CHAPTER 3

WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

3-1 Uncertainty of position and momentum. The language of everyday

life, which is the language in which we think, has been developed to
describe the world of direct experience. Mainly because of sensory limita-
tions, our experience is restricted to a rather small field of objects and
events. Phenomena that lie outside the restricted region o direct percep-
tion can be studied through indirect reasoning, but we cannot, in general,
expect that analogies with subjects of common experience will provide
a correct picture of events in the atornic realm.
Quantum mechanics provides a mathematical formalism that describes
atomic events, and it is difficult to resist the temptation to try to visualize
the results of wave-mechanical theory. These attempts are useful ince
they facilitate the intuitive grasp o the theory. But the limitations of
these pictures must be borne in mind, and it is often neces ary to accept
seemingly contradictory features. One of the most novel, and not easily
visualized, concepts in wave mechanics concerns the uncertainty which is
naturaIly inherent in the simultaneous measurement of certain pairs of
dynamical variables.
In quantum mechanics, a particle is described by a' wave packet. The
wave packet surrounds the position o the classical particle, and the
"center of gravity" of the packet follows the classical particle trajectory.
According to Born's postulate, the particle may be found anywhere within
the region where the amplitude of the wave function is different from
zero. This implies that the position o the particle is indeterminate within
the limits of the wave packet. The question arises whether a packet can
be constructed that is very much localized in space, so that the position
of the particle is confined to a small volume. It can be expected that a
narrow packet moves in such a way that the average position of the
particle conforms to classical laws.
The construction of a localized wave packet is indeed possible, at least
for a limited time. The fact that the packet will spread with time will be
considered below. The Fourier integral expression for a wave packet has
been given in Eq. (2-89). At time t = 0, a one-dimensional packet can
be written
''-(x, O) = _~
v27rn
l=": dp, (3-1)

where
a(p) = _1_
v27rn
i=": dx. (3-2)

69
70 WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAI TY PRDICIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-2] UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR WAVE PACKETS 71

These equations can be used to construct a wave packet localized within ''(x, O)
a region ~x. For the sake of simplicity, one may choose the shape indi-
cated in Fig. 3-1; that is, the wave function is zero everywhere except 1
within a regio n of width ~x, where it has the value 11y16x.11I The Fourier ~
transform can be constructed by analogy to the similar example in Section
2-5; in terms of p = M, it is

a( ) = ~ ~x sin (p ~x/2n) . (3-3)

p 27rn p ~x/2n ~----~--_~'--~-----X
'x O Llx
-"2 "2
The physical significance of the momentum wave function a(p) is that the
FIG. 3-1. Rectangular wave packet.
absolute square of this quantity is proportional to the probability that
the particle has the momentum p (cf. Section 2-10). For this reason, it is
interesting to consider the behavior of a(p) as a function of p. Figure 3-2
a(p)
is a graph of Eq. (3-3). The maximum value of a(p) occurs at p = O.
The function goes to zero on both sides of this maximum, then oscillates,
decreasing rapidly. The main contribution to the momentum probablity
comes from the narrow momentum interval centered at the origin, which
has a width of order ni ~x. The relative widths of the coordinate and
momentum functions are therefore related by

~x ~p .", . (3-4)

A precise definition of ~x and ~p will be introduced later, and it will

----~~--~----~----+_--~r_--~~--~-----p
be shown that the "uncertainty product" ~x ~p is always limited by a
relation of this kind, irrespective of the shape of the packet. Equation
(3-4) is an expression of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle: If the co-
ordinate x of a particle represented by a wave packet is defined with
FIG. 3-2. The Fourier transform a(p) of the wave function illustrated
an accuracy ~x, then the conjugate momentum p;r; of the particle is in Fig. 3-1.
defined only with an accuracy ~p .", ni ~x. It is not possible to build into
the wave packet more exact information as to both position and momentum possible to measure simultaneously po sitio n and momentum of a particle
(or velocity) of the particle. with a higher degree of accuracy than the uncertainty relation allows.
The relation ~p ~x .", n follows from the mathematical properties of In view of the experimental evidence for the wave nature of matter, the
a wave packet. The question whether this uncertainty condition cor- second alternative must be true. A precise expression of Heisenberg's
responds to physical reality remains open to discussion. Evidently, only relation for a one-dimensional wave packet of arbitrary form will now
two possibilities exist: (1) There are in nature particles of completely be derived.
defined position and momentum; in that case, they cannot be represented
by wave packets, and wave mechanics would fal. (2) All particles can
3-2 Exact statement and proof of the uncertainty principle for wave
be represented by wave packets; in that case, it must be physically im-
packets. A definition of uncertainty is the first step in a mathematical
proof of the uncertainty principle. By analogy with the standard deviation
1 The wave function of Fig. 3-1 is an idealization introduced because of its
mathematical simplicity. Since its derivative is discontinuous, this function of statistics, it is customary to define the uncertainty in x by the relation
cannot represent an actual physical situation. For the same reason, certain
averages in momentum space do not exist [e.g., ~p as given by Eq. (3-7)]. (3-5)
72 WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-3] AN EXAMPLE OF POSITION-MOME;\ITUM UNCERTAINTY 73

As stated before, \4-(xW dx is the probability that the position of a particle whence
lies between x and x +
dx, The average or expectation of z is defined by
(3-13)
the relation
(x) = f 4-*(x)xHx) dx. (3-6) or

(3-14)
Similarly, the uncertainty in momentum is defined as
(3-7)
The first factor on the left is recognized as the definition of (x2), and by
where the expectation of the momentum is given by an analysis similar to that leading to Eq. (2-121) for (P), it can be shown
that (Problem 3-2)
(p) = / y;*(x) (~ :.J y;(x) dx. (3-8)
(p2) =
f p2\a(p)\2 dp
=
f\(h/i)(#/dx)\2 dx
. (3-15)
The purpose of the present section is to prove that, for any wave function 4-, f\a(p)\2 dp f\4-\2 dx

(3-9) Consequently, we have proved that

(3-16)
We shall first present the proof for a wave function for which (x) =
(p) = O. It is then an easy step to generalize the statement for functions
with finite (x) and (p). To obtain Heisenberg's result, we consider the or, since we have assumed that (x) = (p) = 0,
integral
/ - ~ d:: x4- dx = ~/ y;*y; dx + f~~~ xy;* dx, (3-10) AX Ap > -.
- 2
h
(3-17)

The modification of the proof required to remove the restriction (x) =

in which the second form is obtained from the first through integration
by parts. This equation can be rewritten in the forro

(p) = is left for the reader (Problem 3-3).

3-3 An example of position-momentum uncertainty. The uncertainty

. / h #*
2't Im - --: -d
't x
z 4- dx = h/ -r
't
\4-\ 2 dx. (3-11) principle sets a limit to the precision with which certain pairs of dynamical
variables, such as position and momentum, can be defined simultaneously.
Thus the square of the modulus of the integral on the right satisfies the There is no theoreticallimit on the accuracy attainable in defining a single
inequality variable by a wave packet; but if one such variable is known accurately,
then a measurement of the conjugate variable disturbs the state of the
2 system sufficiently so that the uncertainty relation holds.
h21/\4-\2dxI2 = 411m / -~ dix* x4-dxl ~ 41/ -~ dix* X4-dxj2; The physical implications of Heisenberg's principle are well illustrated
(3-12) by analysis of certain "thought experiments." Such illustrations show
that the imperfect definition of a wave packet, caused by diffraction
this follows since the magnitude of the imaginary part of a complex effects, can be understood to imply the relation AX Ap "'" h. An illuminat-
number cannot exceed the modulus of the number itself. By the inequality ing example, due to Heisenberg, is the "gamma-ray microscope r'{'!
of Schwarz (Appendix A-3) , the right-hand member in the inequality A beam of monoenergetic electrons can be obtained experimentally.
(3-12) is in turn smaller than We assume that the velocity of the electrons is known exactly. Hence,

4
f - h #* h--:-d
--: -d
't
# dx-
x 't X
f x4- *x4- dx,
1 W. Heisenberg, The Physical Principies oi the Quantum Theory. New York:
Dover Publications, lnc., 1930, p. 21.
74 WAVE PACKETS A D THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-5] MONOCHROMATIC WAVES 75
I I
I
I
I
I
3-4 Energy-time uncertainty. In its mathematical aspect the uncer-
I I tainty relation has been presented as a theorem in Fourier analysis. As
I a I
I I such, it applies also, in terms of the function e-(ilr.lEt, to the harmonic
I I
I I analysis of a wave packet which has a limited duration in time. A wave
f:::= ~- packet of duration ..t must be comprised of plane-wave components
\ I
\ I whose energies extend over a range ..E, where
\ I
\ I
\ I f ..E..t ~
\~IJ""'I
\ I
1 .
(3-21)
\ I
hv \ I This relation expresses the Heisenberg uncertainty principle as it applies
~ -~W----'--_.x
e to energy and time. A similar connection between frequency and time,
..v..t ~ 1, is well known to electrical engineers, who are familiar with
FIG. 3-3. Heisenberg's garnma-ray microscope.
the fact that, e.g., a one-megacycle band width is required to reproduce
a one-microsecond pulse.
according to the uncertainty relation, nothing can be known about their Another version of the energy-time uncertainty relation emerges from
position. In principle, a microscope could be used to obtain informa- the following consideration: The velocity of a wave packet can be de-
tion on the position of an electron in the beam. The resolving power of a termined by observing the position of the particle at two different times.
microscope is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the light used. If the packet has width ..x, then the momentum is uncertain within ..p,
Thus, to obtain as accurate a position measurement as possible, light of as given by Eq. (3-4), and the energy is indeterminate within
short wavelength will be chosen, perhaps gamma rays. The accuracy of
the measurement is given by physical optics as ..E = P.. ..p = v Sp. (3-22)
m
A Aj (3-18)
..x=-.-~-' Now the uncertainty in time is of order ..x/v = ..t, whence
sin 8 a

where a is the aperture, A the wavelength, and f the distance from the ..E..t ~ v..p..t ~ ..x..p ~ ,
(3-23)
electron to the lens (Fig. 3-3).
For the electron to be observed, at least one photon must be scattered It should be noted that, in this argument, ..t is the time required for a
into the microscope, and this photon will interact with the electron, packet of width z to pass a given point in space, whereas in relation (3-21)
causing it to recoil. In the scattering process, momentum is transferred ..twas the interval in time required to define the energy of a particle within
from the photon to the electron, according to the rules of the Compton AE.
effect. A quantum of wavelength A has momentum h/A; this is the order of The energy-time uncertainty relation will be encountered again in con-
magnitud e of the recoil momentum imparted to the electron. The x- nection with the decay of quasi-stationary states. It will then receive
component of the recoil momentum, however, which is of interest, cannot still another interpretation.
be known exactly ; we know only that the photon was scattered into the
microscope, and hence the uncertainty of its direction is of the order of 3-5 Monochromatic waves. It was pointed out in the beginning of this
magnitude of the angle 8. Consequently, the uncertainty of the z-com- chapter that a large number of component frequencies is required to
ponent of the electron's recoil momentum is of the order construct a wave packet which is concentrated in space. The width of the
band
. of frequencies or wave numbers is less for a widely spread packet ,
h .
..p ~ -XSlllu, II
(3-19) III conformity with the relation

so that AxAp>
n-.
(3-24)
..x..p ~ h, (3-20) - 2

as predicted by Heisenberg's principle. We wish to consider the two limiting cases which this relation admits.
76 WAVE PACKETS AND THE U:-<CERTAI:-<TY PRI:-<CIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-6] THE GAUSSlA~ WAVE PACKET 77

One limit is !::"p~ O, !::"x~ 00, which corresponds to the familiar plane 3-6 The gaussian wave packet. According to the exact statement
wave (3-9) of the uncertainty principle, the expression
1 ik
1/;(x) =--e, (3-25)
2n",
holds for any wave packet. A problem of special interest is that of find-
where 1/ 2n1, is a normalization factor. The plane wave has a single ing the shape of the wave packet for which the uncertainty product
wave number k and i spread out over al! space. This corresponds to a attains its theoretical mnimum value.!!' so that !::"x!::"p = !I. This
tate of harply defined momentum k; but of completely undefined posi- problem will now be solved. If we re-examine the proof of the uncertainty
tion, so that the uncertainty in x is infinite. principie in Section 3-2, we see that the sign of equality can hold only if
The other set of lirniting values of !::"pand !::,.xoccurs for a wave packet the functions entering the Schwarz inequality are proportional, i.e., if
associated with a particle whose position is exactly known, so that nothing
can be said about its momentum. In this case, !::"k = oo,!::"x = O. These I#
...,. -d = ex1/;, (3-30)
'/, x
limiting cases are most efficiently dealt with by Fourier representations
in terms of 1/;(x) and a(p), in conformity with Eqs. (2-89) and (2-90). where e
is a suitable multiplier. Furthermore, the relation (3-12) will
A mathematical difficulty is encountered, however, since the momentum not admit the equality sign unless the integral
function corresponding to (3-25), that is,

- _1_ f ikz -(ilr.)pz d f - I

i d1/;*
dx x1/; dx = C" f x1/;*x1/; dx (3-31)
a (p ) - 27r1 e e x, (3-26)

is purely imaginary. Hence e must be a purely imaginary number. For

is presented as an integral in x which do es not existo The formal validity convenience, we write
of Eq. (3-26) can, nevertheless, be restored by introducing the Dirac delta
funclion (see Appendix A-4), in terms of which we write (3-32)
and thus
a(p) = (p - lk). (3-27)
(3-33)
In this way, a momentum representation for the single-frequency wave
packet (3-25) is obtained. In an entirely symmetrical manner, the mo- This differential equation is easily solved (Problem 3-11), yielding
mentum function
a(p) = _1_ e(i1r.)pzo
1/; = Ne-z2/2C' ; (3-34)
(3-28)
V21Th
the necessity of J/1/;/2 dx being convergent makes e' positive. Let us say
that e' = 0-2, then
corresponds, in the coordinate representation, to
1/; = Ne-z2/2u2. (3-35)

1/;(x) = 2~1 f e(i1r.)(z-zo)P dp = (x - xo). (3-29) The form of the result shows that the minimum wave packet has the shape
of a .gaussIan
. curv~.. It f ollows that a gaussian wave packet represents a
This expression represents the wave function for a particle located exactly partlCle whose position and momentum are simultaneously determined
as closely as the uncertainty principie permits. '
at the point x = Xo. The wave functions (3-25) and (3-29) can be re-
garded as the limits of very narrow wave packets in the momentum and
1 E. H. Kennard, Z. Physik 44, 326 (1927).
coordinate spaces, respectively.
78 WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-7] SPREAD OF THE GAUSSIAN PACKET WITH TIME 79

A similar calculation, not involving the assumption (z) = (P) = O, 3-7 Spread of the gaussian packet with time. In the preceding section,
leads to the result (Problem 3-12) it has been shown that a gaussian wave packet describes a particle for
which the uncertainty relation has its mnimum value, t.x t.p = Ij2, at
a given time t = O. The change of the gaussian packet with time will
(3-36) now be computed, and it will become apparent that the packet spreads
out as time progresses. In general, the problem is that of finding o/ex, t)
This wave packet moves with uniform average momentum (P). At time when o/ex, O) is given. The calculation is carried through in two steps:
t -- O, for which the calculation has been carried out, the center First, we compute the momentum wave function which, according to
. of the Eq. (2-90), is given by
packet is located at x = (x). Figure 3-4 is a graph of the Iunction lo/(x)l
The quantity CTmea ures the width of the packet. The con tant N is de- a(p) = . ~ fo/(x, O)e-ikx dx; (3-40)
termined by normalization, as follows: v 27r1

then we perform a second Fourier transformation, using Eq. (2-89), and

(3-37) obtain

Rence,
o/ex, t) = _1_
V27rh
t-r=": dp. (3-41)

1 [(X - (X2] (. (p) .) (3-38)

o/ex, O) = V CTV7i- exp - 2CT2 exp '/, T x . The substitution E = p2 j2m has been made. The width of the packet is
conveniently described in terms of

Generalized to three dimensions, the gaussian packet is (3-42)

If the origin is chosen at the center of the packet at t = O, then (x) = O,

o/(r, O) =
1
exp
[Ir
-
-
2
(r)1
2
2
]
exp
fL'/, -l-
(p). r]
, (3-39) whence!"
(CT,l7r)3/2 CT
(3-43)
where, as usual, the vectors r and p have the components (z, y, a) and
and
(p"" PlI' P.), respecti vely. CT
t.xll=o = V2' (3-44)

1''(x)1
Since t.x t.p = Ij2, the width in momentum space is

I
t.p = __ o
(3-45)
V2CT

Inasmuch as a(p) do es not depend on i, the value of t.p remains constant

as the wave packet moves.

1 The general formula

__~

FIG. 3-4.
-L
(z)

The gaussian wave packet.

x
f oo

-ao
x

will find frequent application.

2n
e
_",2 d
x =
1. 3 . 5 ... (2n -
2n
1)Y;
80 WAVE PACKETS ANO THE UNCERTAI:>1TY PRINCIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-7] SPREAO OF THE GAUSSIAN PACKET WITH TIME 1

'I he Fourier transform of 1/;(x, O) is 3

(3-46)

By combining the exponents in the integrand and completing the square

in z, we find, with the aid of Appendix A-1, that (1

a(p) = ~ u e-<(12/2/2<p-<P>l2. (3-47)

h";'
The wave function in momentum space is thereore al so a gaussian func-
tion. By substituting Eq. (3-47) into Eq. (3-41), we obtain the time-
dependent wave function in coordinate space:
o
I
1/;(x t) =
, 'J 27rh2
u
";' !e-<(12/21i2)(P-<P>l2e<i/lillP",-<p2/2ml/l d
p.
(3-48)

FIG. 3-5. Spread of the gaussian wave packet with time.

The integral appearing here is of the same form as that encountered in
Eq. (3-46). We arrive at mum packet only at the initial instant. The time scale is given by the
quantity T = mu2/h, in term of which
1/;(.t, t) = ~ ~ exp {- [.t - ~~~/m)t]2} exp [~ (p) (x - ~~ t) J,
(3-52)
(3-49)
where a2 = u2 + iht/m. The packet changes shape inappreciably as long as t T, but at a time
It is evident that (x) = p)/m)t, whence the packet travels with the t T its original form is completely changed. To understand this effect
group velocity v = (p)/m, which is the velocity of a classical particle of not~ that the ~vi.dth of the momentum packet is h/u, so that the spread
momentum (P). Furthermore, the second exponential indicates that the D.v m the velocities of the component waves is approximately h/mu. The
pha e velocity i (p)/2m = v/2, as shown in general in ection 2-8. The form .of t~e wave packet is completely changed in a time during which the
probability den ity is obtained as the absolute square of 1/;: velocity difference D.v causes a change o order D.x in the relative position o
two component waves. This time is
2
11/;(x,t)12 = u exp {_ u [x - p)/m)t]2} . (3-50)
lal2Y:: lal4' (3-53)

and hence the width o the packet!!' at time t is For. example, ~n electr~n wave packet initialIy confined within a region
of size h/mc will approxunately double in width in a time!l!
(3-51)

The quantity D.x(t)/D.x(O) = v'2 D.x/u is shown as a function of time in

T = ~ (~cr = m~2 ~ 10-
21
seco

Fig. 3-5. The effect of the dispersion is to spread out the packet; ulti- !f,. however, the initial size of the packet is 1 cm, the characteristic time
rnately, the width in crease in direct proportion to the time. Also, since D.p T 18 of order one second.
is con tant, the uncertainty product D.x D.p grows, i.e., 1/; represents a mini- 1
no The phase velocity in this example is o order C. Since the calculation is
~ relativistie, the result must be regarded as only an order-o-magnitude
1 Note: When 11/;1has
2 the form e-<%2/~2), then D.x = (TI 2. est imata.
82 WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAI TY PRI CIPLE [CHAP. 3 3-8] SOLUTIOC\! FOR TIME DEPE:\'DE:\'CE OF >/1;CAUSALl1'Y 83

3-8 General solution for time dependence of >/1;causality. The pro- known, the future behavior of the system it de cribes is predicted by the
cedure outlined above for determining >/1 (x, t) from its value at an earlier laws of quantum theory.
time can be generalized. The calculation leads to a formulation of the Mathematically, the principie of causality makes itself evident by the
wave-mechanical properties of a free particle. The relativistic generalization fact that the Schrodinger equation contains the time only in the first
of this formulation is the starting point for much of the modern theoretical derivative. The Schrodinger equation, therefore, gives the rate of change
work on the physics of fundamental particles. [1] We shall work in three of >/1in terms of its value at a given in tanto The wave function at a
dimensions, folIowing the steps of the preceding section without, however, later instant can therefore be calculated.
specifying the form of >/l. We have seen that the expression for >/I(r,t) in The integral of Eq. (3-57) can be evaluated and an explicit form for K
terms of its Fourier components is derived. Since this computation is an instructive exercise in the treatment
of integrals in three-dimensional momentum space, we shall indicate the
>/I(r,t) = f
(271"!)3/2 a(p) exp [~(p . r - :~ t)] dp, (3-54) steps. So far as the integration is concerned, the vector r - r' is a constant;
hence spherical polar coordinates in the p-space can be introduced, with
the polar axis in the direction of this vector. The integrand then does not
where the quantity a(p) is independent of time, as emphasized previously. depend upon the azirnuthal angle, and the volume element is dp =
The momentum wave function can therefore be calculated by Fourier 271"sin 8 d8 p2 dp, where p = Ipl, and 8 is the polar angle measured from the
inversion of tJ;at any other time t': direction of r - r'. The limits of integration are (O, 00) for p and (0,7r)
for 8, or (1, -1) for ..= cos 8. With these transformations,
a(p) = (27r!)3/2 >/1f
(r', t') exp [ - ~ (p. r' - :: t)] dr'. (3-55)
[( = _1_ f.o fl exp i. [plr - r'l..- i!:... (t - t')] 27r d..p2dp.
(27rh)3 o -1 h 2m
Substituting into Eq. (3-54), we obtain the result (3-58)
The integration with respect to ..is irnmediate; that is,
tJ;(r, t) = !K(r, t; r', t')>/I(r', t') dr', (3-56)

in which the function K is

K(r, t; r', t') = (2:h)3 f exp {~[p. (r - r') - :~ (t - n]} dp. (3-57)
and K becomes
I
pr
2h
- r
. T
'1 sin p 1r
u.
- r '1 , (3-59)

In Eq. (3-56), the wave function at the time t is expressed linearly in terms
of its values at the earlier time t'. This is an explicit expression of the prin-
ciple of causality, according to which knowledge of the behavior of a system
K - _1_
- (27rh)2
foo
-00
sin (p/h)lr - r'l
Ir - r'l exp -
[i h p2
2m (t -
, ]
t) P dp, (3-60)
at one instant is sufficient for the prediction of its future behavior. It is
the quantum analogue of the classical principie that the future behavior in which a factor 2 has been absorbed by doubling the interval of inte-
of a particle can be predicted when its position and velocity are known gration. Further elementary transformations (Problem 3-5) yield finally!!'
at a given instant. Thus, in spite of the statistical nature of quantum
theory, the causal relationship of events is not invalidated; rather, causality
is now presented in a form which is consistent with the principIe that
x, t; r', t') = [271"ih (t _ t,)]-3/2
m
exp [i m ir - r'12J.
2h (t - t')
(3-61)

knowledge of the behavior of any system is limited by the effects of meas-

urements designed to determine its state at a given time. A complete 1 W. Pauli, Die Allgemeinen Prinzipien der lVellenmechanik. Ann Arbor:
description is embodied in the wave function: If the wave function is J. W. Edwards, 1947, p. 104.

1 R. P. Feynman, Phys. Rev. 76, 749 (1949), particularly footnote 4, p. 750.

84 WAVE PACKETS AND THE U CERTAINTY PRINCIPLE [CHAP. 3 PROBLEMS 85
REFERENCES 3-7. Normalize the momentum function
HEISENBERG,WERNER, The Physical Principies oi the Quantum Theory. New
York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1930. The discussion of the uncertainty prin-
cipIe, written by its originator, will repay careful study.
and show that the corresponding "'(r) is
HEISENBERG, WERNER, "The Development of tbe Interpretation of the
Quantum Theory," in Niels Bohr and the Development oi Physics. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1955. A historical account containing a critique
.1.( )
'f' r =:;;:1 (2a) 3/2 (r2 +a (2)2
of modern attempts to elucidate the meaning of quantum concepts.
KEMBLE, E. C., The Fundamental Principies oi Quantum Mechanice. ew Also, calculate ~x and !!.p" for .this wave packet and evaluate the product z !!.p".
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1937, Chapter II and Chapter VII, Sec- 3-8. Use the integral equation (3-56) and the kernel K to show that if
tion 33.
KRAMERS,H. A., Die Grundlaqer; der Quantentheorie. Leipzig: Akademische
Verlagsgesellschaft m.b.H., 1938. English translation: The Foundations oi "'(r, O) = exp (~ p . r) ,
Quantum Theory. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1957, Chapter 1. then
This clearly written text is one of the masterworks of mathematical physics.

3-9. Discuss the time behavior of the wave packet whose (unnormalized)
form is, initially,
PROBLEMS
1 . X e (i/A)po" .
3-1. Verify Eq. (3-3). "'(x, O) = -sm-
x a
3-2. Prove the relation (3-15).
3-3. Modify the proof of (3-17) to remove the restriction (x) = (p) = O. 3-10. The 2s-state of hydrogen has the wave function
(Hint: The origin of coordinates in the configuration and momentum spaces
can be transferred to the centers of the respective packets by means of a linear
"'(r) = _1_ (r _ 2)e-r/2,
substitution.) V32:;;:
3-4. Derive the general formula
in which r is measured in units of h2/me2. Find the momentum representation
1)Y;
f oo

-<>O
x
2"
e
_,,2 dx
=
1 . 3 . 5 ... (2n -
2"
for this state.
3-11. Solve the differential equation (3-33).
3-12. Derive expression (3-36) for the gaussian packet with (x) ~ O, (p) ~ O.
3-5. Carry out in detail the steps leading from Eq. (3-57) to Eq. (3-61).
(Hint:
OCl

foo
-<>O
(
SIO
)
ap e
_ibp2
p p
d
= -
al
aa ' where

1 can be evaluated by the methods of Appendix A-1 or directly, through use of

1 =
f
-<>O (cos ap)e-
ibp2
dp.

a table of definite intergrals.

3-6. If a(p) is real and the origin is chosen so that (x) is initially zero, show
that the formula

is true for a wave packet of arbitrary shape. (Hint: Judicious use of the repre-
scntation in momentum space is helpful in solving this problem.)