Dispersion for point sources

CE 524
February 2011

1
 Concentration
Air pollution law in most industrial countries
based on concentration of contaminants
NAAQS in US
N
Needd method
th d tto predict
di t concentrations
t ti att any
given location
Any given set of pollutant
Meteorological conditions
At any location
For any time period
But even best currently available concentration
models are far from ideal
2
 Concentration
Commonly express concentration as ppm or
g/m3
g
Parts per million (ppm) = 1 volume of
1 ppm = __11 volume gaseous pollutant
pollutant__
106 volumes (pollutant + air)
/ 3 = micrograms/cubic
g/m i / bi meter
t

3
 Factors that determine Dispersion

Physical nature of effluents

Chemical nature of effluents
Meteorology
L
Location
i off the
h stackk
Nature of terrain downwind from the stack

4
 Stack Effluents
Gas and particulate matter
Particles < 20 m behave same as gas
Low settling velocity
P
Particle
ti l > 20 m have
h significant
i ifi t settling
ttli velocity
l it
Only gases and Particles < 20 m are treated in
dispersion models
Others are treated as particulate matter
Assumes effluents leave the stack with sufficient
momentum and buoyancy
Hot gases continue to rise

5
 Assumptions
Effluents leave the stack with sufficient
momentum and buoyancy
Hot ggases continue to rise
Plume is deflected along its axis in
proportion to the average wind speed (u)

6
 Gaussian or Normal Distribution

Gaussian distribution model

Dispersion in y and z directions uses a
double gaussian distribution -- plumes
Dispersion in (x, y, z) is three-dimensional
Used to model instantaneous puff of
emissions

7
 Gaussian or Normal Distribution

Pollution dispersion follows a distribution

function
Theoretical form: gaussian distribution
function

8
 Gaussian or Normal Distribution

x = mean of the distribution

= standard deviation
Gaussian distribution used to model probabilities, in this
context formula used to predict steady state concentration
at a point down stream

9
 Gaussian or Normal Distribution
What are some properties of the normal
distribution?

f(x) becomes concentration, maximum at center of plume 10

 Gaussian or Normal distribution
68% of the area fall within 1 standard deviation of
the mean ( 1 ).
95% off area ffall
ll within
i hi 1.96 standard
d d deviation
d i i off
the mean ( 1.96 ).
99.7%
99 7% of the area fall within 3 standard deviations
of the mean ( 3 )

11
 Gaussian dispersion model
Dispersion in y and z directions are
modeled as Gaussian
Becomes double Gaussian model
Why doesnt
doesn t it follow a Gaussian
distribution in the x direction?
Direction
Di ti off wind
i d

12
 Gaussian Dispersion Model
For localized point sources stacks
General appearance
Plume exits at height, hs
Rises an additional distance, h
buoyancy of hot gases
called plume rise
reaches distance where buoyancy and upward momentum cease
E
Exit
it velocity,
l it Vs
Plume appears as a point source emitted at height H=
hs + h
Emission rate Q (g/s)
Assume wind blows in x direction at speed u
u is independent of time
time, elevation
elevation, or location (not really true)

13
Gaussian Dispersion Model

14
 Gaussian Dispersion Model
Stack gas transported downstream
Dispersion in vertical direction governed by
atmospheric stability
Dispersion in horizontal plane governed by
molecular and eddy diffusion
x-axis oriented to wind direction
z-axis oriented vertically upwards
y-direction
di ti oriented
i t d transverse
t to
t the
th wind
i d
Concentrations are symmetric about y-axis and z-
axis
15
 Gaussian Dispersion Model
Z-axis through stack

Y-axis is transverse
to wind

X-axis in
direction of wind

16
 As distance
increase so does
dispersion

17
Image source: Cooper and Alley, 2002
 18
Image source: Cooper and Alley, 2002
 Point Source at Elevation H

Assumes no interference or limitation to

dispersion in any direction

x0 andd z0 are location

l i off centerline
li off plume
l
y0 taken as base of the stack
z0 is H
Q = emission strength of source (mass/time) g/s
u = average wind speed thru the plume m/s
C = concentration g/m3 (Notice this is not ppm)
y and z are horizontal and vertical standard deviations in meters
19
 Wind Velocity Profile

Wind speed varies by height

International standard height
g for wind-speed
p
measurements is 10 m
Dispersion
p of ppollutant is a function of wind
speed at the height where pollution is
emitted
But difficult to develop relationship
between height and wind speed
20
Point Source at Elevation H without Reflection

3 terms
gives concentration on the centerline of the plume
gives concentration as you move in the sideways direction ( y
direction), direction doesnt matter because ( y)2 gives a positive
value
gives concentration as you move in the vertical direction ( z
doesntt matter because ( (z H))2 gives a
direction) direction doesn
direction),
positive value
Concentrations are symmetric about y-axis and z-axis
Same concentration at (z-H) = 10 m as (z-H) =10 10 m
Close to ground symmetry is disturbed
21
Point Source at elevation H without
reflection
Equation 4-6 reduces to

Note in the book there are 2 equation 4-8s

(2 different equations just labeled wrong)
This is the first one 22
 Gaussian Plume Example
A factory emits 20 g/s of SO2 at height H
(includes plume rise)
Wind speed = 3 m/s (u)
At a distance of 1 km downstream, y and z are
30 m and 20 m (given, otherwise we would have
to look
l k up))
What are the SO2 concentrations at the centerline
off the
th plume
l andd att a point
i t 60 meters
t to t the
th side
id
and 20 meters below the centerline

23
 Gaussian Plume Example
0

Q = 20 g/s of SO2 ZH=0 So second

S d hhalf
lf
u = 3 m/s (u) of equation
y and z are 30 m and 20 m goes to 0
y = 0 and z = H
So reduces to:
C(x,0,0)
( , , ) = __20 g g/m3 = 1770 g
g/s __ = 0.00177 g g/m3
2(*3*30*20)

At centerline y and Z are 0 24

 Gaussian Plume Example
What are the SO2 concentrations at a point 60 meters to the side and 20
meters below the centerline

c = ____Q____ exp-1/2[(-y2) + ( (z-H)2)]

2u y z [y2 z 2]

= ___20 g/s___ exp-1/2 [(-60m)2 + (-20m)2] =

2 3*(30)(20) [(30m)2 (202m)]

(0.00177 g/m3) * (exp 2.5) = 0.000145 g/m3 or 145.23 g/m3

At 20 and 60 meters 25
Evaluation of Standard Deviation
Horizontal and vertical dispersion
coefficients -- y z are a function
downwind position x
Atmospheric stability conditions
many experimental measurements charts
have been created
Correlated y and z to atmospheric stability
and x
26
 Pasquill-Gifford Curves
Concentrations correspond to sampling times of
approx. 10 minutes
Regulatory models assume that the concentrations
predicted represent 1-hour averages
Solid curves represent rural values
Dashed lines represent urban values
Estimated concentrations represent only the lowest
several hundred meters of the atmosphere

27
 Pasquill-Gifford
Pasquill Gifford Curves
z less certain than y
Especially for x > 1 km
For neutral to moderately unstable
atmospheric conditions and distances out to
a few kilometers, concentrations should be
within a factor of 2 or 3 of actual values
Tables 3-1: Key y to stability
y classes

28
 Example
For stability class A, what are the values
of y and z at 1 km downstream
(assume urban)
From Tables 44-6
6 and 44-7
7

29
 200

y ~ 220 m

30
z ~ 310 m

31
 Example
For stability
bili class
l A, what
h are the
h values
l off
y and z at 1 km downstream
F
From T
Tables
bl 4-6
4 6 andd 4-7
47

y = 220 m
z = 310 m

32
 Empirical Equations
Often difficult to read charts
p
Curves fit to empirical equations
q
y = cxd
z = axb
Where

x = downwind
d i d distance
di t (kilometers)
(kil t )
a, b, c, d = coefficients from Tables 4-1 and 4-2

33
 Example:
E l what
h are values
l off y andd z at 1 km
k
downstream for stability class A using equations rather
than charts?
y = cxd
z = axb

Using table 44-11 for

stability class A
c = 24.1670
d = 2.5334

34
Example: what are values of y and z at 1 km
downstream for stability class A using equations rather
than charts?
y = cxd
z = axb

Using table 4-2 where x = 1 km

a = 453.850
b = 2.11660
2 11660

35
Example: what are values of y and z at 1 km downstream
for stability class A using equations rather than charts?
y = cxd
z = axb c = 24.1670
24 1670 a = 453.850
453 850
d = 2.5334 b = 2.11660
Solution
y = cxd = 24.1670(1 km)2.5334 = 24.17 m
z = axb = 453.85(1
453 85(1 km)2.11660 = 453.9
453 9 m

36
 Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Previous equation for concentration of

pplumes a considerable distance above
ground
Ground damps out vertical dispersion
Pollutants reflect back up from ground

37
 Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Accounts for reflection of gaseous

pollutants back into the atmosphere
Reflection
R fl i at some distance
di x is
i
mathematically equivalent to having a
mirror
i image
i off the
h source at HH
Concentration is equal to contribution of
both plumes at ground level

38
39
Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Notice this is also equation 4-8 in text,

it is the second equation 44-88 on the
bottom of page 149

40
Example: Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Nitrogen dioxide is emitted at 110 g/s from stack with H = 80 m

Wind speed = 5 m/s
Plume rise is 20 m
Calculate ground level concentration 100 meter from centerline
of plume (y)
Assume stability class D so y = 126 m and z = 51 m
41
 Example: Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Q = 110 g/s H = 80 m u = 5 m/s h = 20 m y = 100 m

y = 126 m and z = 51 m
Effective stack height =80 m + 20 m = 100 m
y = 126 m and z = 51 m

Solving in pieces _____100

100 g/s
g/s____ = 0.000496
2*5*126*51 42
 Example: Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Q = 110 g/s H = 80 m u = 5 m/s h = 20 m y = 100 m

y = 126 m and z = 51 m

Solving in pieces exp -[__1002 ] = 0.726149

[2*1252]

Solving in pieces exp -[[ (0 100m)2 ] = 0.146265

(0-100m)
[2*512] 43
 Example: Point Source at Elevation H with Reflection

Q = 110 g/s H = 80 m u = 5 m/s h = 20 m y = 100 m

y = 126 m and z = 51 m

Solving in pieces both sides of z portion are same so add

c = 0.000496 * 0.726149 * (2 * 0.14625) = 0.000116 g/m3 or

116.4 g/m3

44
 Ground Level Concentration with
reflection
Often want ground level
People, property exposed to pollutants
Previous eq. gives misleadingly low results
near ground
Pollutants reflect back up from ground

45
 Ground Level Concentration
Equation for ground level concentration
1 1
Z=0

Reduces to at ground
1 + 1 cancels 2
level

46
 Ground Level Example
C- stability class
H = 50 m
Q = 95 g/s
p
Wind speed is 3 m/s
What is ground level concentration at 0.5 km downwind,
along the centerline?
From Figure 4-6, y = 90 m,
From Figure 4-7, z = 32 m

C= 95 x 106 g/s * exp[-(502)] exp [0] = 1023.3 g/m3

(3 m/s)(90 m)(32 m) [ 2(32)2]
47
 Maximum Ground Level
Concentration
Effect of ground reflection increases ground
concentration
Does not continue indefinitely
Eventually diffusion in y-direction
y direction
(crosswind) and z-direction decreases
concentration

48
 Maximum Ground Level
Concentration

Values for a, b, c, d are in Table 4-5

49
 Alternative to Eq. 4-15
For moderately unstable to neutral
conditions
z = 0.707H

Cmax, reflection = 0.1171Q

u y z

50
 Max Concentration Example
Max.
What is maximum ground level concentration and where is it
located downstream for the following?
g
Wind speed = 2 m/s
H = 71 m
Stability Class B
Q = 2,500,000 g/s

Solution:
S l i
z = 0.707H = 0.707(71m) = 50.2 m
From Figure
g 4-7,, this occurs at x = 500 m

51
z = 50.2 m

From Figure 4-7,

4-7 this
occurs at x = 500 m

52
At 500 m, y =
120 m

53
 Max Concentration Example
Max.
What is maximum ground level concentration and where is it
located downstream for the following?
g
Wind speed = 2 m/s
H = 71 m
Stability Class B
Q = 2,500,000 g/s

Solution:
S l i
z = 0.707H = 0.707(71m) = 50.2 m
From Figureg 4-7,, this occurs at x = 500 m
From Figure 4-6, y = 120 m
Cmax, reflection = 0.1171Q = 0.1171(2500000) = 24.3 g/m3
u y z (2)(120)(50.2)
54
 Calculation of Effective Stack Height
g

H = hs + h
h depends on:
Stack characteristics
Meteorological conditions
Physical and chemical nature of effluent
V
Various
i equations
ti based
b d on different
diff t
characteristics, pages 162 to 166

55
 Carson and Moses

Equation 4-18

Where:
h = plume rise (meters)
Vs = stack gas exit velocity (m/s)
ds = stack exit diameter ((meters))
us = wind speed at stack exit (m/s)
Qh = heat emission rate in kilojoules per second

56
 Other basic equations
Holland
concawe

57
Example:
From text
H t emission
Heat i i rate
t = 4800 kj/s
kj/
Wind speed = 5 mph
Stack gas velocity = 15 m/s
Stack diameter at top is 2 m
Estimate plume rise

58
 Concentration Estimates for Different
S
Sampling
li Times
Ti
Concentrations calculated in previous examples based
on averages over 10-minute
10 minute intervals
Current regulatory applications use this as 1-hour
average concentration
For other time periods adjust by:
3-hr multiply 1-hr value by 0.9
8-hr multiply 1-hr value by 0.7
24-hr multiply 1-hr value by 0.4
annuall multiply
lti l 1-hr
1 h value
l byb 0.03
0 03 0.08
0 08

59
 Concentration Estimates for Different
S
Sampling
li TimesExample
Ti E l
For other time periods adjust by:
33-hr
h multiply
lti l 1-hr
1 h value
l by
b 0.9
09
8-hr multiply 1-hr value by 0.7
24-hr multiply
u t p y 1-hr va
value
ue by 0.4
0.
annual multiply 1-hr value by 0.03 0.08

Conversion of 1-hr concentration of previous example to an 8-

hour average =
c8-hour g/m3 x 0.7 = 25.5 g
8 hour = 36.4 g g/m3

60
 Line Sources
Imagine that a line source, such as a
highway,
g y, consists of an infinite number of
point sources
The roadway can be broken into finite
elements, each representing a point source,
and contributions from each element are
summed to predict net concentration

61
 Line Sources
When wind direction is normal to line of emission
Ground
G d llevell concentration
i downwind
d i d

C( 0) = ___ 2q
C(x,0) ( 0 5H2)
2 ___ exp(-0.5H
(2)0.5 z u z2

q = source strength per unit distance (g/s * m)

Concentration should be uniform in the y-direction at

a ggiven x
62
 Line Sources
For ground level (H = 0), could also use breathing
height 1

C(x 0) = ___ 2q ___ exp(

C(x,0) 0 5H2)
exp(-0.5H
(2)0.5 z u z2

63
 Roadway Emissions and Mixing

u (wind direc
From Guensler, 2000 64
 Instantaneous Release of a Puff
Pollutant released quickly
E l i
Explosion
Accidental spill
Release time << transport time
Also based on Gaussian distribution
function

65
 Instantaneous Release of a Puff
Equation
q 4-41 to ppredict maximum gground level
concentration

Cmax = _____2Qp____
(2)3/2 x y z

Receptor downwind would see a gradual increase in

concentration
t ti until
til center
t off puff
ff passedd andd then
th
concentration would decrease
Assume x = y
66
Figure 4-9 and Table 4-7

67
Figure 4-9 and Table 4-7

68
 Puff Example
A tanker spill on the freeway releases 400
400,000
000 grams of chlorine
chlorine.
What exposure will vehicles directly behind the tanker (downwind)
receive if x =100 m? Assume very stable conditions.
From Table 4-7,

69
Figure 4-9 and Table 4-7

70
 Puff Example
A tanker spill on the freeway releases 400
400,000
000 grams of chlorine
chlorine.
What exposure will vehicles directly behind the tanker (downwind)
receive if x =100 m? Assume very stable conditions.

From Table 4-7, y = 0.02(100m)0.89 = 1.21

F
From T
Table 4 7 z = 0.05(100m)
bl 4-7, 0 05(100 )0.61
0 61 = 0.83
0 83

x = y = 1.21

71
 Puff Example
A tanker spill on the freeway releases 400
400,000
000 grams of chlorine
chlorine.
What exposure will vehicles directly behind the tanker (downwind)
receive if x =100 m? Assume very stable conditions.

From Table 4-7, y = 0.02(100m)0.89 = 1.21

F
From T
Table 4 7 z = 0.05(100m)
bl 4-7, 0 05(100 )0.61
0 61 = 0.83
0 83

Cmax = _____2Qp____ = ____2(400000 g)_____ = 42,181 g/m3

(2)3/2 x y z (2)3/2(1.21)(1.21)(0.83)

72