.1 SO2 Formation During the Clinker Burning Pro-
cess
The raw material used for the clinker burning process consists essentially of limestone
and clay or of marl, a natural mixture thereof. The sulfur contained in the raw mate-
rials is predominantly combined in an inorganic form as sulfate (SO42-) or sulfide (S2-).
Combination as sulfite (SO32-) is relatively rare. The clay may also contain organic sul-
fur compounds. The form of combination and the amount of sulfur contained in different
limestone deposits differ depending on the geological origin(Tab. 3.1-1).

Raw Material Total Sulfur in Mass Sulfide Sulfur in Mass Sulfate Sulfur in Mass
% SO3 % SO3 % SO3

Clays and Clay Slate 0.55 0.43 0.13

7
Devonian Limestones 0.25 0.23 0.02

Aragonitic Limestone 0.03 0.02 0.02

Crinoidal Limestone 0.05 0.01 0.05

Ceratite Limestone 0.10 0.01 0.09

Jurassic Limestones 0.42 0.33 0.09

Chalky Limestones 0.25 0.22 0.03

Table 3.1-1: Levels of Sulfur in the Raw Materials from Different Deposits.

The sulfidic sulfur is predominantly present as iron disulfide (FeS2) in the pyrites and mar-
casite modifications. After the raw meal is introduced into the preheater of the kiln plant
the sulfides are oxidized and SO2 is released. A considerable proportion of the released
SO2 is combined again with the raw meal during interconnected operation (operation
with raw mill). An external circulating system may be formed in this instance be-
tween the upper region of the preheater, the combined drying and grinding plant and the
exhaust gas filter. During direct operation (operation without the raw mill) increased SO2
emissions are produced if no reduction measures are applied.
Sulfur is also combined in inorganic and organic forms in the standard fuels that are mainly
used coal, lignite, heavy fuel oil and petroleum coke. Secondary fuels, such as used
tyres, waste plastic or waste textiles also contain sulfur in varying amounts. Sulfur dioxide
formed during combustion reacts in the presence of alkalis to form alkali sulfates and to
a great extent leaves the kiln with the clinker. An internal circulating system may be
formed between the rotary kiln and the lower region of the preheater.
If there is a lack of alkali in the kiln gas there will be an excess of SO2. In this case the SO2
reacts in the kiln inlet region with the calcium oxide of the calcined raw meal or or else
reacts further along the exhaust gas path with CaCO3 to form calcium sulfate. However,
a sufficient amount of oxygen must be available for this reaction. Reducing zones in the
region of the kiln inlet therefore impede this reaction. In addition, CaSO4 that has already
formed may be decomposed if there is a lack of air, in which case SO2 is released again
and may be emitted under unfavourable conditions.
Localized regions with a deficiency of air in the kiln may develop, for example if there are
leaks in the preheater or increased wear at the kiln inlet seal. In these cases false air is

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 3 SO2 Emissions and Reduction Methods

drawn into the preheater so that the pressure conditions in the kiln inlet prevent a sufficient
throughput of air through the rotary kiln. Localized reducing zones may also be formed
by the use of fuels in lump form. However, if there is a sufficient overall excess of air this
will not affect SO2 emissions.
The sulfur circulating systems in a kiln plant in which sulfide-containing raw materials are
used are shown below (Fig. 3.1-1).

raw SO2
materials emission

raw mill
Gas-
reinigung
sulfide
oxidation
preheater and
sulfate calciner
bypass filter
fuel
secondary firing
8
bypass dust
fuel
primary
firing
SO2
sulfate
rotary kiln
clinker

Figure 3.1-1: Sulfur Input and Sulfur Circulating System in a Kiln Plant with a Preheater and Calciner .

3.2 SO2 Reduction Using the Dry Sorption Process

Process In the dry sorption process, a calcium-containing adsorbent is injected into the process or
exhaust gas path in order to combine the SO2. Where possible, this should be carried out in
the region where the SO2 is formed, i.e. at the upper cyclone stages or with the kiln meal,
in the raw gas after the preheater or in the conditioning tower. As the temperature increases
(> 350 C) the SO2 retention in the calcium additive improves. At lower temperatures (<
120 C) the SO2 sorption improves with increasing exhaust gas moisture. Furthermore, the
specific surface area of the adsorbent greatly affects its ability to absorb gases. The solid
reaction products are either discharged with the clinker as sulfate or collected in the dust
filter after passing through the external circulating system.
Past Experience So far calcium hydroxide (lime hydrate) has proved to be the only effective and econom-
ically justifiable additive. However, it must be added in molar ratios (Ca/S) of up to 7 in
interconnected operation and up to 20 in direct operation owing to the competing reaction
with carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as incomplete mixing and blocking of the reaction by
particle surfaces that have already reacted (Tab. 3.2-1).

3.3 SO2 Reduction Using the Suspension Process

The suspension process uses calcium hydroxide-water suspensions (lime milk).
Past Experience In contrast to the dry-additive process, operational experience with the application of lime
milk as an additive for SO2 reduction has shown that it does not lead to improved reduction
rates. In addition, the handling is considerably more complex since, among other things,
the additive must be stirred continuously to ensure a uniform quality. Furthermore, the

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 3.4 Other Methods for Reducing SO2 Emissions

Additive Feed Point Molar Ratio SO2 Reduction Cost

Lime Hydrate Raw gas, 1 to 7 (intercon- good high

kiln meal nected operation)
5 to 20 (direct
operation)

Lime Milk Raw gas, n/a good high

after conditioning
tower

Burnt Lime Kiln meal n/a very small average

Mill n/a low average

Hot Meal Kiln meal n/a small low

(unslaked)

NaOH Conditioning tower 1.3 very good very high

Table 3.2-1: Operational Experience with Different Secondary Measures for SO2 Reduction.
9
nozzles are subjected to increased wear owing to the high exit velocities of the suspension.
Injecting a lime milk suspension into the conditioning tower does not result in effective
SO2 reduction owing to the temperatures that normally prevail there (between 150 and
300 C). This would require longer residence times and therefore a larger volume for the
conditioning tower in this temperature range.

3.4 Other Methods for Reducing SO2 Emissions

SO2 emissions of more than 1,200 mg/m3 may occur in cement works that process raw
materials with very high sulfide contents. In these cases the addition of lime hydrate
is not sufficient to achieve clean gas concentrations below 400 mg/m3 during continuous
operation. Higher SO2 reduction rates can be achieved by applying other, more technically
complex secondary measures, such as wet desulfurization or the dry-additive process
followed by a fluidized bed.

Wet Desulfurization
In wet desulfurization, the dedusted exhaust gas is passed through a scrubber tower (Fig.
3.4-1). An aqueous suspension of an adsorbent (solids content approx. 10%) is injected
into the exhaust gas flow for SO2 retention. Limestone, kiln meal or electrostatic precipita-
tor dust may be used as the adsorbent. The calcium compounds contained in the adsorbent
react with the sulfur dioxide to form first calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and then calcium sulfate
or gypsum (CaSO4).
The kiln exhaust gas enters the scrubber at temperatures of 100 to 120 C during inter-
connected operation and at temperatures of up to 200 C in direct operation. The exit
temperature of the clean gas saturated with water vapour is 55 to 60 C. The walls of the
scrubber must be made of high-grade steel or plastic or be coated in order to prevent cor-
rosion.

Fluidized Bed Method

In this method the kiln exhaust gas containing SO2 is fed into a fluidized bed containing
dry adsorbent (raw material and/or lime hydrate). Effective SO2 retention can be ensured

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 3 SO2 Emissions and Reduction Methods

10

Figure 3.4-1: Wet Scrubber fior SO2 Reduction in a European Cement Works .

by intensive contact between gas and solids, a temperature set close to the dew point and
a sufficiently long residence time. The exhaust gas from the reactor is then dedusted in
an electrostatic precipitator. Some of the collected filter dust can be reintroduced into the
reactor, while the rest of it is fed in with the raw meal and is therefore removed from the
fluidized bed circulating system. So far, however, the fluidized bed method has failed to
achieve any importance in the cement industry.

3.5 Factors Affecting Plant Operation and Quality

Circulating Systems, An increase in the sulfur circulating systems as a result of the above-mentioned reduction
Bypass processes, in conjunction with chlorine and alkali circulating systems, may lead to in-
creased coating formation in the kiln inlet, the gas riser pipe and the lower cyclone stages.
It may be necessary to install a bypass system.
Wear and Corrosion  If wet scrubbers are used, the walls should be made of high-grade steel or plastic.
 It should be borne in mind that an increase in the sulfur circulating systems as a result
of the above-mentioned reduction processes may have a negative effect on the service
life of the refractory lining.
 With pneumatic conveying, the connecting and coupling seals of reducing agent lines
should be checked regularly, as well as carrying out various other measures.
Energy Consumption  The heat consumption may be increased slightly by the conveying air for the reducing

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 agent.
 The consumption of electric energy may be increased slightly by increasing the amount
of exhaust gas.

4 Health and Safety Practice Measures

Personal protective equipment must be worn when working on the metering equipment
or the storage tanks for the reducing agent. Specific procedures in accordance with the
safety data sheet or operational instructions must be followed. Depending on the reducing
agent used it may be necessary to take the vapour into account.
The following measures must be observed before and during any work:
 inform production supervisors and managers of any work that is about to take place.
 switch off pumps at all poles and secure against reconnection.
 if necessary, flush the plant with water before work begins.
 depressurize any installed cleaning devices near the nozzles and secure against recon-
11
nection.

5 Questions on Course LB 7.3 Reduction of

Gas Emissions
You can test your knowledge by answering the following questions.

Question 5.0 A:
1.: What are the main gaseous emissions produced during the clinker burning process?
2.: Name the two (three) different mechanisms in the formation of nitrogen oxides.
3.: What temperatures promote the formation of thermal NO?
4.: What main primary and secondary reduction measures are effective with increased
NO2 emissions?
5.: Why is it necessary to maintain a temperature window of approx. 850 to 1,050 C
when using the SNCR technique?
6.: What is the difference between SCR and SNCR?
7.: What measures should be taken before and during any work on metering or storage
equipment?
8.: In what forms is sulfur combined in the raw material and which form of combined
sulfur in the raw material is responsible for increased SO2 emissions?
9.: What main reduction measures are effective for increased SO2 emissions?
10.: Where should the additive be introduced in order to achieve the best reduction of
SO2 emissions?
11.: What effect does the addition of additives for reducing SO2 emissions have on the
production operation?
12.: What must be borne in mind when using wet scrubbers?
Solution see p.12

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 5 Questions on Course LB 7.3 Reduction of Gas Emissions

Solutions
Solutions to 5.0 A:
1.: CO2, CO, NOx, SO2, trace elements, HCl, etc.
2.: Thermal NO, fuel NO, (prompt NO)
3.: High temperatures > 1,300C.
4.: Primary measures: low-NOx burner and staged combustion in the calciner. Sec-
ondary measures: selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) and selective catalytic
reduction (SCR).
5.: If the temperature is too low the reaction rate will be too slow and increased NH3
emissions, i.e. slip, will occur. On the other hand, if the temperature is too high
NH3 will be oxidized to form NO, which significantly lowers the reduction rate.
6.: With SCR, NO is decomposed at lower temperatures with the aid of a catalyst.
7.: Inform production supervisors and managers about the work. Personal protective
equipment must be worn. Switch off feed pumps for the reducing agent and secure
12 against reconnection. Depressurize the cleaning devices for the nozzles and secure
against reconnection. Flush the relevant parts of the SNCR plant or the injection
equipment before work begins.
8.: The sulfur contained in the raw materials is predominantly combined as sulfate
(SO42-) or sulfide (S2-). The sulfidic sulfur is predominantly present as iron disul-
fide Fe2 (pyrites and marcasite). Oxidation of the sulfides in the kiln plant to form
SO2 contributes to increased emissions.
9.: Dry sorption process with calcium hydroxide, suspension process with lime milk,
wet desulfurization in a scrubber tower, fluidized bed method
10.: This depends on the type of additive; with the dry sorption process, for example,
the best reduction is obtained if the additive is introduced with the kiln meal or
added to the raw gas.
11.: The addition of an additive or adsorbent may influence the circulating systems in
the kiln system (chlorine, alkali and sulfur circulating systems) and lead to in-
creased coating formation in the kiln inlet or the lower cyclone stages.
12.: The walls or internal fittings should be made of high-grade steel or plastic.
Question see p. 11

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Glossary
ammonia water
Ammonia water or chemical ammonium hydroxide; physical solution of ammonia (NH3) in water (H2O); is used
in NOx reduction by SNCR
calciner
Suspension flow reactor in which the calcination reaction of the kiln meal takes place; industrial equipment for
reducing nitrogen monoxide by staged combustion.
calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2; also known as slaked lime; chemical hydroxide of calcium; irritant that is formed when calcium
oxide reacts with water, producing a large amount of heat
carbon dioxide
Gas that is formed by, among other things, the combustion of carbon and by material conversion. It is the most
important greenhouse gas.
carbon monoxide
CO; carbon monoxide; colourless, odourless and tasteless poisonous gas
clinker
The product of the rotary kiln plant and an important starting material for cement production. 13
combustion
rapid reaction of a chemical element with oxygen, releasing heat.
EGR
Exhaust Gas Recirculation; recirculation of exhaust gas for NOx reduction
endothermic
Reaction requiring external energy, e.g. light or heat
false air
Term for unwanted air that may enter the kiln system as a result of leaks
fluidized bed
Granular mass of solid particles that is brought into a fluidized state by an upwardly-directed flow of a fluid. !--
Schttung von Feststoffpartikeln, die durch eine aufwrtsgerichtete Strmung eines Fluids in einen fluidisierten
Zustand versetzt wird.-->
gas bypass
Partial gas off-take by which some of the kiln exhaust gases are drawn off in the lowest region of the gas riser
pipe directly above the kiln inlet housing
internal alkali circulating system
Alkalis may evaporate in the kiln above temperatures as low as 800 C. The vaporized alkalis enter the cooler
zones of the preheater together with the gas, where they condense on the kiln feed. The condensed alkalis are
then transported back with the kiln feed to the higher temperature region where they evaporate again.
lime hydrate
common term for calcium hydroxide as an additive for retaining SO2 emissions.
limestone
Rock consisting almost entirely of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
marl
Sedimentary rock that is composed approximately half of clay and half of limestone.
NH slip
colloquial term for (increased) NH3 emissions from a rotary kiln plant.
nitrogen oxide
Nitrogen oxide, NOx; group of nitrogen-oxygen compounds, some of which have an irritant effect on humans.
Gases in the atmosphere lead to the breakdown of ozone and promote the greenhouse effect. They also contribute
to the formation of acid rain
SCR
Abbreviation for selective catalytic reduction; reduction of nitrogen oxides using ammonia; with the SCR method
the reaction takes place in a special catalyst at approximately 250-400 C !-- Abkrzung fr selektive katalytis-
che Reduktion (Selective Catalytic Reduction); Reduktion der Stickoxide mit Ammoniak; Reaktion findet beim
SCR-Verfahren in einem speziellen Katalysator bei rund 200-300 C statt-->
secondary fuels
Alternatives to primary fuels such as coal, crude oil or natural gas. Examples of secondary fuels used in the

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 Glossary

cement industry include used tyres, waste oil, waste wood, animal meal, plastic waste and processed fractions of
industrial, business and domestic refuse.
sintering
Fusion of a material, generally without melting it
SNCR
selective non-catalytic reduction; reduction of nitrogen oxides in the gas phase, for example using ammonia
water

14

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Index

A
ammonia water 3

C
calciner 2
calcium hydroxide 8
carbon dioxide 1
carbon monoxide 1
clinker 1
combustion 1

E
EGR 6
endothermic 1

F 15
false air 7
fluidized bed 9

G
gas bypass 10

I
internal alkali circulating system 10

L
lime hydrate 8
limestone 7

M
marl 7

N
NH slip 6
nitrogen oxide 1

S
SCR 3
secondary fuels 7
sintering 1
SNCR 3

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