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Electronics Lecture No. 1: Assistant Lecturer Mohammed Dyhia Ali 2017-2018

The document provides an overview of semiconductor materials and diodes. It defines conductors, insulators, and semiconductors based on their conductivity levels. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium can be doped to create n-type or p-type materials by adding impurities. A diode is formed by joining n-type and p-type materials. In forward bias, the depletion region narrows allowing current to flow. In reverse bias, the depletion region widens blocking current flow. Key characteristics of diodes include their I-V curve and how resistance and capacitance vary with operating point.

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Mohammed Dyhia Ali
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483 views

Electronics Lecture No. 1: Assistant Lecturer Mohammed Dyhia Ali 2017-2018

The document provides an overview of semiconductor materials and diodes. It defines conductors, insulators, and semiconductors based on their conductivity levels. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium can be doped to create n-type or p-type materials by adding impurities. A diode is formed by joining n-type and p-type materials. In forward bias, the depletion region narrows allowing current to flow. In reverse bias, the depletion region widens blocking current flow. Key characteristics of diodes include their I-V curve and how resistance and capacitance vary with operating point.

Uploaded by

Mohammed Dyhia Ali
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPSX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Electronics

Lecture No. 1
Assistant Lecturer
Mohammed Dyhia Ali
2017-2018
References:
Robert Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky " Electronic
Devices and Circuit Theory" 7th edition.
Jimmie J. Cathey " Electronic Devices and
Circuits" 2nd edition.
J. David Irwin " Power Electronics Hand Book'
Mohammed Harunur Rashid " Power
Electronics Circuits, Devices, and Applications"
Syllabus
Semiconductor Materials
Conductor is applied to any material that will
support a generous flow of charge when a
voltage source of limited magnitude is
applied across its terminals.
An insulator is a material that offers a very
low level of conductivity under pressure from
an applied voltage source.
A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that
has a conductivity level somewhere between
the extremes of an insulator and a conductor.
Conductivity and Resistivety

Defining the Metric Unite of Resistivity


Manufacture of Semiconductors
They can be manufactured to a very high
purity level (1:10,000,000,000).
these high purity is very important, because
the addition of 1:1000000 in a wafer of silicon
can change its characteristics from a relatively
poor conductor to a good conductor of
electricity. This process, known as doping,.
Their characteristics can be altered through
changing in heat or light.
Atom structure of Si & Ge
The atom is composed of three basic particles:
the electron, the proton, and the neutron.
In the atomic lattice, the neutrons and
protons form the nucleus, while the electrons
revolve around the nucleus in a fixed orbit.

The germanium
atom has 32 orbiting
electrons, while
silicon has 14
orbiting electrons.
Atom structure of Si & Ge
there are 4 electrons in the outermost (valence) shell.
these 4 valence electrons are bonded to 4 adjoining atoms.
valence electrons can absorb sufficient kinetic energy from
natural (light, or thermal energy) causes to break the covalent
bond and become a free electron.
At room temperature there are approximately 1.51010 free
carriers in a cubic centimeter of intrinsic silicon material.
Intrinsic materials are those
semiconductors that have been
carefully refined to reduce the
impurities to a very low level
essentially as pure as can be made
available through modern
technology.
Energy Levels
The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the
higher the energy.
electrons that has left its parent atom has a higher
energy than any electron in the atomic structure.
The ionization is the mechanism whereby an electron
can absorb sufficient energy to break away from the
atomic structure and enter the conduction band.
Energy Levels
If certain impurities are added to the intrinsic
materials, energy states in the forbidden bands
will occur which will cause a net reduction in Eg
for both semiconductor materials.
increased carrier density in the conduction band
at room temperature.
Extrinsic Materials (n- and
p-Type): A semiconductor
material that has been
subjected to the doping
process is called an
extrinsic material.
n- type
The five valence electrons elements (pentavalent), such
as antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus.
An additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom,
which is unassociated with any particular covalent
bond.
The inserted impurity atom has donated a relatively
free electron to the structure.
Diffused impurities
with five valence
electrons are called
donor atoms
p-type
Impurity atoms having three valence electrons. Have
been add to a pure Si or Ge, such as boron, gallium,
and indium.
There an insufficient number of electrons to complete
the covalent bonds.
The hole is represented by a small circle or positive
sign due to the absence of a negative charge.

The diffused impurities


with three valence
electrons are called
acceptor atoms.
Electrons Versus Holes
When a valence electron acquires sufficient kinetic
energy to break its covalent bond.
Electron fills the void created by a hole.
A vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond
that released the electron.
There is a transfer of holes to the left and electrons to
the right.
Majority and Minority Carriers
In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons is equal
holes in Ge or Si.
This equality due to those few electrons that have acquired
sufficient energy to break the covalent bond and leave
vacancies behind represent our very limited supply of
holes.
In an n-type material, the number of holes has not changed
from this intrinsic level, but the number of electrons far
outweighs the number of holes.

In an n-type material the


electron is called the
majority carrier and the
hole the minority carrier.
Majority and Minority Carriers
For the p-type material the number of holes
far outweighs the number of electrons.
In a p-type material the hole is the majority
carrier and the electron is the minority
carrier.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
The semiconductor diode is formed by simply bringing
N-type & P-type together (constructed from the same
baseGe or Si).
When two materials are joined the electrons and
holes in the region of the junction will combine,
resulting in a lack of carriers in the region near the
junction.
This region of uncovered
positive and negative
ions is called the
depletion region due to
the depletion of carriers
in this region.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
No Applied Bias (VD = 0 V):
Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions:
Any minority carriers (holes) for n-type and (electrons) in
the p-type find themselves within the depletion region.
The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type and (holes)
for P-type must overcome the attractive forces of the layer
of positive and negative ions in depletion region to migrate
into the area beyond the depletion region.
In the absence of an
applied bias voltage,
the net flow of charge
in any one direction for
a semiconductor diode
is zero.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Reverse-Bias or Off Condition (VD < 0 V):
The positive terminal is connected to the n-type and the negative
terminal is connected to the p-type.
Number of uncovered positive and negative ions in the depletion
region will increase due to the large number of free electrons
drawn to the positive potential and inject by negative potential of
the applied voltage.
The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region.
This mean greater barrier for the majority carriers to overcome,
effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero.
The current that exists
under reverse-bias
conditions is called the
reverse saturation current
and is represented by Is.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Forward-Bias or On Condition (VD > 0 V) :
The positive potential is connected to p-type and the negative
potential to the n-type.
The forward-bias potential VD will pressure electrons in the n-type
material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the
ions near the boundary and reduce the width of the depletion
region.
When applied bias increases the depletion region will continue to
decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the
junction.
This resulting in an exponential rise in current.
The current rises beyond the knee of the curve.
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode
Current general characteristics of a semiconductor diode
can be defined by the following equation for the forward-
and reverse-bias regions
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode
when the applied negative voltage is too high will result in a
sharp change in the characteristics this region called Zener
Region and this voltage called a Zener potential VZ
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied
before entering the Zener region is called the peak inverse
voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak
reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode

Temperature Effects
The reverse saturation current Is will just about
double in magnitude for every 10C increase in
temperature.
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode

Resistance levels
the resistance of the diode will also change
due to the nonlinear shape of the
characteristic curve.
1. DC or static resistance Rd:
the lower the current
through a diode the higher
the dc resistance level.
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode
1. AC dynamic resistance:
The varying input will move the instantaneous operating
point up and down a region of the characteristics.
A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-
point will define a particular change in voltage and current
can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance .
In general, the lower
the Q-point of
operation (smaller
current or lower
voltage) the higher
the ac resistance.
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode
we will have an equation for the dynamic or ac resistance in
that region.
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode

the resistance introduced by the connection between the


semiconductor material and the external metallic
conductor (called contact resistance)
The factor rB can range from typically 0.1 for high-power
devices to 2 for some low-power, general-purpose diodes
Characteristics of a semiconductor diode
Transition And Diffusion Capacitance:
In the reverse-bias region we have the transition- or depletion-region
capacitance (CT).
while in the forward-bias region we have the diffusion (CD) or
storage capacitance.
In the reverse-bias region there is a depletion region that behaves
like an insulator between the layers of opposite charge.
The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-
bias potential has application in a number of electronic systems.
Diode Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent circuit: is a combination of
elements properly chosen to best
represent the actual terminal
characteristics of a device, system, or
such in a particular operating region.
Ideal diode, has only one direction of
conduction as a S.C., and a reverse-bias
condition will result in the O.C. .
Silicon diode does not reach the
conduction state until VD = 0.7 V with a
forward bias, a battery VT opposing the
conduction direction must appear in
the equivalent circuit.
Internal resistance of diode at forward
bias representing by a resistance
connected in series with diode.
replace the exponential curve for real
diode with liner curve.
Silicon versus Germanium
Silicon Germanium
higher PIV and current rating Lower PIV and current rating
about 1000V about 400V

wider temperature ranges about More narrow temperature range


400o C about 100o C

Higher forward bias voltage Lower forward bias voltage


0.7V 0.3V
Lower effect by temperature High effect by temperature
change change

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