167] CHAPTER 5 Failures Resulting from Static Loading: $1 Static Strength 5-7 Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory for Brittle Materials 5-2 Stress Concentration 5-8 Modifications of the Mohr Theory for Brittle Materials 53 Failure Theories ‘5-91 Selection of Failure Criteria S-4Maximum 5-10 Introduction to Fracture Mechanics 5-5 Distortion SHI Stochastic Analysis 56 Coulomb © Suenghh Ba propery or charactensie of amechan € Failure — any change in a machine part which makes functipn. € We wil normally use a yield failure criteria for ductile materials. The ductile failure theories presented are based on yield. € In this chapter our attention is focused on the predicabiliy of pemunent distortion or separation. In strength-sensitive situations the designer mast separate mean stress and mean strength at the critical location sufficiently to accomplish his or her purposes. 51 Static Strength: ~~ 4 oA load member. To tionary, the force or couple must be unchanging in magnitude, point or points of application, and diection. A static load can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load, a torsional load, or any combination of these. To be considered static, the load cannot change in any manne 4 You can now appreciate the following four design categories: >> Failure of the part would endanger human lif, or the part is made in extremely large quantities: consequerily, an elaborate testing program is justiied during design. >The part is made in krge enough quantities that a moderate si >> The part is made in such small quantities that testing iS not justified at all or the design must be compkted so rapidly that there is not enough time for testing, >The part has akeady been designed, manufactured, and tested and found to be unsatisfactory. Analysis is required to understand why the part is unsatisfactory and what to do to improve it f 3.2 Stress Concentration: f ‘see Sec. 3-13 1 iO ee Oe Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking, and rupturing are among the ways that a machine element fails, it unable to perform its intended Structural metal behavior is typically chssifed as being ductile or brite, although under special situations, 2 material normally considered ductik can fail in a brite manner. Static failure can be classified (as shown in the following sketch) into: Q Ductile Q BrittleSignificant plastic deformation between yiekd and fracture { ¢; > 0.05}. The generally accepted theories for ductile materials (yield criteria) are: a. Maximum. shear stress (MSS). b. Distortion energy (DE). ¢. Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM). ™ Brite: 2 Do not exhibit an identifiable yield strength, and are typically classified by ubimate tensile and compressive sengths, Yield ~= flacture ( & < 0.05}. The generaly} accepted theories for britle materials (fiacture criteria) are: a. Maximum normal stress (MNS). b, Brittle Coulmb-Mohr (BCM). i c. Modified Mohr (MM). Sari Shear Stress Theory for Ductile Materisr! It predets that yelding begins whenever the muaximim shear sess (MSS) in any element equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of the same material when that specimen begins to yield. ‘The MSS theory is also referred to as the Tresca or Guest theory. Thus, for a general state of stress, the maximum-shear-stress theory predicts yielding when: ‘Note that this implies that the yield strength in shear is given by: , which, as we will see later is about 15 percent low (conservative). For design purposes, Eq. (5-1) can be modified to incomponite a factor of safety, n. Thus, For plane stress (where one of the principal stresses is zero), Assuming that ¢, 2 oy, there are three cases to consider in using Eq. (5-1): Case 1: oy 2 og 20 . For this case, 0, = a, and 6, = 0. Equation (5-1) reduces to a yield condition of: a, 25, (5-4) Case 2: g, 2 02a, . For this case, o; a, and 6, = og. Equation (5-1) becomes:169) oo i O —% 2Sy (5-5) Case 3: 02 0, 205 . For ths case, 0, = Oando, = os. Equation (5-1) reduces to a yield condition of: 0, <—S, (5-6) ented in Fig 5~7 by the three lines indicated in the a, oy plane. i Equations (5-4) to (5-6) are rep 153 Distortion-Bnergy_ (DE) Theory for Ductile Materials: } = It predicts that yiekling occurs when the dstoripn srain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yiekl in simple tension or compression of the same material, = The distortio-energy (DE) theory originated from the observation that ductile materials stressed hydrostatically exhibited yieli strengths greally in excess of the values given by the simple tension test. Therefore it was postubated that yielding was not a simpk tensile or compressive phenomenon at all, but, rather, that it was rehted somehow to. the angular distortion of the stressed element © To develop the theory, note, in Fig, 5~ 8a, the unit volume subjected to any Jenn ily omponmt (tron emp three-dimensional —stress-——state designated by the —_ stresses 4,,4,,and 65. © The stress state shown in Fig. S-8b is one of hydrostatic tension due to the stresses day, acting in each of the same principal directions as in Fig, 5-8. The formukt for g,. is simply: Came = ta Fa (a) Tave 5 = If we regard ogye aS @ component of 6,,0,,and ¢, then this component can be subtracted from them, resulting in the stress state shown in Fig. 5-8c. This ekment is subjected to pure angular distortion, that is, no volume change: © The strain energy perunit volume for the element shown in Fig, 58a i: 1 us [e,0, + 220) + &03] () 2 = Using Eq. of Hooke's law with substituting Eq.(b) for the principal strains in gives 1 wa gplor +02 + 07 — 20,0, + 0,0, + 9,0,)] © = The strain energy for producing only volume change u, can be obtained by substituting Eq. (a){70} f Eq. ©). The result is If we now substitute the square of Eq. (a) in Eq. (d) and simplify the expression, we get: ‘Then the distortion energy is obtained by subtracting Eq. (57) from Eq, (c). This. gives: Note that the distortion energy is zero if 6, = 0 = % For the simple tensik test, at yield, 0, = S, and o, = 0, = 0 and from Eq. (5-8) the distortion energy Thus, the left of Eq. (5-10) can be thought of as a single, equivalent, or effective stress, This effective stress is usually called the Von Mises stress, of, named after Dr. R. Von Mises, who contributed to the theory. Thus Eq. (5-10), for yield, can be written as: So for the general state of stress given by Eq. (5-8), yield is predicted if Eq. (S— 8) equa or exceeds Eq. (5— 9). This gives: where the von Mises stress is: For plane stress, kt 04 and og be the two nonzero principal stresses. Then from Eq. (5-12), we get:(74) = SSSSFSFSsseseF of = [o2- 0,0, +02) 2 (5-13) "Equation (5-13) i a rotated ellipse in the a4, ay plane, as shown in Fig. 5-9 with’ = S, . The dotted lines in the figure represent the MSS theory, which can be seen to be more restrictive, hence, more conservative. “an be written as: "Using xyz components of three-dimensional stress, the von Mises stre 2 ale = 6) + (6) —0,)? + (,— 0) + 6(13, +13, +12)]? (5-14) j -and for plane stress, = 00, + 0,2 +314, (5-15) i The distortion-energy theory is also called: L. The von Mises or von Mises-Hencky theory 2. ‘The shear-energy theory 3. The octahedral-shear-stress. theory Faitae 8 assumed 0 occur whenever the [Figure 5-10 octahedral shear stress for any stress state equals or exceeds the octahedral shear stress for the simple tension-test specimen at faire. © Consider an isolated ekment in which the normal stresses on each surface are equal to the hhydrostatic stress dye. There are eight surfaces symmetric to the principal directions that contain this stress. This forms an octahedron as shown in Fig. 5-10. The shear stresses on these surfaces are equal and are called the octahedral shear stre (Fig. 5-10 has only one of the octahedral surfaces labeled). Through coordinate transformations the octahedral shear stress is given. by: Teer = [Gy = 02)? + (6-0)? + (0, — 04)"1"2 (5-16) * From Eq. (5—16) the octahedral shear stress under the tensile test is: v2 Toct = Sy (s—17) * When, for the general stress case, Eq. (5-16) is equal or greater than Eq. (5-17), yield is predicted. ‘This reduces to:(72] Equation (5-11) can be expressed as a design equation by: igure start a truck engine by applying a force F = 400 N. The material of the cranking lever is 30C8 for which yield strength = 320 MPa; Ukimate tensile strength = 500 MPa; Young's modulus = 205 GPa; Modulus of rigidity = 84 GPa and poisson’s ratio = 0.3. Assuming factor of safety to be 4 based on yield strength, design the diameter “d’ of the lever at section X-X near the guide bush using : 1. Maximum distortion energy theory; and 2. Maximum shear stress theory. [Ans. 28.2 mm; 28.34 mm]exampk, the yield strength magnesium alloys in compression may be as littke as 50 percent of their yield strength in tension. © A variation of Mohr’s theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the internal-frietion theory, assumes that the boundary BCD in Fig, 5-12 is straight. With this assumption only the tensile and compressive strengths are necessary. Consider the conventional ordering of the principal stresses such that g, 2 0,2 6. The largest circle connects 6 o, anda, , as shown in Fig. 5-13. The centers of the circks in Fig. 5-13 are C,,C,,and C, . Triangks OB,C, are similar, therefore: BLC,~ BC, _ BsC,— 06,=0C, ~ 0C,— IR BEBE 2-2 2 5 ata 27 2 2 te © Cross-muitiplying and simplifying reduces this equation to: where either yiell strength or ultimate strength can be used. © For plane stress (where one of the principal stresses is zero), Assuming that o, > op, there are three cases to consider in using Eg. (5-1): 1, Case I: a > oy 20 . For this case, 0, = 04 and oy condition of: 0. Equation (5-21) reduces to a yield % 2S, 2. Case2: 4, > 024, .Forthis case, a, = ¢, anda, = o,. Equation (5-21) becomes: % aan Se sae 3. Case 3: 02 a 2, . For this case, o, = anda, = oy. Equation (5-1) reduces to a yield(74) © Equations (6-22) to (5-24) are Plot of the CoulambMohr theory of foilure for plane 5-14 by the three |} sress siates lines indicated in represented in Fig, the 04 , Gp plane. © For design equations, incorporating the factor of safety n, divide all strengths by n. For example, Eq. (5-22) as a design equation can be written as: © Since for the Coulomb-Mohr theory we do not need the torsional shear strength circle we can deduce it from Eq. (5-21). For pure shear t, 0, = —o, = . The torsional yield strength occurs when Tmax = Soy. Substituting 6, = —o, = Ty into Eq. (5-21) and simplilying gives: 5-8 Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory for Brittle Materials: © The maximum-normal-stress (MNS) theory states that failure occurs whenever one of the three principal stresses equals or exceeds the strength. € Again we arrange the principal stresses for a general ste ‘This theory then predicts that faikire occurs whenever: GZS Or S—Sye (S27) © For plane stress, with the principal stresses given by Eq. (3-13), with 6, = 6%, Eq. (5-28) can be written as: state in the ordered form 6) 3/6) S04.Ba, AS belore, the falure crtena equations can be converted 10 design F9 Modifications of the Mohr Theory for Brittle Materials “The equations provided for the theories will be restricted to plane stress and be of the design type incorporating the factor of safety. On the basis of observed data for the fourth quadrant, the modified Mohr ! theory expands the fourth quadrant as shown in Fig, 5—19. 5 ‘Mohr176] Shaft of ASTM G25 cast iron subject to bading shown From Tab A-24 Su = 26 kpsi @ Su =97 kpsi Find: For a factor of safety of n =2.8, what should the diameter of the shaft (d) be? | S, Soh A First, we need to find the fores acting on the ke shafi Torque on shaft from pulley at BT, = (300~50)(4) = 1000 in: lb7 Torque on shat from pulky at C 7, = (360 27)(3) = 1000in- lb Shafi is in static equifbrium, note that shaft i free to move along the x-axis (bearings). Draw a FBD reaction forces at points of attachment to show constrained motion. Use statics to solve for reactions forces Ry = 222 1b, Ray = 1061b, — Rpy = 127 lb OK, now we know all the forces. The problem gives us a factor of safety, but untke our lst example, we aren’t tokl specific places (elements) at which to look for failure! We are going to have to cakulate stresses. What do we need? Axial forces, bending moments, and torques. We need to find our moments... HOW? Shear-Moment diagrams will give us the forces and moments along the shaft. Failure will likely occur where the max values are seen Moment in the x-z pine : Failure is going to occur at either B or C, since these are locations where maximum moments are seen, M= {M2, + M2, We found the following: O Moxy = 1780 imdb O Max2= 848 int O Me xy = 762 in-Ib OD Mex2= 1690 inth Calculating the magnitudes. with O Mn= 1971.7 inh O Mc = 1853.8 in b Since the overall max moment is at B, we will expect failure there, and use Ms in our stress cakulations. If we had been told the location of interest, we would essentially start here. Cmax = (20x10")/d? Tax = (5-1x10°)/a? @ Now construct Mohr's circle(78) Cat (10x 105)/d° R= (11.2 x 10%)/d3 oi = (21.2 x 102)/d3 03 = (1.2 x 103)/d3 Use Coulomb-Mohr theory for brittle failure: rose Su See 212 EDT. tt 26d! 97d? 2.8 d=132" If making design recommendation, you would recommend the nextlargeststandard dimension (16!s):d = 1375in 5-11 Selection of Failure Criter = Figs 5-21 provides a summary fow-chant lor the selection of an eliective procedure for analyang or predicting failures from static loading for bitte or ductile behavior. ‘Salzinirodiction to Fracture Mechanics ‘Sell reading S14 important Design Epations? Self reading.5 ec probkm ikstrates that the factor of safety for a machine ekment depends on the particular point selected for analysis. Here you are to compute factors of safety, based upon the distortion- energy theory, for stress ekments at ‘A and B of the member shown in the figure. This bar is made of AIST 1006 coki-drawn steel and is loaded by the forces F = 0.55 KN, P = 8.0 KN, and T=30 N-m. SOLUTION: Given: AISI 1006 CD steel, F =0.55 N, P .0 kN, and T= 30 N - m, applying DE theory to stress elements A and B with Sy = 280 MPa 32FI | 4P _ 32(0.55)(10°)(0.1) | 4(8)(10°) A =, = + > md? * d= ~~ (0.0203) * (0.0207) = 95.49(10°) Pa = 95.49 MPa 71(0.020°) 12 o' = (92 +313,” = [95.497 + 3(19.1)7)!' = 101.1 MPa 280 =2.77 Ans. 4P _ 4(8)(10*) A Sun) = 25.47(10°) Pa = 25.47 MPa 167 4V _ 1630) 4 0.55(10°) ad 3A (0.0209) ~ 3 |(7/4\(0.020") = 21.43(10°) Pa = 21.43 MPa co =(25.47° + 3(21.43°)]"? = 45.02 MPa ee n=[80] Problem The figure shows @ crank yyy a. SAS pated by a force F = 190 Ibf which causes twisting and bending of the Probem 5-15 3/4 in - diameter shaft fed to a support at the origin of the reference system In actuality, the support may wish to rotate, but for the purposes of a strength analysis we cun consider this to be a statics problem ‘The muterial of the shat AB is hotrolled AISI 1018 steel (Tuble A-20). Using the muximum-shear-stess theory, find the factor of safety based on the stress at point A. SOLUTION: AtA, M = 6(190) = 1140 Ibf-in, T = 4(190) = 760 Ibf - in. 32M _ 32(1140) = FP xB = 27520psi 167 _ 16(760) t= TP xG/a 2 tmx = +9175? = 16540 psi 5 32 eee : ee TE Tym > = 9175 psi MSS predicts yielding[81] [Problem The figwe § a schematic drawing of a 1 527 [Gouscrskaft tat suppor! (wo V-beP pulkys. For each pulley, the belt tensions are paral For pulky A consider the loose belt tension 15 percent of the tension on the tight side. A cokl-drawn UNS G10180 steel shaft of uniform diameter is to be seketed for this application. For a static analysis with a factor of safety of 3.0, determine the minimum prefered size diameter. Use the distortion-energy theory. SOLUTION: T = (270 - $0)(0.150) = 33N +m, Sy = 370 MPa (7) = 0.1ST(0.125) =33 = T) =310.6N, Ts = 0.15(310.6) = 46.6N (1) + Ta)cos45 = 252.6N ¥ loroN gas24N IAN 42s6N yan 0 ote, 0 19) H 7 wont tray eee pee Ma =0.3V 163.4? + 1072 = 58.59N-m (maximum) Mg =0.15V89.2? + 174.4 = 29.38N-m es 32(58.59) _ 596.8 md a 16(33) _ 168.1 wet = Wz 12 596.8? 168.1)? 664.0 _ 370(10°) of = (@2+313) -[(@) ey ec d=175(10)m = 175mm, souse 18mm Ans. es {Problem Two see! tubes are shrink-fited together where the nominal diameters are 1.50, 1.75, and 2.00 in. Carefil measurement before fiting revealed that the diametral interference between the tubes to be 0,00246 in. After the fit, the assembly is subjected to a torque of 8000 Df - in and a bending. moment of 6000 Df - in. Assuming no slipping between the cylinders, analyze the outer cylinder182) f the inner and ower madas, Detemnie the factor of safety using dNtorlion energy wih Sy=60Kps | SOLUTION: E = 3010) psi, » = 0.292, 1 = (2/6412 — 1.54 = Eq, (3-57) can be written in terms of diameters, 5369 in? Eby d)) _ 30(10%), 178). eee Py) 5 «oon 6 | RID = 2997 psi = 2.997 kpsi Outer member: 1.75%(2.997) 5 Outer radius: (oi)o = e-T7(2) = 19.58 kp, oro = 0 1.737(2.997) 2 : Imer radius: (0))) = Soe (: = =) 22.58 kpsi, (o-); = Bending: 000(2/ * ra (20 = gee = Ne tB hpi , 6.000(1.75/2) . re oy = SOME) = 9.78 kpsi ‘Torsion: J = 21 = 1.0738 in* ; 8.000(2/2) : re Cayo = SREP) 07.45 pst Ft (tay) = SOO) Supa — 2 88 (Outer radius is plane stress c= MAB kpsi, 0, = 19.58 kpsi, try 745 kp By.(5-15) 0! = (11.18? (11.18) 19.58) + 19.58" + 17.45)! = & = = 23$=— > me =281 Ans. Inner radius, 3D state of stress, 4 — estton = From Eq. (5-14) with ty: = tor = 0 = zion — 22,58)? + (22.58 + 2.997)? + (—2.997 — 9.78)? + 46.52} 0 286=— => mj =2AL Ans. m