Junior Problem Seminar

David A. SANTOS
[email protected]

December 27, 2004 REVISION

ii

Contents
Preface iii 4.6 Second Order Recursions . . . . . . . . 63
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1 Essential Techniques 1 4.7 Applications of Recursions . . . . . . . . 64
1.1 Reductio ad Absurdum . . . . . 1. . . . . Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. . . . .
1.2 Pigeonhole Principle . . . . . . 3 5 Counting
. . . . . 66
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. . . . .
5.1 Inclusion-Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.3 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. . . . .
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. . . . .
5.2 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2 Algebra 8 5.3 The Sum Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.1 Identities with Squares . . . . . . . . . 8 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 5.4 Permutations without Repetitions . . . . 78
2.2 Squares of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . 12 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 5.5 Permutations with Repetitions . . . . . 80
2.3 Identities with Cubes . . . . . . . . . . 14 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5.6 Combinations without Repetitions . . . 83
2.4 Miscellaneous Algebraic Identities . . . 16 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5.7 Combinations with Repetitions . . . . . 90
2.5 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 5.8 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.6 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 5.9 Multinomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . 101
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3 Arithmetic 24
3.1 Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 6 Equations 103
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 6.1 Equations in One Variable . . . . . . . . 103
3.2 The Decimal Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 6.2 Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3 Non-decimal Scales . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems . . . . 107
3.4 Well-Ordering Principle . . . . . . . . . 33 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 6.4 Viète’s Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.5 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . 35 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6.5 Lagrange’s Interpolation . . . . . . . . . 112
3.6 Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7 Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers 43 7 Geometry 114
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 7.1 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4 Sums, Products, and Recursions 48 7.2 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1 Telescopic cancellation . . . . . . . . . . 48 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.3 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.2 Arithmetic Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 7.4 Right Angle Trigonometry . . . . . . . . 134
4.3 Geometric Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 7.5 Rule of Al-Kashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4 Fundamental Sums . . . . . . . . . . . 55 7.6 Law of Sines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.5 First Order Recursions . . . . . . . . . . 59
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 A Answers, Hints, and Solutions 144
Preface

From time to time I get to revise this problem seminar. Although my chances of addressing the type of students
for which they were originally intended (middle-school, high-school) are now very remote, I have had very
pleasant emails from people around the world finding this material useful.

I haven’t compiled the solutions for the practice problems anywhere. This is a project that now, having
more pressing things to do, I can’t embark. But if you feel you can contribute to these notes, drop me a line, or
even mail me your files!
David A. SANTOS
[email protected]

iii
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iv
Chapter 1
Essential Techniques

1.1 Reductio ad Absurdum

In this section we will see examples of proofs by contradiction. That is, in trying to prove a premise, we assume
that its negation is true and deduce incompatible statements from this.

√ 1
1 Example Shew, without using a calculator, that 6 − 35 < .
10

√ 1 1 √ √
Solution: Assume that 6 − 35 ≥ . Then 6 − ≥
35 or 59 ≥ 10 35. Squaring both sides we obtain
10 10
√ 1
3481 ≥ 3500, which is clearly nonsense. Thus it must be the case that 6 − 35 < .
10

2 Example Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be an arbitrary permutation of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n, where n is an odd

number. Prove that the product
(a1 − 1)(a2 − 2) · · · (an − n)
is even.

Solution: First observe that the sum of an odd number of odd integers is odd. It is enough to prove that some
difference ak − k is even. Assume contrariwise that all the differences ak − k are odd. Clearly
S = (a1 − 1) + (a2 − 2) + · · · + (an − n) = 0,
since the ak ’s are a reordering of 1, 2, . . . , n. S is an odd number of summands of odd integers adding to the
even integer 0. This is impossible. Our initial assumption that all the ak − k are odd is wrong, so one of these
is even and hence the product is even.
√
3 Example Prove that 2 is irrational.

Solution: For this proof, we will accept as fact that any positive integer greater than 1 can be factorised
uniquely as the product of primes (up to the order of the factors).
√ a
Assume that 2 = , with positive integers a, b. This yields 2b2 = a2 . Now both a2 and b2 have an even
b
number of prime factors. So 2b2 has an odd numbers of primes in its factorisation and a2 has an even number
of primes in its factorisation. This is a contradiction.

4 Example Let a, b be real numbers and assume that for all numbers ǫ > 0 the following inequality holds:
a < b + ǫ.
Prove that a ≤ b.

1
2 Chapter 1

a−b
Solution: Assume contrariwise that a > b. Hence > 0. Since the inequality a < b + ǫ holds for every
2
a−b
ǫ > 0 in particular it holds for ǫ = . This implies that
2
a−b
a<b+ or a < b.
2
Thus starting with the assumption that a > b we reach the incompatible conclusion that a < b. The original
assumption must be wrong. We therefore conclude that a ≤ b.

5 Example (Euclid) Shew that there are infinitely many prime numbers.

Solution: We need to assume for this proof that any integer greater than 1 is either a prime or a product of
primes. The following beautiful proof goes back to Euclid. Assume that {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } is a list that exhausts

all the primes. Consider the number

N = p1 p2 · · · pn + 1.
This is a positive integer, clearly greater than 1. Observe that none of the primes on the list {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }
divides N, since division by any of these primes leaves a remainder of 1. Since N is larger than any of the
primes on this list, it is either a prime or divisible by a prime outside this list. Thus we have shewn that the
assumption that any finite list of primes leads to the existence of a prime outside this list. This implies that
the number of primes is infinite.
√
6 Example Let n > 1 be a composite integer. Prove that n has a prime factor p ≤ n.

Solution:
√ Since √
n is composite, n can
√ √be written as n = ab where both a > 1, b > 1 are integers. Now,
√ if both
a > n and b > n then n = ab > n √n = n, a contradiction. Thus one of these factors must be ≤ n and a
fortiori it must have a prime factor ≤ n.

The result
√ in example 6 can be used to test for primality. For example, to shew that 101 is prime, we
compute T 101U = 10. By the preceding problem, either 101 is prime or it is divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 7 (the
primes smaller than 10). Since neither of these primes divides 101, we conclude that 101 is prime.

7 Example Prove that a sum of two squares of integers leaves remainder 0, 1 or 2 when divided by 4.

Solution: An integer is either even (of the form 2k) or odd (of the form 2k + 1). We have

(2k)2 = 2(2k2 ),
(2k + 1)2 = 4(k2 + k) + 1.

Thus squares leave remainder 0 or 1 when divided by 4 and hence their sum leave remainder 0, 1, or 2.

8 Example Prove that 2003 is not the sum of two squares by proving that the sum of any two squares cannot
leave remainder 3 upon division by 4.

Solution: 2003 leaves remainder 3 upon division by 4. But we know from example 7 that sums of squares do
not leave remainder 3 upon division by 4, so it is impossible to write 2003 as the sum of squares.

9 Example If a, b, c are odd integers, prove that ax2 + bx + c = 0 does not have a rational number solution.

p
Solution: Suppose is a rational solution to the equation. We may assume that p and q have no prime factors
q
in common, so either p and q are both odd, or one is odd and the other even. Now
 ‹2  ‹
p p
a +b + c = 0 =⇒ ap2 + bpq + cq2 = 0.
q q
Practice 3

If both p and p were odd, then ap2 + bpq + cq2 is also odd and hence 6= 0. Similarly if one of them is even and
the other odd then either ap2 + bpq or bpq + cq2 is even and ap2 + bpq + cq2 is odd. This contradiction
proves that the equation cannot have a rational root.

Practice
10 Problem The product of 34 integers is equal to 1. 14 Problem In △ABC, ∠A > ∠B. Prove that BC >
Shew that their sum cannot be 0. AC.

√
11 Problem Let a1 , a2 , . . . , a2000 be natural num- 15 Problem Let 0 < α < 1. Prove that α > α.
bers such that
1 1 1 16 Problem Let α = 0.999 . . . where there are at least
+ + ··· + = 1. √
a1 a2 a2000 2000 nines. Prove that the decimal expansion of α
Prove that at least one of the ak ’s is even. also starts with at least 2000 nines.

(Hint: Clear the denominators.) 17 Problem Prove that a quadratic equation

12 Problem Prove that log2 3 is irrational. ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0

has at most two solutions.

13 Problem A palindrome is an integer whose dec-
imal expansion is symmetric, e.g. 1, 2, 11, 121,
15677651 (but not 010, 0110) are palindromes. Prove 18 Problem Prove that if ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real
that there is no positive palindrome which is divisible solutions and if a > 0, b > 0, c > 0 then both solutions
by 10. must be negative.

1.2 Pigeonhole Principle

The Pigeonhole Principle states that if n + 1 pigeons fly to n holes, there must be a pigeonhole containing at
least two pigeons. This apparently trivial principle is very powerful. Thus in any group of 13 people, there are
always two who have their birthday on the same month, and if the average human head has two million hairs,
there are at least three people in NYC with the same number of hairs on their head.
The Pigeonhole Principle is useful in proving existence problems, that is, we shew that something exists
without actually identifying it concretely.
Let us see some more examples.

19 Example (Putnam 1978) Let A be any set of twenty integers chosen from the arithmetic progression 1, 4, . . . , 100.
Prove that there must be two distinct integers in A whose sum is 104.

Solution: We partition the thirty four elements of this progression into nineteen groups

{1}, {52}, {4, 100}, {7, 97}, {10, 94}, . . . , {49, 55}.

Since we are choosing twenty integers and we have nineteen sets, by the Pigeonhole Principle there must be
two integers that belong to one of the pairs, which add to 104.

20 Example Shew that amongst any seven distinct positive integers not exceeding 126, one can find two of
them, say a and b, which satisfy
b < a ≤ 2b.

Solution: Split the numbers {1, 2, 3, . . . , 126} into the six sets

{1, 2}, {3, 4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, . . . , 13, 14}, {15, 16, . . . , 29, 30},

{31, 32, . . . , 61, 62} and {63, 64, . . . , 126}.

4 Chapter 1

By the Pigeonhole Principle, two of the seven numbers must lie in one of the six sets, and obviously, any such
two will satisfy the stated inequality.

21 Example No matter which fifty five integers may be selected from

{1, 2, . . . , 100},

prove that one must select some two that differ by 10.

Solution: First observe that if we choose n + 1 integers from any string of 2n consecutive integers, there will
always be some two that differ by n. This is because we can pair the 2n consecutive integers

{a + 1, a + 2, a + 3, . . . , a + 2n}

into the n pairs

{a + 1, a + n + 1}, {a + 2, a + n + 2}, . . . , {a + n, a + 2n},
and if n + 1 integers are chosen from this, there must be two that belong to the same group.
So now group the one hundred integers as follows:

{1, 2, . . . 20}, {21, 22, . . . , 40},

{41, 42, . . . , 60}, {61, 62, . . . , 80}

and
{81, 82, . . . , 100}.
If we select fifty five integers, we must perforce choose eleven from some group. From that group, by the above
observation (let n = 10), there must be two that differ by 10.

22 Example (AHSME 1994) Label one disc “1”, two discs “2”, three discs “3”, . . . , fifty discs ‘‘50”. Put these
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 50 = 1275 labeled discs in a box. Discs are then drawn from the box at random without
replacement. What is the minimum number of discs that must me drawn in order to guarantee drawing at
least ten discs with the same label?

Solution: If we draw all the 1 + 2 + · · · + 9 = 45 labelled “1”, . . . , “9” and any nine from each of the discs “10”,
. . . , “50”, we have drawn 45 + 9 · 41 = 414 discs. The 415-th disc drawn will assure at least ten discs from a
label.

23 Example (IMO 1964) Seventeen people correspond by mail with one another—each one with all the rest.
In their letters only three different topics are discussed. Each pair of correspondents deals with only one of
these topics. Prove that there at least three people who write to each other about the same topic.

Solution: Choose a particular person of the group, say Charlie. He corresponds with sixteen others. By the
Pigeonhole Principle, Charlie must write to at least six of the people of one topic, say topic I. If any pair of
these six people corresponds on topic I, then Charlie and this pair do the trick, and we are done. Otherwise,
these six correspond amongst themselves only on topics II or III. Choose a particular person from this group
of six, say Eric. By the Pigeonhole Principle, there must be three of the five remaining that correspond with
Eric in one of the topics, say topic II. If amongst these three there is a pair that corresponds with each other
on topic II, then Eric and this pair correspond on topic II, and we are done. Otherwise, these three people only
correspond with one another on topic III, and we are done again.

24 Example Given any set of ten natural numbers between 1 and 99 inclusive, prove that there are two
disjoint nonempty subsets of the set with equal sums of their elements.

Solution: There are 210 − 1 = 1023 non-empty subsets that one can form with a given 10-element set. To each
of these subsets we associate the sum of its elements. The maximum value that any such sum can achieve is
90 + 91 + · · · + 99 = 945 < 1023. Therefore, there must be at least two different subsets that have the same
sum.
Practice 5

25 Example Given any 9 integers whose prime factors lie in the set {3, 7, 11} prove that there must be two
whose product is a square.

Solution: For an integer to be a square, all the exponents of its prime factorisation must be even. Any integer
in the given set has a prime factorisation of the form 3a 7b 11c . Now each triplet (a, b, c) has one of the
following 8 parity patterns: (even, even, even), (even, even, odd), (even, odd, even), (even, odd, odd), (odd, even,
even), (odd, even, odd), (odd, odd, even), (odd, odd, odd). In a group of 9 such integers, there must be two with
the same parity patterns in the exponents. Take these two. Their product is a square, since the sum of each
corresponding exponent will be even.

Practice

26 Problem Prove that among n + 1 integers, there 3. Suppose that all the letters are arranged in a cir-
are always two whose difference is always divisible by cle. Prove that there must be five consecutive
n. consonants.

27 Problem (AHSME 1991) A circular table has ex- 33 Problem (Stanford 1953) Bob has ten pockets and
actly sixty chairs around it. There are N people seated forty four silver dollars. He wants to put his dollars
at this table in such a way that the next person to be into his pockets so distributed that each pocket con-
seated must sit next to someone. What is the smallest tains a different number of dollars.
possible value of N?
1. Can he do so?

28 Problem Shew that if any five points are all in, or 2. Generalise the problem, considering p pockets
on, a square of side √
1, then some pair of them will be and n dollars. The problem is most interesting
at most at distance 2/2. when
(p − 1)(p − 2)
n= .
29 Problem (Hungarian Math Olympiad, 1947) 2
Prove that amongst six people in a room there are Why?
at least three who know one another, or at least three
who do not know one another. 34 Problem Let M be a seventeen-digit positive in-
teger and let N be the number obtained from M by
30 Problem Shew that in any sum of nonnegative real writing the same digits in reversed order. Prove that
numbers there is always one number which is at least at least one digit in the decimal representation of the
the average of the numbers and that there is always number M + N is even.
one member that it is at most the average of the num-
bers. 35 Problem No matter which fifty five integers may
be selected from
31 Problem We call a set “sum free” if no two ele-
ments of the set add up to a third element of the set. {1, 2, . . . , 100},
What is the maximum size of a sum free subset of
{1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1}. prove that you must select some two that differ by 9,
some two that differ by 10, some two that differ by 12,
and some two that differ by 13, but that you need not
Hint: Observe that the set {n + 1, n + 2, . . . , 2n − 1}
have any two that differ by 11.
of n + 1 elements is sum free. Shew that any subset
with n + 2 elements is not sum free.
36 Problem Let mn + 1 different real numbers be
32 Problem (MMPC 1992) Suppose that the letters of given. Prove that there is either an increasing se-
the English alphabet are listed in an arbitrary order. quence with at least n + 1 members, or a decreasing
sequence with at least m + 1 members.
1. Prove that there must be four consecutive conso-
nants.
37 Problem If the points of the plane are coloured
2. Give a list to shew that there need not be five with three colours, shew that there will always exist
consecutive consonants. two points of the same colour which are one unit apart.
6 Chapter 1

38 Problem Shew that if the points of the plane are person who knows each of the other three. What is
coloured with two colours, there will always exist an the minimum number of people in the party who know
equilateral triangle with all its vertices of the same everyone else?
colour. There is, however, a colouring of the points of
the plane with two colours for which no equilateral tri- 41 Problem (USAMO 1985) There are n people at a
angle of side 1 has all its vertices of the same colour. party. Prove that there are two people such that, of the
remaining n−2 people, there are at least Tn/2U − 1 of
39 Problem (USAMO 1979) Nine mathematicians them, each of whom knows both or else knows neither
meet at an international conference and discover that of the two. Assume that “knowing” is a symmetrical
amongst any three of them, at least two speak a com- relationship.
mon language. If each of the mathematicians can
speak at most three languages, prove that there are 42 Problem (USAMO 1986) During a certain lecture,
at least three of the mathematicians who can speak each of five mathematicians fell asleep exactly twice.
the same language. For each pair of these mathematicians, there was
some moment when both were sleeping simultane-
40 Problem (USAMO 1982) In a party with 1982 per- ously. Prove that, at some moment, some three were
sons, amongst any group of four there is at least one sleeping simultaneously.

1.3 Parity
43 Example Two diametrically opposite corners of a chess board are deleted. Shew that it is impossible to tile
the remaining 62 squares with 31 dominoes.

Solution: Each domino covers one red square and one black squares. But diametrically opposite corners are of
the same colour, hence this tiling is impossible.

44 Example All the dominoes in a set are laid out in a chain according to the rules of the game. If one end of
the chain is a 6, what is at the other end?

Solution: At the other end there must be a 6 also. Each number of spots must occur in a pair, so that we may
put them end to end. Since there are eight 6’s, this last 6 pairs off with the one at the beginning of the chain.

45 Example The numbers 1, 2, . . . , 10 are written in a row. Shew that no matter what choice of sign ± is put
in between them, the sum will never be 0.

Solution: The sum 1 + 2 + · · · + 10 = 55, an odd integer. Since parity is not affected by the choice of sign, for
any choice of sign ±1 ± 2 ± · · · ± 10 will never be even, in particular it will never be 0.

46 Definition A lattice point (m, n) on the plane is one having integer coordinates.

47 Definition The midpoint of the line joining (x, y) to (x1 , y1 ) is the point
 ‹
x + x1 y + y 1
, .
2 2

48 Example Five lattice points are chosen at random. Prove that one can always find two so that the midpoint
of the line joining them is also a lattice point.

Solution: There are four parity patterns: (even, even), (even, odd), (odd, odd), (odd, even). By the Pigeonhole
Principle among five lattice points there must be two having the same parity pattern. Choose these two. It is
clear that their midpoint is an integer.
Practice 7

For the next few examples we will need to know the names of the following tetrominoes.

Figure 1.1: L-tetromino Figure 1.2: T-tetromino Figure 1.3: Straight-tetromino Figure 1.4: Skew-tetromino Figure 1.5: Square-tetromino

49 Example A single copy of each of the tetrominoes shewn above is taken. Shew that no matter how these
are arranged, it is impossible to construct a rectangle.

Solution: If such a rectangle were possible, it would have 20 squares. Colour the rectangle like a chessboard.
Then there are 10 red squares and 10 black squares. The T-tetromino always covers an odd number of red
squares. The other tetrominoes always cover an even number of red squares. This means that the number of
red squares covered is odd, a contradiction.

50 Example Shew that an 8 × 8 chessboard cannot be tiles with 15 straight tetrominoes and one L-tetromino.

Solution: Colour rows 1, 3, 5, 7 black and colour rows 2, 4, 6, and 8 red. A straight tetromino will always cover
an even number of red boxes and the L-tetromino will always cover an odd number of red squares. If the tiling
were possible, then we would be covering an odd number of red squares, a contradiction.

Practice

51 Problem Twenty-five boys and girls are seated at on a blackboard. One starts erasing any two of them
a round table. Shew that both neighbours of at least and replacing the deleted ones with their difference.
one student are girls. Will a situation arise where all the numbers on the
blackboard be 0?
52 Problem A closed path is made of 2001 line seg-
ments. Prove that there is no line, not passing through 54 Problem Shew that a 10 × 10 chessboard cannot
a vertex of the path, intersecting each of the segments be tiled with 25 straight tetrominoes.
of the path.
55 Problem Shew that an 8 × 8 chess board cannot be
53 Problem The numbers 1, 2, . . . , 2001 are written tiled with 15 T-tetrominoes and one square tetromino.
Chapter 2
Algebra

2.1 Identities with Squares

Recall that
(x + y)2 = (x + y)(x + y) = x2 + y2 + 2xy (2.1)
If we substitute y by y + z we obtain

(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz (2.2)

If we substitute z by z + w we obtain

(x + y + z + w)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + w2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2xw + 2yz + 2yw + 2zw (2.3)

56 Example The sum of two numbers is 21 and their product −7. Find (i) the sum of their squares, (ii) the
sum of their reciprocals and (iii) the sum of their fourth powers.

Solution: If the two numbers are a and b, we are given that a + b = 21 and ab = −7. Hence

a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 − 2ab = 212 − 2(−7) = 455

and
1 1 b+a 21
+ = = = −3
a b ab −7
Also
a4 + b4 = (a2 + b2 )2 − 2a2 b2 = 4552 − 2(−7)2 = 357

57 Example Find positive integers a and b with

È √ √
√
5+ 24 = a + b.

Solution: Observe that √ √ √ √

5+ 24 = 3 + 2 2 · 3 + 2 = ( 2 + 3)2 .
Therefore È √ √ √
5 + 2 6 = 2 + 3.

58 Example Compute È
(1000000)(1000001)(1000002)(1000003) + 1
without using a calculator.

8
Identities with Squares 9

Solution: Let x = 1 000 000 = 106 . Then

x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) = x(x + 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) = (x2 + 3x)(x2 + 3x + 2).

Put y = x2 + 3x. Then

x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) + 1 = (x2 + 3x)(x2 + 3x + 2) + 1 = y(y + 2) + 1 = (y + 1)2 .

Thus È
x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) + 1 = y+1
= x2 + 3x + 1
= 1012 + 3 · 106 + 1
= 1 000 003 000 001.
Another useful identity is the difference of squares:

x2 − y2 = (x − y)(x + y) (2.4)

59 Example Explain how to compute 1234567892 − 123456790 × 123456788 mentally.

Solution: Put x = 123456789. Then

1234567892 − 123456790 × 123456788 = x2 − (x + 1)(x − 1) = 1.

60 Example Shew that

1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023 = (1 + x)(1 + x2 )(1 + x4 ) · · · (1 + x256 )(1 + x512 ).

Solution: Put S = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023 . Then xS = x + x2 + · · · + x1024 . This gives

S − xS = (1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023 ) − (x + x2 + · · · + x1024 ) = 1 − x1024

or S(1 − x) = 1 − x1024 , from where

1 − x1024
1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023 = S = .
1−x

But ‚ Œ‚ Œ ‚ Œ‚ Œ
1 − x1024 1 − x1024 1 − x512 1 − x4 1 − x2
= ···
1−x 1 − x512 1 − x256 1 − x2 1−x
512 256 2
= (1 + x )(1 + x ) · · · (1 + x )(1 + x),

proving the assertion.

61 Example Given that

1 1 1 1
√ √ +√ √ +√ √ + ··· + √ √
1+ 2 2+ 3 3+ 4 99 + 100

is an integer, find it.

√ √ √ √
Solution: As 1 = n + 1 − n = ( n + 1 − n)( n + 1 + n), we have

1 √ √
√ √ = n+1− n.
n+ n+1
10 Chapter 2

Therefore
1 √ √
√ √ = 2− 1
1+ 2
1 √ √
√ √ = 3− 2
2+ 3
1 √ √
√ √ = 4− 3
3+ 4
.. .. ..
. . .
1 √ √
√ √ = 100 − 99,
99 + 100
and thus
1 1 1 1 √ √
√ √ +√ √ +√ √ + ··· + √ √ = 100 − 1 = 9.
1+ 2 2+ 3 3+ 4 99 + 100
Using the difference of squares identity,

x4 + x2 y 2 + y 4 = x4 + 2x2 y2 + y4 − x2 y2
= (x2 + y2 )2 − (xy)2
= (x2 − xy + y2 )(x2 + xy + y2 ).

The following factorisation is credited to Sophie Germain.

a4 + 4b4 = a4 + 4a2 b2 + 4b4 − 4a2 b2

= (a2 + 2b2 )2 − (2ab)2
= (a2 − 2ab + 2b2 )(a2 + 2ab + 2b2 )

62 Example Prove that n4 + 4 is a prime only when n = 1 for n ∈ N.

Solution: Using Sophie Germain’s trick,

n4 + 4 = n4 + 4n2 + 4 − 4n2
= (n2 + 2)2 − (2n)2
= (n2 + 2 − 2n)(n2 + 2 + 2n)
= ((n − 1)2 + 1)((n + 1)2 + 1).

Each factor is greater than 1 for n > 1, and so n4 + 4 cannot be a prime if n > 1.

63 Example Shew that the product of four consecutive integers, none of them 0, is never a perfect square.

Solution: Let n − 1, n, n + 1, n + 2 be four consecutive integers. Then their product P is

P = (n − 1)n(n + 1)(n + 2) = (n3 − n)(n + 2) = n4 + 2n3 − n2 − 2n.
But
(n2 + n − 1)2 = n4 + 2n3 − n2 − 2n + 1 = P + 1 > P.
As P 6= 0 and P is 1 more than a square, P cannot be a square.

64 Example Find infinitely many pairs of integers (m, n) such that m and n share their prime factors and
(m − 1, n − 1) share their prime factors.

Solution: Take m = 2k − 1, n = (2k − 1)2 , k = 2, 3, . . .. Then m, n obviously share their prime factors and
m − 1 = 2(2k−1 − 1) shares its prime factors with n − 1 = 2k+1 (2k−1 − 1).
Practice 11

65 Example Prove that if r ≥ s ≥ t then

r2 − s2 + t2 ≥ (r − s + t)2 (2.5)

Solution: We have

(r − s + t)2 − t2 = (r − s + t − t)(r − s + t + t) = (r − s)(r − s + 2t).

Since t − s ≤ 0, r − s + 2t = r + s + 2(t − s) ≤ r + s and so

(r − s + t)2 − t2 ≤ (r − s)(r + s) = r2 − s2

which gives
(r − s + t)2 ≤ r2 − s2 + t2 .

Practice

66 Problem The sum of two numbers is −7 and their 76 Problem By direct computation, shew that the
product 2. Find (i) the sum of their reciprocals, (ii) the product of sums of two squares is itself a sum of two
sum of their squares. squares:
(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = (ab + bd)2 + (ad − bc)2 (2.6)
67 Problem Write x2 as a sum of powers of x + 3.
77 Problem Divide x128 − y128 by
68 Problem Write x2 − 3x + 8 as a sum of powers of
x − 1. (x + y)(x2 + y2 )(x4 + y4 )(x8 + y8 )
(x16 + y16 )(x32 + y32 )(x64 + y64 ).
69 Problem Prove that 3 is the only prime of the form
n2 − 1.
78 Problem Solve the system
70 Problem Prove that there are no primes of the x + y = 9,
form n4 − 1.
x2 + xy + y2 = 61.

71 Problem Prove that n4 +4n is prime only for n = 1.

79 Problem Solve the system

72 Problem Use Sophie Germain’s trick to obtain x − y = 10,

x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 − x + 1), x2 − 4xy + y2 = 52.

and then find all the primes of the form n4 + n2 + 1. 80 Problem Find the sum of the prime divisors of
216 − 1.
2 1 1 a2
73 Problem If a, b satisfy = + , find .
a+b a b 81 Problem Find integers a, b with
b2
È √ √
2
74 Problem If cot x + tan x = a, prove that cot x + 11 + 72 = a + b.
tan2 x = a2 − 2. .
82 Problem Given that the difference
È √ È √
75 Problem Prove that if a, b, c are positive integers,
57 − 40 2 − 57 + 40 2
then
√ √ √ √ √ √ is an integer, find it.
( a + b + c)(− a + b + c)
√ √ √ √ √ √
·( a − b + c)( a + b − c) 83 Problem Solve the equation
È √ È √
is an integer. x + 3 − 4 x − 1 + x + 8 − 6 x − 1 = 1.
12 Chapter 2

84 Problem
√ Prove that if a > 0, b > 0, a + b > c, then 87 Problem Shew that
√ √
a+ b> c
1 − x2048
(1+x)(1+x2 )(1+x4 )(1+x8 ) · · · (1+x1024 ) = .
1−x
85 Problem Prove that if 1 < x < 2, then
1 1 2 88 Problem Shew that
È √ +È √ = .
x+2 x−1 x−2 x−1 2−x 1€ Š
a2 +b2 +c2 −ab−bc−ca = (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 .
2
86 Problem If x > 0, from
√ √ 1 89 Problem Prove that if r ≥ s ≥ t ≥ u ≥ v then
x+1− x= √ √ ,
x+1+ x
r2 − s2 + t2 − u2 + v2 ≥ (r − s + t − u + v)2 (2.7)
prove that
1 √ √ 1 90 Problem (AIME 1987) Compute
√ < x+1− x< √ .
2 x+1 2 x
(104 + 324)(222 + 324)(344 + 324)(464 + 324)(584 + 324)
Use this to prove that if n > 1 is a positive integer, .
(44 + 324)(164 + 324)(284 + 324)(404 + 324)(524 + 324)
then
√ 1 1 1 √
2 n + 1−2 < 1+ √ + √ +···+ √ < 2 n−1 91 Problem Write (a2 + a + 1)2 as the sum of three
2 3 n squares.

2.2 Squares of Real Numbers

√ √
If x is a real number
√ then x2 ≥ 0. Thus if a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0 then ( a − b)2 ≥ 0 gives, upon expanding the
square, a − 2 ab + b ≥ 0, or
√ a+b
ab ≤ .
2
a+b √
Since is the arithmetic mean of a, b and ab is the geometric mean of a, b the inequality
2
√ a+b
ab ≤ (2.8)
2
is known as the Arithmetic-Mean-Geometric Mean (AM-GM) Inequality.

92 Example Let u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 be non-negative real numbers. By applying the preceding result twice, estab-
lish the AM-GM Inequality for four quantities:
u1 + u 2 + u3 + u 4
(u1 u2 u3 u4 )1/4 ≤ (2.9)
4

√ u1 + u 2 √ u3 + u 4
Solution: We have u1 u2 ≤ and u3 u4 ≤ . Now, applying the AM-GM Inequality twice to
√ √ 2 2
u1 u2 and u3 u4 we obtain
È√ √ √ u1 +u2
√ u1 u2 + u3 u4 2
+ u3 +u
2
4

u1 u2 u3 u4 ≤ ≤ .
2 2
Simplification yields the desired result.

93 Example Let u, v, w be non-negative real numbers. By using the preceding result on the four quantities
u+v+w
u, v, w, and , establish the AM-GM Inequality for three quantities:
3
u+v+w
(uvw)1/3 ≤ (2.10)
3
Squares of Real Numbers 13

Solution: By the AM-GM Inequality for four values

  ‹‹1/4 u+v+w
u+v+w u+v+w+ 3
uvw ≤ .
3 4
Some algebraic manipulation makes this equivalent to
 ‹1/4
1/4 u+v+w u+v+w u+v+w
(uvw) ≤ +
3 4 12
or upon adding the fraction on the right
 ‹1/4
u+v+w u+v+w
(uvw)1/4 ≤ .
3 3
 ‹−1/4
u+v+w
Multiplying both sides by we obtain
3
 ‹3/4
u+v+w
(uvw)1/4 ≤ ,
3
from where the desired inequality follows.

94 Example Let a > 0, b > 0. Prove the Harmonic-Mean-Geometric-Mean Inequality

2 √
1 1
≤ ab (2.11)
a
+ b

Solution: By the AM-HM Inequality r 1 1

1 1 a
+ b
· ≤ ,
a b 2
from where the desired inequality follows.

95 Example Prove that if a, b, c are non-negative real numbers then

(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) ≥ 8abc.
√ √
Solution: The result
√ quickly follows upon multiplying the three inequalities a + b ≥ 2 ab, b + c ≥ 2 bc
and c + a ≥ 2 ca.

96 Example If a, b, c, d, are real numbers such that a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 = ab + bc + cd + da, prove that

a = b = c = d.

Solution: Transposing,
a2 − ab + b2 − bc + c2 − dc + d2 − da = 0,
or
a2 b2 b2 c2 c2 d2 d2 a2
− ab + + − bc + + − dc + + − da + = 0.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Factoring,
1 1 1 1
(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 +
(d − a)2 = 0. (c − d)2 +
2 2 2 2
As the sum of non-negative quantities is zero only when the quantities themselves are zero, we obtain a =
b, b = c, c = d, d = a, which proves the assertion.
We note in passing that from the identity
1€ Š
a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 (2.12)
2
it follows that
a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca (2.13)
14 Chapter 2

97 Example The values of a, b, c, and d are 1, 2, 3 and 4 but not necessarily in that order. What is the largest
possible value of ab + bc + cd + da?

Solution:
ab + bc + cd + da = (a + c)(b + d)
 ‹
a+c+b+d 2
≤

2 ‹
1+2+3+4 2
=
2
= 25,
by AM-GM. Equality occurs when a + c = b + d. Thus one may choose, for example, a = 1, c = 4, b = 2, d = 3.

Practice

98 Problem If 0 < a ≤ b, shew that 102 Problem Prove that of all rectangles with a given
perimeter, the square has the largest area.
1 (b − a)2 a+b √ 1 (b − a)2
· ≤ − ab ≤ ·
8 b 2 8 a 1
103 Problem Prove that if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 then x−x2 ≤ .
4
99 Problem Prove that if a, b, c are non-negative real
numbers then
104 Problem Let 0 ≤ a, b, c, d ≤ 1. Prove that at
2 2 2
(a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1) ≥ 8abc least one of the products

a(1 − b), b(1 − c), c(1 − d), d(1 − a)

100 Problem The sum of two positive numbers is 100.
Find their maximum possible product. 1
is ≤ .
4
101 Problem Prove that if a, b, c are positive num-
bers then 105 Problem Use the AM-GM Inequality for four non-
a b c negative real numbers to prove a version of the AM-
+ + ≥ 3.
b c a GM for eight non-negative real numbers.

2.3 Identities with Cubes

By direct computation we find that

(x + y)3 = (x + y)(x2 + y2 + 2xy) = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y) (2.14)

106 Example The sum of two numbers is 2 and their product 5. Find the sum of their cubes.

Solution: If the numbers are x, y then x3 + y3 = (x + y)3 − 3xy(x + y) = 23 − 3(5)(2) = −22.

Two other useful identities are the sum and difference of cubes,

x3 ± y3 = (x ± y)(x2 ∓ xy + y2 ) (2.15)

107 Example Find all the prime numbers of the form n3 − 1, n a positive integer.

Solution: As n3 − 1 = (n − 1)(n2 + n + 1) and as n2 + n + 1 > 1, it must be the case that n − 1 = 1, i.e., n = 2.

Therefore, the only prime of this form is 23 − 1 = 7.
Practice 15

108 Example Prove that

1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 = (x54 + x27 + 1)(x18 + x9 + 1)(x6 + x3 + 1)(x2 + x + 1).

Solution: Put S = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 . Then

S − xS = (1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 ) − (x + x2 + x3 + · · · + x80 + x81 ) = 1 − x81 ,

or S(1 − x) = 1 − x81 . Hence

x81 − 1
1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 = .
x−1
Therefore
x81 − 1 x81 − 1 x27 − 1 x9 − 1 x3 − 1
= · · · .
x−1 x27 − 1 x9 − 1 x3 − 1 x−1
Thus
1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 = (x54 + x27 + 1)(x18 + x9 + 1)(x6 + x3 + 1)(x2 + x + 1).

109 Example Shew that

a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca) (2.16)

Solution: We use the identity

x3 + y3 = (x + y)3 − 3xy(x + y)
twice. Then

a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b)3 + c3 − 3ab(a + b) − 3abc

= (a + b + c)3 − 3(a + b)c(a + b + c) − 3ab(a + b + c)
= (a + b + c)((a + b + c)2 − 3ac − 3bc − 3ab)
= (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)

If a, b, c are non-negative then a + b + c ≥ 0 and also a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca ≥ 0 by (2.13). This gives

a 3 + b3 + c 3
≥ abc.
3

Letting a3 = x, b3 = y, c3 = z, for non-negative real numbers x, y, z, we obtain the AM-GM Inequality for
three quantities.

Practice

110 Problem If a3 − b3 = 24, a − b = 2, find (a + b)2 . 113 Problem (AIME 1986) What is the largest posi-
tive integer n for which
111 Problem Shew that for integer n ≥ 2, the expres- (n + 10)|(n3 + 100)?
sion
n3 + (n + 2)3
114 Problem Find all the primes of the form n3 + 1.
4
is a composite integer. 115 Problem Solve the system

x3 + y3 = 126,
112 Problem If tan x + cot x = a, prove that tan3 x +
cot3 x = a3 − 3a. x2 − xy + y2 = 21.
16 Chapter 2

116 Problem Evaluate the sum 118 Problem Prove that

1 1 (a + b + c)3 − a3 − b3 − c3 = 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)

√
3
√3
√3
+ √3
√
3
√
3 (2.17)
1+ 2+ 4 4+ 6+ 9
1
+√ √ √ .
3 3 3
9 + 12 + 16 119 Problem (ITT 1994) Let a, b, c, d be complex
numbers satisfying

117 Problem Find a6 + a−6 given that a2 + a−2 = 4. a + b + c + d = a3 + b3 + c3 + d3 = 0.

Prove that a pair of the a, b, c, d must add up to 0.

2.4 Miscellaneous Algebraic Identities

We have seen the identity
y2 − x2 = (y − x)(y + x). (2.18)
We would like to deduce a general identity for yn − xn , where n is a positive integer. A few multiplications
confirm that
y3 − x3 = (y − x)(y2 + yx + x2 ), (2.19)
y4 − x4 = (y − x)(y3 + y2 x + yx2 + x3 ), (2.20)
and
y5 − x5 = (y − x)(y4 + y3 x + y2 x2 + yx3 + x4 ). (2.21)
The general result is in fact the following theorem.

120 Theorem If n is a positive integer, then

yn − xn = (y − x)(yn−1 + yn−2 x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 ).

Proof: We first prove that for a 6= 1.

1 − an
1 + a + a2 + · · · an−1 = .
1−a
For, put S = 1 + a + a2 + · · · + an−1 . Then aS = a + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an . Thus S − aS =
(1+a+a2 +· · ·+an−1 )−(a+a2 +· · ·+an−1 +an ) = 1−an , and from (1−a)S = S−aS = 1−an
x
we obtain the result. By making the substitution a = we see that
y
€ Šn
 ‹2  ‹n−1 1− x
x x x y
1+ + + ··· + = x
y y y 1 −y

we obtain  ‹‚  ‹2  ‹n−1 Œ  ‹n
x x x x x
1− 1+ + + ··· + =1− ,
y y y y y
or equivalently,
 ‹‚ Œ
x x x2 xn−1 xn
1− 1+ + + ··· + =1− .
y y y2 yn−1 yn
Multiplying by yn both sides,
 ‹ ‚ Œ  ‹
x n−1 x x2 xn−1 xn
y 1− y 1+ + + ··· + = yn 1 − ,
y y y2 yn−1 yn

which is
yn − xn = (y − x)(yn−1 + yn−2 x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 ),
yielding the result. ❑
Miscellaneous Algebraic Identities 17

☞ The second factor has n terms and each term has degree (weight) n − 1.

As an easy corollary we deduce

121 Corollary If x, y are integers x 6= y and n is a positive integer then x − y divides xn − yn .

Thus without any painful calculation we see that 781 = 1996 − 1215 divides 19965 − 12155 .

122 Example (Eőtvős 1899) Shew that for any positive integer n, the expression

2903n − 803n − 464n + 261n

is always divisible by 1897.

Solution: By the theorem above, 2903n − 803n is divisible by 2903 − 803 = 2100 = 7 · 300 and 261n − 464n
is divisible by −203 = (−29) · 7. This means that the given expression is divisible by 7. Furthermore,
2903n − 464n is divisible by 2903 − 464 = 2439 = 9 · 271 and −803n + 261n is divisible by −803 + 261 =
−542 = −2 · 271. Therefore as the given expression is divisible by 7 and by 271 and as these two numbers
have no common factors, we have that 2903n − 803n − 464n + 261n is divisible by 7 · 271 = 1897.

123 Example ((UM)2 C4 1987) Given that 1002004008016032 has a prime factor p > 250000, find it.

Solution: If a = 103 , b = 2 then

a 6 − b6
1002004008016032 = a5 + a4 b + a3 b2 + a2 b3 + ab4 + b5 = .
a−b
This last expression factorises as

a 6 − b6
= (a + b)(a2 + ab + b2 )(a2 − ab + b2 )
a−b
= 1002 · 1002004 · 998004
= 4 · 4 · 1002 · 250501 · k,

where k < 250000. Therefore p = 250501.

Another useful corollary of Theorem 120 is the following.

124 Corollary If f(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn is a polynomial with integral coefficients and if a, b are integers
then b − a divides f(b) − f(a).

125 Example Prove that there is no polynomial p with integral coefficients with p(2) = 3 and p(7) = 17.

Solution: If the assertion were true then by the preceding corollary, 7 − 2 = 5 would divide p(7) − p(2) =
17 − 3 = 14, which is patently false.
Theorem 120 also yields the following colloraries.

126 Corollary If n is an odd positive integer

xn + yn = (x + y)(xn−1 − xn−2 y + xn−3 y2 − xn−4 y3 + · · · + x2 yn−3 − xyn−2 + yn−1 ) (2.22)

127 Corollary Let x, y be integers, x 6= y and let n be an odd positive number. Then x + y divides xn + yn .

For example 129 = 27 + 1 divides 2861 + 1 and 1001 = 1000 + 1 = 999 + 2 = · · · = 500 + 501 divides

11997 + 21997 + · · · + 10001997 .

18 Chapter 2

128 Example Prove the following identity of Catalan:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + ··· + − = + + ··· + .
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n n+1 n+2 2n

Solution: The quantity on the sinistral side is

 ‹
1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ··· + +
2 3 4 2n − 1‹ 2n
1 1 1 1
−2 + + + ··· +
2 4 6 2n  ‹
1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + ··· + +
2 3 2n − 1
4 2n‹
1 1 11 1
−2 · 1 + + + + ··· +
 2 2 3 4 n‹
1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + + + + ··· + +
2 3 4 2n − 1 ‹ 2n
1 1 1 1
− 1 + + + + ··· +
2 3 4 n
1 1 1
= + + ··· + ,
n+1 n+2 2n
as we wanted to shew.

Practice

129 Problem Shew that 100 divides 1110 − 1. is divisible by n.

130 Problem Shew that 271958 − 108878 + 101528 is 137 Problem Shew that 1492n − 1770n − 1863n +
divisible by 26460. 2141n is divisible by 1946 for all positive integers n.

131 Problem Shew that 7 divides 138 Problem Decompose 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + x624

5555 2222
2222 + 5555 . into factors.

132 Problem Shew that if k is an odd positive integer 139 Problem Shew that if 2n −1 is prime, then n must
1k + 2k + · · · + n k be prime. Primes of this form are called Mersenne
primes.
is divisible by
1 + 2 + · · · + n.
140 Problem Shew that if 2n + 1 is a prime, then n
must be a power of 2. Primes of this form are called
133 Problem Shew that
Fermat primes.
(x + y)5 − x5 − y5 = 5xy(x + y)(x2 + xy + y2 ).
141 Problem Let n be a positive integer and x > y.
134 Problem Shew that Prove that
(x + a)7 − x7 − a7 = 7xa(x + a)(x2 + xa + a2 )2 . xn − y n
> nyn−1 .
x−y
135 Problem Shew that By choosing suitable values of x and y, further prove
A=x 9999
+x 8888
+x 7777
+ ··· + x 1111
+1 than
 ‹  ‹n+1
9 8 7 2 1 n 1
is divisible by B = x + x + x + · · · + x + x + 1. 1+ < 1+
n n+1
136 Problem Shew that for any natural number n, and  ‹n+1  ‹n+2
there is another natural number x such that each term 1 1
1+ > 1+
of the sequence n n+1
x xx
x + 1, x + 1, x + 1, . . .
Logarithms 19

2.5 Logarithms
142 Definition Let a > 0, a 6= 1 be a real number. A number x is called the logarithm of a number N to the base
a if ax = N. In this case we write x = loga N.

We enumerate some useful properties of logarithms. We assume that a > 0, a 6= 1, M > 0, N > 0.

aloga N = N (2.23)
loga MN = loga M + loga N (2.24)
M
loga = loga M − loga N (2.25)
N
loga Nα = α loga N, α any real number (2.26)
1
logaβ N = loga N, β 6= 0 a real number (2.27)
β
(loga b)(logb a) = 1, b > 0, b 6= 1. (2.28)

143 Example Given that log8√2 1024 is a rational number, find it.

Solution: We have
2 20
log8√2 1024 = log27/2 1024 = log2 210 =
7 7

144 Example Given that

(log2 3) · (log3 4) · (log4 5) · · · (log511 512)
is an integer, find it.

Solution: Choose a > 0, a 6= 1. Then

loga 3 loga 4 loga 5 loga 512

(log2 3) · (log3 4) · (log4 5) · · · (log511 512) = · · ···
loga 2 loga 3 loga 4 loga 511
loga 512
= .
loga 2

But
loga 512
= log2 512 = log2 29 = 9,
loga 2
so the integer sought is 9.

145 Example Simplify

S = log tan 1◦ + log tan 2◦ + log tan 3◦ + · · · + log tan 89◦ .

Solution: Observe that (90 − k)◦ + k◦ = 90◦ . Thus adding the kth term to the (90 − k)th term, we obtain

S = log(tan 1◦ )(tan 89◦ ) + log(tan 2◦ )(tan 88◦ )

+ log(tan 3◦ )(tan 87◦ ) + · · · + log(tan 44◦ )(tan 46◦ ) + log tan 45◦ .

As tan k◦ = 1/ tan(90 − k)◦ , we get

S = log 1 + log 1 + · · · + log 1 + log tan 45◦ .

20 Chapter 2

Finally, as tan 45◦ = 1, we gather that

S = log 1 + log 1 + · · · + log 1 = 0.

146 Example Which is greater log5 7 or log8 3?

Solution: Clearly log5 7 > 1 > log8 3.

147 Example Solve the system € Š

5 logx y + logy x = 26
xy = 64
 
1
Solution: Clearly we need x > 0, y > 0, x 6= 1, y 6= 1. The first equation may be written as 5 logx y + = 26
logx y
1
which is the same as (logx y − 5)(logy x − ) = 0. Thus the system splits into the two equivalent systems (I)
5
logx y = 5, xy = 64 and (II) logx y = 1/5, xy = 64. Using the conditions x > 0, y > 0, x 6= 1, y 6= 1 we obtain the
two sets of solutions x = 2, y = 32 or x = 32, y = 2.

148 Example Let TxU be the unique integer satisfying x − 1 < TxU ≤ x. For example T2.9U = 2, T−πU = −4.
Find
Tlog2 1U + Tlog2 2U + Tlog2 3U + · · · + Tlog2 1000U.

Solution: First observe that 29 = 512 < 1000 < 1024 = 210 . We decompose the interval [1; 1000] into dyadic
blocks [ [ [ [ [
[1; 1000] = [1; 2[ [2; 22 [ [22 ; 23 [ ··· [28 ; 29 [ [29 ; 1000].

If x ∈ [2k , 2k+1 [ then Tlog2 xU = k. If a, b are integers, the interval [a; b[ contains b − a integers. Thus

Tlog2 1U + Tlog2 2U + Tlog2 3U + · · · + Tlog2 1000U = (21 − 20 )0 + (22 − 21 )1

+(23 − 22 )2 + · · ·
+(29 − 28 )8
+(1000 − 29 )9
= 0+2·1+4·2+8·3
+16 · 4 + 32 · 5+
+64 · 6 + 128 · 7
+256 · 8 + 489 · 9
= 7987

(the last interval has 1000 − 512 + 1 = 489 integers).

Practice

149 Problem Find the exact value of 150 Problem Shew that log1/2 x > log1/3 x only when
1 1 1 0 < x < 1.
+ +
log2 1996! log3 1996! log4 1996!
1
+··· + . 151 Problem Prove that log3 π + logπ 3 > 2.
log1996 1996!
Complex Numbers 21

1 log3 x + log9 y + log9 z = 2,

152 Problem Let a > 1. Shew that > 1 only
loga x
when 1 < x < a.
log4 x + log16 y + log16 z = 2.
153 Problem Let A = log6 16, B = log12 27. Find in-
tegers a, b, c such that (A + a)(B + b) = c. 156 Problem Solve the equation

√ (x2 −x)
154 Problem Solve the equation x0.5 log x = 3log9 4 .
‚ √ Œ ‚ √ Œ
5 5
log1/3 cos x + + log1/3 cos x − = 2.
6 6 157 Problem Given that logab a = 4, find
√
155 Problem Solve 3
a
logab √ .
log2 x + log4 y + log4 z = 2, b

2.6 Complex Numbers

√
We use the symbol i to denote i = −1. Then i2 = −1. Clearly i0 = 1, i1 = 1, i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1, i5 = i,
etc., and so the powers of i repeat themselves cyclically in a cycle of period 4.

158 Example Find i1934 .

Solution: Observe that 1934 = 4(483) + 2 and so i1934 = i2 = −1.

Complex numbers occur naturally in the solution of quadratic equations.

159 Example Solve 2x2 + 6x + 5 = 0

Solution: Completing squares,

9 1
2x2 + 6x + 5 = 2x2 + 6x + +
2 2
√ 3 1
= ( 2x + √ )2 − (i √ )2
2 2
√ 3 1 √ 3 1
= ( 2x + √ − i √ )( 2x + √ + i √ ).
2 2 2 2
3 1
Then x = − ±i .
2 2
If a, b are real numbers then the object a + bi is called a complex number. If a + bi, c + di are complex
numbers, then the sum of them is naturally defined as

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i (2.29)

The product of a + bi and c + di is obtained by multiplying the binomials:

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i (2.30)

160 Definition If a, b are real numbers, then the conjugate a + bi of a + bi is defined by

a + bi = a − bi (2.31)

The norm |a + bi| of a + bi is defined by

È p
|a + bi| = (a + bi)(a + bi) = a 2 + b2 (2.32)

161 Example Find |7 + 3i|.

22 Chapter 2

È p √
Solution: |7 + 3i| = (7 + 3i)(7 − 3i) = 72 + 32 = 58.

2 + 3i
162 Example Express the quotient in the form a + bi.
3 − 5i

Solution: We have
2 + 3i 2 + 3i 3 + 5i −9 + 19i −9 19i
= · == = +
3 − 5i 3 − 5i 3 + 5i 34 34 34
If z1 , z2 are complex numbers, then their norms are multiplicative.

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | (2.33)

163 Example Write (22 + 32 )(52 + 72 ) as the sum of two squares.

Solution: The idea is to write 22 +32 = |2+3i|2 , 52 +72 = |5+7i|2 and use the multiplicativity of the norm. Now

(22 + 32 )(52 + 72 ) = |2 + 3i|2 |5 + 7i|2

= |(2 + 3i)(5 + 7i)|2
= | − 11 + 29i|2
= 112 + 292

164 Example Find the roots of x3 − 1 = 0.

Solution: x3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1). If x√6= 1, the two solutions to x2 + x + 1 = 0 √ can be obtained

using the quadratic
√ formula, getting x = 1/2 ± i 3/2. Traditionally one denotes ω = 1/2 + i 3/2 and hence
ω2 = 1/2 − i 3/2. Clearly ω3 = 1 and ω2 + ω + 1 = 0.

165 Example (AHSME 1992) Find the product of the real parts of the roots of z2 − z = 5 − 5i.

Solution: By the quadratic formula,

1 1√
z = ± 21 − 20i
2 2È
1 1 √
= ± 21 − 2 −100
2 2q È
1 1
= ± 25 − 2 (25)(−4) − 4
2 2
1 1È
= ± (5 − 2i)2
2 2
1 5 − 2i
= ±
2 2
The roots are thus 3 − i and −2 + i. The product of their real parts is therefore (3)(−2) = −6.

☞ Had we chosen to write 21 − 20i = (−5 + 2i) , we would have still gotten the same values of z.
2
Practice 23

Practice

166 Problem Simplify 168 Problem Let

2004
(1 + i)
. (1 + x + x2 )1000 = a0 + a1 x + · · · + a2000 x2000 .
(1 − i)2000
Find
167 Problem Prove that a0 + a4 + a8 + · · · + a2000 .

1 + 2i + 3i2 + 4i3

+ · · · + 1995i1994 + 1996i1995

= −998 − 998i.
Chapter 3
Arithmetic

3.1 Division Algorithm

169 Definition If a 6= 0, b are integers, we say that a divides b if there is an integer c such that ac = b. We
write this as a|b.

If a does not divide b we write a 6 |b. It should be clear that if a|b and b 6= 0 then 1 ≤ |a| ≤ |b|.

170 Theorem The following are properties of divisibility.

• If c divides a and b then c divides any linear combination of a and b. That is, if a, b, c, m, n are integers
with c|a, c|b, then c|(am + nb).

• Division by an integer is transitive. That is, if x, y, z are integers with x|y, y|z then x|z.

Proof: There are integers s, t with sc = a, tc = b. Thus

am + nb = c(sm + tn),

giving c|(am + bn). Also, there are integers u, v with xu = y, yv = z. Hence xuv = z, giving x|z. ❑

A very useful property of the integers is the following:

171 Theorem (Division Algorithm) Let a, b be integers, b > 0. There exist unique integers q and r satisfying

a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b (3.1)

Proof: The set S = {a − bs : s ∈ Z, b − as ≥ 0} is non-empty, since a − b(−a2 ) ≥ 0. Since S is

a non-empty set of non-negative integers, it must contain a least element, say r = a − bq. To prove
uniqueness, assume a = bq + r = bq ′ + r ′ with 0 ≤ r ′ < b. Then b(q − q ′ ) = r ′ − r. This means
that b|(r ′ − r). Since 0 ≤ |r ′ − r| < b, we must have r ′ = r. But this also implies q = q ′ . ❑

For example, 39 = 4 · 9 + 3. The Division Algorithm thus discriminates integers according to the remainder
they leave upon division by a. For example, if a = 2, then according to the Division Algorithm, the integers
may be decomposed into the two families

A0 = {. . . − 4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . .},

A1 = {. . . , −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, . . .}.

Therefore, all integers have one of the forms 2k or 2k + 1. We mention in passing that every integer of the
form 2k + 1 is also of the form 2t − 1, for 2k + 1 = 2(k + 1) − 1, so it suffices to take t = k + 1.

24
Division Algorithm 25

If a = 4 we may decompose the integers into the four families

B0 = {. . . , −8, −4, 0, 4, 8, . . .},

B1 = {. . . , −7, −3, 1, 5, 9, . . .},

B2 = {. . . , −6, −2, 2, 6, 10, . . .},
B3 = {. . . , −5, −1, 3, 7, 11, . . .}.
Therefore any integer will take one of the forms 4k, 4k + 1, 4k + 2 or 4k + 3. Again, any integer of the form
4k + 1 is also of the form 4t − 3 and any integer of the form 4k + 3 is also of the form 4t − 1.

172 Example Shew that the square of any integer is of the form 4k or of the form 4k + 1. That is, the square
of any integer is either divisible by 4 or leaves remainder 1 upon division by 4.

Solution: If n is even, that is n = 2a, then n2 = (2a)2 = 4a2 , which is of the form 4k. If n is odd, say n = 2t + 1,
then n2 = (2t + 1)2 = 4(t2 + t) + 1, which is of the form 4k + 1.

173 Example Shew that no integer in the sequence

11, 111, 1111, 11111, . . .

is a perfect square.

Solution: Clearly 11 is not a square, so assume, that an integer of this sequence has n > 2 digits. If n > 2,

11 . . . 1} = 11
| {z . . 11} 00 + 12 − 1 = 100 · 11
| .{z . . 11} +12 − 1.
| .{z
n 1 ′s n−2 1 ′ s n−2 1 ′ s

Hence any integer in this sequence is of the form 4k − 1. By the preceding problem, no integer of the form
4k − 1 can be a square. This finishes the proof.

174 Example Shew that n2 + 23 is divisible by 24 for infinitely many values of n.

Solution: Observe that n2 + 23 = n2 − 1 + 24 = (n − 1)(n + 1) + 24. Therefore the families of integers

n = 24m ± 1, m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . produce infinitely many values such that n2 + 23 is divisible by 24.

175 Example Shew that the square of any prime greater than 3 leaves remainder 1 upon division by 12.

Solution: If p > 3 is prime, then p is of one of the forms 6k ± 1.

Now,
(6k ± 1)2 = 12(3k2 ± k) + 1,
proving the assertion.

176 Example Prove that if p is a prime, then one of 8p − 1 and 8p + 1 is a prime and the other is composite.

Solution: If p = 3, 8p − 1 = 23 and 8p + 1 = 25, then the assertion is true for p = 3. If p > 3, then either
p = 3k + 1 or p = 3k + 2. If p = 3k + 1, 8p − 1 = 24k − 7 and 8p + 1 = 24k − 6, which is divisible by 6 and
hence not prime. If p = 3k + 2, 8p − 1 = 24k − 15 is not a prime, .

177 Example Shew that if 3n + 1 is a square, then n + 1 is the sum of three squares.

Solution: Clearly 3n + 1 is not a multiple of 3, and so 3n + 1 = (3k ± 1)2 . Therefore

(3k ± 1)2 − 1
n+1= + 1 = 3k2 ± 2k + 1 = k2 + k2 + (k ± 1)2 ,
3
as we wanted to shew.
26 Chapter 3

178 Example (AHSME 1976) Let r be the common remainder when 1059, 1417 and 2312 are divided by d > 1.
Find d − r.

Solution: By the division algorithm there are integers q1 , q2 , q3 with 1059 = dq1 + r, 1417 = dq2 + r and
2312 = dq3 + r. Subtracting we get 1253 = d(q3 − q1 ), 895 = d(q3 − q2 ) and 358 = d(q2 − q1 ). Notice that
d is a common divisor of 1253, 895, and 358. As 1253 = 7 · 179, 895 = 5 · 179, and 358 = 2 · 179, we see that
179 is the common divisor greater than 1 of all three quantities, and so d = 179. Since 1059 = 179q1 + r, and
1059 = 5 · 179 + 164, we deduce that r = 164. Finally, d − r = 15.

179 Example Shew that from any three integers, one can always choose two so that a3 b − ab3 is divisible by
10.

Solution: It is clear that a3 b − ab3 = ab(a − b)(a + b) is always even, no matter which integers are
substituted. If one of the three integers is of the form 5k, then we are done. If not, we are choosing three
integers that lie in the residue classes 5k ± 1 or 5k ± 2. By the Pigeonhole Principle, two of them must lie
in one of these two groups, and so there must be two whose sum or whose difference is divisible by 5. The
assertion follows.

Practice

180 Problem Find all positive integers n for which 189 Problem Shew that the product of two integers of
the form 4n + 1 is again of this form. Use this fact
n + 1|n2 + 1. and an argument by contradiction similar to Euclid’s
to prove that there are infinitely many primes of the
181 Problem If 7|3x + 2 prove that 7|(15x2 − 11x − form 4n − 1.
14.).
190 Problem Prove that there are infinitely many
182 Problem Shew that the square of any integer is primes of the form 6n − 1.
of the form 3k or 3k + 1.
191 Problem Prove that there are infinitely many
183 Problem Prove that if 3|(a2 + b2 ), then 3|a and primes p such that p − 2 is not prime.
3|b
192 Problem Demonstrate that there are no three
184 Problem Shew that if the sides of a right triangle consecutive odd integers such that each is the sum of
are all integers, then 3 divides one of the lengths of a two squares greater than zero.
side.
193 Problem Let n > 1 be a positive integer. Prove
185 Problem Given that 5 divides (n + 2), which of that if one of the numbers 2n − 1, 2n + 1 is prime,
the following are divisible by 5 then the other is composite.

n2 − 4, n2 + 8n + 7, n4 − 1, n2 − 2n?
194 Problem Prove that there are infinitely many in-
tegers n such that 4n2 + 1 is divisible by both 13 and
186 Problem Prove that there is no prime triplet of 5.
the form p, p + 2, p + 4, except for 3, 5, 7.
195 Problem Prove that any integer n > 11 is the sum
187 Problem Find the largest positive integer n such of two positive composite numbers.
that
(n + 1)(n4 + 2n) + 3(n3 + 57)
196 Problem Prove that 3 never divides n2 + 1.
be divisible by n2 + 2.
197 Problem Shew the existence of infinitely many
188 Problem Demonstrate that if n is a positive inte- natural numbers x, y such that x(x + 1)|y(y + 1) but
ger such that 2n + 1 is a square, then n + 1 is the sum
of two consecutive squares. x 6 |y and (x + 1) 6 |y,
The Decimal Scale 27

and also
x 6 |(y + 1) and (x + 1) 6 |(y + 1).

3.2 The Decimal Scale

Any natural number n can be written in the form

n = a0 10k + a1 10k−1 + a2 10k−2 + · · · + ak−1 10 + ak

where 1 ≤ a0 ≤ 9, 0 ≤ aj ≤ 9, j ≥ 1. This is the decimal representation of n. For example

65789 = 6 · 104 + 5 · 103 + 7 · 102 + 8 · 10 + 9.

198 Example Find a reduced fraction equivalent to the repeating decimal 0.123 = 0.123123123 . . . .

Solution: Let N = 0.123123123 . . . . Then 1000N = 123.123123123 . . . . Hence 1000N − N = 123, whence
123 41
N= = .
999 333

199 Example What are all the two-digit positive integers in which the difference between the integer and the
product of its two digits is 12?

Solution: Let such an integer be 10a + b, where a, b are digits. Solve 10a + b − ab = 12 for a getting

12 − b 2
a= =1+ .
10 − b 10 − b
Since a is an integer, 10 − b must be a positive integer that divides 2. This gives b = 8, a = 2 or b = 9, a = 3.
Thus 28 and 39 are the only such integers.

200 Example Find all the integers with initial digit 6 such that if this initial integer is suppressed, the result-
ing number is 1/25 of the original number.

Solution: Let x be the integer sought. Then x = 6 · 10n + y where y is a positive integer. The given condition
stipulates that
1
y= (6 · 10n + y) ,
25
that is,
10n
y= = 25 · 10n−2 .
4
This requires n ≥ 2, whence y = 25, 250, 2500, 25000, etc.. Therefore x = 625, 6250, 62500, 625000, etc..

201 Example (IMO 1968) Find all natural numbers x such that the product of their digits (in decimal notation)
equals x2 − 10x − 22.

Solution: Let x have the form

x = a0 + a1 10 + a2 102 + · · · + an 10n , ak ≤ 9, an 6= 0.

Let P(x) be the product of the digits of x, P(x) = x2 − 10x − 22. Now P(x) = a0 a1 · · · an ≤ 9n an < 10n an ≤ x
(strict inequality occurs when x has more than one digit). This means that x2 − 10x − 22 ≤ x which entails
that x < 13, whence x has one digit or x = 10, 11 or 12. Since x2 − 10x − 22 = x has no integral solutions, x
cannot have one digit. If x = 10, P(x) = 0, but x2 − 10x − 22 6= 0. If x = 11, P(x) = 1, but x2 − 10x − 22 6= 1.
The only solution is seen to be x = 12.
28 Chapter 3

202 Example A whole number decreases an integral number of times when its last digit is deleted. Find all
such numbers.

y
Solution: Let 0 ≤ y ≤ 9, and 10x + y = mx, where m, x are natural numbers. This requires 10 + = m, an
x
integer. Hence, x must divide y. If y = 0, any natural number x will do, as we obtain multiples of 10. If y = 1
then x = 1, and we obtain 11. Continuing in this fashion, the sought number are the multiples of 10, together
with the numbers 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 33, 36, 39, 44, 55, 77, 88, and 99.

203 Example Shew that all integers in the sequence

49, 4489, 444889, 44448889, 44 . . 44} 88
| .{z | .{z
. . 88} 9
n 4 ′s n−1 8 ′ s

are perfect squares.

Solution: Observe that

44
| .{z
. . 44} 88
| .{z
. . 88} 9 = 44 . . 44} ·10n + 88
| .{z . . 88} ·10 + 9
| .{z
n 4 ′s n−1 8 ′ s n 4 ′s n−1 8 ′ s
4 8
= · (10n − 1) · 10n + · (10n−1 − 1) · 10 + 9
9 9
4 4 1
= · 102n + · 10n +
9 9 9
1 n 2
= (2 · 10 + 1)
9
 ‹2
2 · 10n + 1
=
3
We must shew that this last quantity is an integer, that is, that 3 divides 2 · 10n + 1 = 2 00 . . 00} 1. But the
| .{z
n−1 0 ′ s
2 · 10n + 1
sum of the digits of this last quantity is 3, which makes it divisible by 3. In fact, = 6 . . 6} 7
| .{z
3
n−1 6 ′ s

204 Example (AIME 1987) An ordered pair (m, n) of non-negative integers is called simple if the addition
m + n requires no carrying. Find the number of simple ordered pairs of non-negative integers that add to
1492.

Solution: Observe that there are d + 1 solutions to x + y = d, where x, y are positive integers and d is a digit.
These are

(0 + d), (1 + d − 1), (2 + d − 2), . . . , (d + 0)

Since there is no carrying, we search for the numbers of solutions of this form to x + y = 1, u + v = 4, s + t = 9,
and a + b = 2. Since each separate solution may combine with any other, the total number of simple pairs is
(1 + 1)(4 + 1)(9 + 1)(2 + 1) = 300.

205 Example (AIME 1992) For how many pairs of consecutive integers in
{1000, 1001, . . . , 2000}
is no carrying required when the two integers are added?

Solution: Other than 2000, a number on this list has the form n = 1000 + 100a + 10b + c, where a, b, c are
digits. If there is no carrying in n + n + 1 then n has the form
1999, 1000 + 100a + 10b + 9, 1000 + 100a + 99, 1000 + 100a + 10b + c
The Decimal Scale 29

with 0 ≤ a, b, c ≤ 4, i.e., five possible digits. There are 53 = 125 integers of the form 1000+100a+10b+c, 0 ≤
a, b, c ≤ 4, 52 = 25 integers of the form 1000 + 100a + 10b + 9, 0 ≤ a, b ≤ 4, and 5 integers of the form
1000 + 100a + 99, 0 ≤ a ≤ 4. The total of integers sought is thus 125 + 25 + 5 + 1 = 156.

206 Example (AIME 1994) Given a positive integer n, let p(n) be the product of the non-zero digits of n. (If n
has only one digit, then p(n) is equal to that digit.) Let

S = p(1) + p(2) + · · · + p(999).

Find S.

Solution: If x = 0, put m(x) = 1, otherwise put m(x) = x. We use three digits to label all the integers, from 000
to 999 If a, b, c are digits, then clearly p(100a + 10b + c) = m(a)m(b)m(c). Thus

p(000) + p(001) + p(002) + · · · + p(999) = m(0)m(0)m(0) + m(0)m(0)m(1)

+m(0)m(0)m(2) + · · · + m(9)m(9)m(9)

= (m(0) + m(1) + · · · + m(9))3

= (1 + 1 + 2 + · · · + 9)3

= 463

= 97336.

Hence
S = p(001) + p(002) + · · · + p(999)

= 97336 − p(000)

= 97336 − m(0)m(0)m(0)

= 97335.

207 Example (AIME 1992) Let S be the set of all rational numbers r, 0 < r < 1, that have a repeating decimal
expansion of the form
0.abcabcabc . . . = 0.abc,
where the digits a, b, c are not necessarily distinct. To write the elements of S as fractions in lowest terms,
how many different numerators are required?

abc
Solution: Observe that 0.abcabcabc . . . = , and that 999 = 33 · 37. If abc is neither divisible by 3 nor by
999
37, the fraction is already in lowest terms. By Inclusion-Exclusion there are
 ‹
999 999 999
999 − + + = 648
3 37 3 · 37
s
such fractions. Also, fractions of the form where s is divisible by 3 but not by 37 are in S. There are 12
37
l
, t ≤ 3 with l
fractions of this kind (with s = 3, 6, 9, 12, . . . , 36). We do not consider fractions of the form
3t
divisible by 37 but not by 3, because these fractions are > 1 and hence not in S. The total number of distinct
numerators in the set of reduced fractions is thus 640 + 12 = 660.
30 Chapter 3

Practice

208 Problem Find an equivalent fraction for the re- 218 Problem Shew that Champernowne’s number
peating decimal 0.3172.
0.12345678910111213141516171819202122 . . . ,
209 Problem A two-digit number is divided by the which is the sequence of natural numbers written af-
sum of its digits. What is the largest possible remain- ter the decimal point, is irrational.
der?
219 Problem Given that
210 Problem Shew that the integer
1
11 = 0.020408163265306122448979591836734693877551,
| .{z
. . 11}
49
221 1 ′ s
find the last thousand digits of
is a composite number.
1 + 50 + 502 + · · · + 50999 .
211 Problem Let a and b be the integers
a = 111 . . . 1} 220 Problem Let t be a positive real number. Prove
| {z that there is a positive integer n such that the deci-
m 1 ′s
mal expansion of nt contains a 7.
b = 1 000
| {z. . . 0} 5.
m−1 0 ′ s
221 Problem (AIME 1989) Suppose that n is a posi-
Shew that ab + 1 is a perfect square. tive integer and d is a single digit in base-ten. Find
n if
n
212 Problem What digits appear on the product = 0.d25d25d25d25d25 . . .
810
3 . . 3} · 6
| .{z . . 6} ?
| .{z
666 3 ′ s 666 6 ′ s 222 Problem (AIME 1988) Find the smallest positive
integer whose cube ends in 888.
213 Problem Shew that there exist no integers with
the following property: if the initial digit is sup- 223 Problem (AIME 1986) In the parlour game, the
pressed, the resulting integer is 1/35 of the original “magician” asks one of the participants to think of a
number. three-digit number abc, where a, b, c represent the
digits of the number in the order indicated. The magi-
214 Problem Shew that the sum of all the integers of cian asks his victim to form the numbers
n digits, n ≥ 3, is
acb, bac, cab, cba,
494 99 . . . 9 55
| {z } | {z } 00 . . . 0 .
n−3 9 ′ s n−2 0 ′ s
to add these numbers and to reveal their sum N. If
told the value of N, the magician can identify abc.
Play the magician and determine abc if N = 319.
215 Problem Shew that for any positive integer n,
11 . . . 1} − 22
| {z . . . 2}
| {z 224 Problem (AIME 1988) For any positive integer k,
2n 1 ′ s n 2 ′s let f1 (k) denote the square of the sums of the digits of
is a perfect square. k. For n ≥ 2, let fn (k) = f1 (fn−1 (k)). Find f1988 (11).

216 Problem A whole number is equal to the arith- 225 Problem (IMO 1969) Determine all three-digit
N
metic mean of all the numbers obtained from the given numbers N that are divisible by 11 and such that
number with the aid of all possible permutation of its 11
equals the sum of the squares of the digits of N.
digits. Find all whole numbers with that property.

226 Problem (IMO 1962) Find the smallest natural

217 Problem The integer n is the smallest multiple of
number having the last digit 6 and if this 6 is erased
15 such that every digit of n is either 0 or 8. Compute
n and put in from of the other digits, the resulting num-
. ber is four times as large as the original number.
15
Non-decimal Scales 31

3.3 Non-decimal Scales

The fact that most people have ten fingers has fixed our scale of notation to the decimal. Given any positive
integer r > 1, we can, however, express any number x in base r.
If n is a positive integer, and r > 1 is an integer, then n has the base-r representation

n = a0 + a1 r + a2 r2 + · · · + ak rk , 0 ≤ at ≤ r − 1, ak 6= 0, rk ≤ n < rk+1 .

We use the convention that we shall refer to a decimal number without referring to its base, and to a base-r
number by using the subindex r .

227 Example Express the decimal number 5213 in base-seven.

Solution: Observe that 5213 < 75 . We thus want to find 0 ≤ a0 , . . . , a4 ≤ 6, a4 6= 0 such that

5213 = a4 74 + a3 73 + a2 72 + a1 7 + a0 .

Dividing by 74 , we obtain 2+ proper fraction = a4 + proper fraction. This means that a4 = 2. Thus 5213 =
2 · 74 + a3 73 + a2 72 + a1 7 + a0 or 411 = 5213 = a3 73 + a2 72 + a1 7 + a0 . Dividing by 73 this last equality
we obtain 1+ proper fraction = a3 + proper fraction, and so a3 = 1. Continuing in this way we deduce that
5213 = 211257 .
The method of successive divisions used in the preceding problem can be conveniently displayed as

7 5212 5

7 744 2

7 106 1

7 15 1

7 2 2

The central column contains the successive quotients and the rightmost column contains the corresponding
remainders. Reading from the last remainder up, we recover 5213 = 211257 .

228 Example Write 5627 in base-five.

Solution: 5627 = 5 · 72 + 6 · 7 + 2 = in decimal scale, so the problem reduces to convert 289 to base-five. Doing
successive divisions,

5 289 4

5 57 2

5 11 1

5 2 2

Thus 5627 = 289 = 21245 .

13
229 Example Express the fraction in base-six.
16

Solution: Write
13 a1 a2 a3 a4
= + + + + ···
16 6 62 63 64
32 Chapter 3

Multiplying by 6, we obtain 4+ proper fraction = a1 + proper fraction, so a1 = 4. Hence

13 4 7 a2 a3 a4
− = = + + + ···
16 6 48 62 63 64

Multiply by 62 we obtain 5+ proper fraction = a2 + proper fraction, and so a2 = 5. Continuing in this fashion

13 4 5 1 3
= + + + = 0.45136 .
16 6 62 63 64

We may simplify this procedure of successive multiplications by recurring to the following display:

13
6 4
16
7
6 5
8
1
6 1
4
1
6 3
2
The third column contains the integral part of the products of the first column and the second column. Each
term of the second column from the second on is the fractional part of the product obtained in the preceding
13 7 7 1
row. Thus 6 · − 4 = , 6 · − 5 = , etc..
16 8 8 4

230 Example Prove that 4.41r is a perfect square in any scale of notation.

Solution:
 ‹2
4 4 1
4.41r = 4 + + = 2+
r r2 r

231 Example (AIME 1986) The increasing sequence

1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 13, . . .

consists of all those positive integers which are powers of 3 or sums of distinct powers or 3. Find the hundredth
term of the sequence.

Solution: If the terms of the sequence are written in base-three, they comprise the positive integers which do
not contain the digit 2. Thus the terms of the sequence in ascending order are

13 , 103 , 113 , 1003 , 1013 , 1103 , 1113 , . . .

In the binary scale these numbers are, of course, the ascending natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .. Therefore to
obtain the 100th term of the sequence we write 100 in binary and then translate this into ternary: 100 =
11001002 and 11001003 = 36 + 35 + 32 = 981.

232 Example (AHSME 1993) Given 0 ≤ x0 < 1, let




 2xn−1 if 2xn−1 < 1,
xn =


 2xn−1 − 1 if 2xn−1 ≥ 1.

for all integers n > 0. For how many x0 is it true that x0 = x5 ?

Practice 33

Solution: Write x0 in binary,

∞
X ak
x0 = , ak = 0 or 1.
k=1
2k

The algorithm given moves the binary point one unit to the right. For x0 to equal x5 we need (0.a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 . . .)2 =
(0.a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11 a12 . . .)2 . This will happen if and only if x0 has a repeating expansion with a1 a2 a3 a4 a5
as the repeating block. There are 25 = 32 such blocks. But if a1 = a2 = · · · = a5 = 1 then x0 = 1, which lies
outside ]0, 1[. The total number of values for which x0 = x5 is therefore 32 − 1 = 31.

Practice

233 Problem Express the decimal number 12345 in 236 Problem What is the largest integer that I should
every scale from binary to base-nine. be permitted to choose so that you may determine my
number in twenty “yes” or “no” questions?
234 Problem Distribute the 27 weights of
12 , 22 , 32 , . . . , 272 lbs each into three separate piles,
each of equal weight. 237 Problem Let TxU denote the greatest integer less
than or equal to x. Does the equation

235 Problem Let C denote the class of positive inte-

gers which, when written in base-three, do not require TxU + T2xU + T4xU + T8xU + T16xU + T32xU = 12345
the digit 2. Prove that no three integers in C are in
arithmetic progression. have a solution?

3.4 Well-Ordering Principle

The set N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} of natural numbers is endowed with two operations, addition and multiplication,
that satisfy the following properties for natural number a, b, and c:

1. Closure: a + b and ab are also natural numbers,

2. Commutativity: a + b = b + a and ab = ba,

3. Associative Laws: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc),

4. Distributive Law: a(b + c) = ab + ac

5. Additive Identity: 0 + a = a.

6. Multiplicative Identity: 1a = a.

One further property of the natural numbers is the following.

Well-Ordering Axiom: Every non-empty subset S of the natural numbers has a least element.
As an example of the use of the Well-Ordering Axiom let us prove that there is no integer between 0 and 1.

238 Example Prove that there is no integer in the open interval ]0; 1[.

Solution: Assume to the contrary that the set S of integers in ]0; 1[ is non-empty. As a set of positive integers,
by Well-Ordering it must contain a least element, say m. Since 0 < m < 1, we have 0 < m2 < m < 1. But this
last string of inequalities says that m2 is an integer in ]0; 1[ which is smaller than m, the smallest integer in
]0; 1[. This contradiction shews that m cannot exist.
Recall that an irrational number is one that cannot be represented as the ratio of two integers.
√
239 Example Prove that 2 is irrational.
34 Chapter 3

√ √ a
Solution: The proof is by contradiction. Suppose that 2 were rational, i.e., that 2 = for some integers
b
a, b, b 6= 0. This implies that the set
√ √
A = {n 2 : both n and n 2 positive integers}
√ √
is √
non-empty since
√ it √ √ a. By Well-Ordering, A has a smallest element,
contains √ say j = k
√ 2. √As 2 − 1 > 0,
j(√ 2 − 1) = j 2 − k 2 = 2(j − k), is a positive integer. Since 2 < 2 2 implies 2 − 2 < 2 and also
j 2 = 2k, we see that √ √ √
(j − k) 2 = k(2 − 2) < k 2 = j.
√
Thus (j − k) 2 is a positive integer in A which is smaller than j. This contradicts the choice of j as the
smallest integer in A and hence, finishes the proof.

240 Example Let a, b, c be integers such that a6 + 2b6 = 4c6 . Shew that a = b = c = 0.

Solution: Clearly we can restrict ourselves to non-negative numbers. Choose a triplet of non-negative
integers a, b, c satisfying this equation and with

max(a, b, c) > 0

as small as possible. If a6 + 2b6 = 4c6 , then a must be even, a = 2a1 . This leads to 32a61 + b6 = 2c6 . This
implies that b is even, b = 2b1 and so 16a61 + 32b61 = c6 . This implies that c is even, c = 2c1 and so
a61 + 2b61 = 4c61 . But clearly max(a1 , b1 , c1 ) < max(a, b, c). We have produce a triplet of integers with a
maximum smaller than the smallest possible maximum, a contradiction.

a 2 + b2
241 Example (IMO 1988) If a, b are positive integers such that is an integer, then shew that
1 + ab
a 2 + b2
must be a square.
1 + ab

a 2 + b2
Solution: Suppose that = k is a counterexample of an integer which is not a perfect square, with
1 + ab
max(a, b) as small as possible. We may assume without loss of generality that a < b for if a = b then

2a2 2
0<k= =2− < 2,
a2 +1 a2 +1
which forces k = 1, a square.

Now, a2 + b2 − k(ab + 1) = 0 is a quadratic in b with sum of roots ka and product of roots a2 − k. Let b1 , b
be its roots, so b1 + b = ka, bb1 = a2 − k.

As a, k are positive integers, supposing b1 < 0 is incompatible with a2 + b21 = k(ab1 + 1). As k is not a
perfect square, supposing b1 = 0 is incompatible with a2 + 02 = k(0 · a + 1). Also

a2 − k b2 − k k
b1 = < =b− < b.
b b b
a2 + b21
Thus we have shewn b1 to be a positive integer with = k smaller than b. This is a contradiction to
1 + ab1
a 2 + b2
the choice of b. Such a counterexample k cannot exist, and so must be a perfect square. In fact, it
1 + ab
a 2 + b2
can be shewn that is the square of the greatest common divisor of a and b.
1 + ab
Practice 35

Practice

242 Problem Find all integers solutions of 244 Problem Shew that the series of integral squares
a3 + 2b3 = 4c3 . does not contain an infinite arithmetic progression.

243 Problem Prove that the equality

x2 + y2 + z2 = 2xyz can hold for whole numbers 245 Problem Prove that x2 + y2 = 3(z2 + w2 ) does
x, y, z only when x = y = z = 0. not have a positive integer solution.

3.5 Mathematical Induction

The Principle of Mathematical Induction is based on the following fairly intuitive observation. Suppose that
we are to perform a task that involves a certain finite number of steps. Suppose that these steps are
sequential. Finally, suppose that we know how to perform the n-th step provided we have accomplished the
n − 1-th step. Thus if we are ever able to start the task (that is, if we have a base case), then we should be able
to finish it (because starting with the base we go to the next case, and then to the case following that, etc.).
We formulate the Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI) as follows:

Principle of Mathematical Induction Suppose we have an assertion P(n) concerning natural numbers
satisfying the following two properties:

(PMI I) P(k0 ) is true for some natural number k0 ,

(PMI II) If P(n − 1) is true then P(n) is true.

Then the assertion P(n) is true for every n ≥ k0 .

246 Example Prove that the expression 33n+3 − 26n − 27 is a multiple of 169 for all natural numbers n.

Let P(n) be the assertion “33n+3 − 26n − 27 is a multiple of 169.” Observe that
33(1)+3 − 26(1) − 27 = 676 = 4(169) so P(1) is true. Assume the truth of P(n − 1), that is, that there is an
integer M such that
33(n−1)+3 − 26(n − 1) − 27 = 169M.
This entails
33n − 26n − 1 = 169M.
Now
33n+3 − 26n − 27 = 27 · 33n − 26n − 27

= 27(33n − 26n − 1) + 676n

= 27(169M) + 169 · 4n

= 169(27M + 4n),

and so the truth of P(n − 1) implies the truth of P(n). The assertion then follows for all n ≥ 1 by PMI.

247 Example Prove that

√ 2n √
(1 + 2) + (1 − 2)2n
is an even integer and that
√ √ √
(1 + 2)2n − (1 − 2)2n = b 2
for some positive integer b, for all integers n ≥ 1.
36 Chapter 3

Solution: Let P(n) be the assertion: “

√ 2n √
(1 + 2) + (1 − 2)2n

is an even integer and that √ √ √

(1 + 2)2n − (1 − 2)2n = b 2
for some positive integer b.” We see that P(1) is true since
√ √
(1 + 2)2 + (1 − 2)2 = 6,

and √ √ √
(1 + 2)2 − (1 − 2)2 = 4 2.
Assume now that P(n − 1), i.e., assume that
√ √
(1 + 2)2(n−1) + (1 − 2)2(n−1) = 2N

for some integer N and that √ √ √

(1 + 2)2(n−1) − (1 − 2)2(n−1) = a 2
for some positive integer a. Consider now the quantity

√ 2n √ √ √ √ √
(1 + 2) + (1 − 2)2n = (1 + 2)2 (1 + 2)2n−2 + (1 − 2)2 (1 − 2)2n−2
√ √ √ √
= (3 + 2 2)(1 + 2)2n−2 + (3 − 2 2)(1 − 2)2n−2

= 12N + 4a

= 2(6n + 2a),

an even integer. Similarly

√ 2n √ √ √ √ √
(1 + 2) − (1 − 2)2n = (1 + 2)2 (1 + 2)2n−2 − (1 − 2)2 (1 − 2)2n−2
√ √ √ √
= (3 + 2 2)(1 + 2)2n−2 − (3 − 2 2)(1 − 2)2n−2
√ √
= 3a 2 + 2 2(2N)
√
= (3a + 4N) 2,
√
which is of the form b 2. This implies that P(n) is true. The statement of the problem follows by PMI.

248 Example Prove that if k is odd, then 2n+2 divides

n
k2 − 1

for all natural numbers n.

Solution: The statement is evident for n = 1, as k2 − 1 = (k − 1)(k + 1) is divisible by 8 for any odd natural
n
number k since k − 1 and k + 1 are consecutive even integers. Assume that 2n+2 a = k2 − 1 for some integer
a. Then n+1 n n n
k2 − 1 = (k2 − 1)(k2 + 1) = 2n+2 a(k2 + 1).
n n
Since k is odd, k2 + 1 is even and so k2 + 1 = 2b for some integer b. This gives
n+1 n
k2 − 1 = 2n+2 a(k2 + 1) = 2n+3 ab,

and so the assertion follows by PMI.

Mathematical Induction 37

249 Example Let s be a positive integer. Prove that every interval [s, 2s] contains a power of 2.

Solution: If s is a power of 2, then there is nothing to prove. If s is not a power of 2 then it must lie between
two consecutive powers of 2, say 2r < s < 2r+1 . This yields 2r+1 < 2s. Hence s < 2r+1 < 2s, which yields the
result.

250 Definition The Fibonacci Numbers are given by f0 = 0, f1 = 1, fn+1 = fn + fn−1 , n ≥ 1, that is every
number after the second one is the sum of the preceding two.

The Fibonacci sequence then goes like 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . .

251 Example Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

fn−1 fn+1 = f2n + (−1)n+1 .

Solution: If n = 1, then 2 = f0 f2 = 12 + (−1)2 = f21 + (−1)1+1 . If fn−1 fn+1 = f2n + (−1)n+1 then using the
fact that fn+2 = fn + fn+1 ,

fn fn+2 = fn (fn + fn+1 )

= f2n + fn fn+1

= fn−1 fn+1 − (−1)n+1 + fn fn+1

= fn+1 (fn−1 + fn ) + (−1)n+2

= f2n+1 + (−1)n+2 ,

which establishes the assertion by induction.

252 Example Prove that a given square can be decomposed into n squares, not necessarily of the same size,
for all n = 4, 6, 7, 8, . . ..

Solution: A quartering of a subsquare increases the number of squares by three (four new squares are gained
but the original square is lost). Figure 3.1 below shews that n = 4 is achievable. If n were achievable, a

Figure 3.1: Example 252. Figure 3.2: Example 252. Figure 3.3: Example 252.

quartering would make {n, n + 3, n + 6, n + 9, . . .} also achievable. We will shew now that n = 6 and n = 8
are achievable. But this is easily seen from figures 3.2 and 3.3, and this finishes the proof.

Sometimes it is useful to use the following version of PMI, known as the Principle of Strong Mathematical
Induction (PSMI).

Principle of Strong Mathematical Induction Suppose we have an assertion P(n) concerning natural
numbers satisfying the following two properties:

• (PSMI I) P(k0 ) is true for some natural number k0 ,

38 Chapter 3

• (PSMI II) If m < n and P(m), P(m + 1), . . . , P(n − 1) are true then P(n) is true.
Then the assertion P(n) is true for every n ≥ k0 .

253 Example In the country of SmallPesia coins only come in values of 3 and 5 pesos. Shew that any
quantity of pesos greater than or equal to 8 can be paid using the available coins.

Solution: We use PSMI. Observe that 8 = 3 + 5, 9 = 3 + 3 + 3, 10 = 5 + 5, so, we can pay 8, 9, or 10 pesos with
the available coinage. Assume that we are able to pay n − 3, n − 2, and n − 1 pesos, that is, that 3x + 5y = k
has non-negative solutions for k = n − 3, n − 2 and n − 1. We will shew that we may also obtain solutions for
3x + 5y = k for k = n, n + 1 and n + 2. Now

3x + 5y = n − 3 =⇒ 3(x + 1) + 5y = n,

3x1 + 5y1 = n − 2 =⇒ 3(x1 + 1) + 5y1 = n + 1,

3x2 + 5y2 = n − 1 =⇒ 3(x2 + 1) + 5y2 = n + 2,
and so if the amounts n − 3, n − 2, n − 1 can be paid so can n, n + 1, n + 2. The statement of the problem
now follows from PSMI.

254 Example (USAMO 1978) An integer n will be called good if we can write

n = a1 + a2 + · · · + a k ,

where the integers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak are positive integers (not necessarily distinct) satisfying

1 1 1
+ + ··· = 1.
a1 a2 ak
Given the information that the integers 33 through 73 are good, prove that every integer ≥ 33 is good.

Solution: We first prove that if n is good, then 2n + 8 and 2n + 9 are also good. For assume that
n = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak , and
1 1 1
+ + ··· = 1.
a1 a2 ak
Then 2n + 8 = 2(a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ) + 4 + 4 and

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + + = + + = 1.
2a1 2a2 2ak 4 4 2 4 4
Also 2n + 9 = 2(a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ) + 3 + 6 and

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + + = + + = 1.
2a1 2a2 2ak 3 6 2 3 6
Therefore

if n is good then 2n + 8 and 2n + 9 are good (*)

We now establish the truth of the assertion of the problem by induction on n. Let P(n) be the proposition “all
the integers n, n + 1, n + 2, . . . , 2n + 7” are good. By the statement of the problem, we see that P(33) is true.
But (*) implies the truth of P(n + 1) whenever P(n) is true. The assertion is thus proved by induction.
Practice 39

Practice

255 Problem Use Sophie Germain’s trick to shew 263 Problem Let k be a positive integer Prove that if
that x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2 − x + 1)(x2 + x + 1). Use this 1 1
x + is an integer then xk + k is also an integer.
to shew that if n is a positive integer then x x
n+1 n
22 + 22 + 1 264 Problem Prove that for all natural numbers
n > 1,
has at least n different prime factors.
1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 + + + ··· + <2− .
256 Problem Prove that n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) is 12 22 32 n2 n
divisible by 9.
265 Problem Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. Prove that
257 Problem Let n ∈ N. Prove the inequality f1 + f2 + · · · + fn = fn+2 − 1.

1 1 1
+ + ··· + > 1. 266 Problem Let n, m ≥ 0 be integers. Prove that
n+1 n+2 3n + 1
fn+m = fn−1 fm + fn fm+1 (3.3)
258 Problem Prove that for all positive integers n
and all real numbers x,
267 Problem This problems uses the argument of A.
| sin nx| ≤ n| sin x| (3.2) Cauchy’s to prove the AM-GM Inequality. It consists
in shewing that AM-GM is true for all powers of 2
and then deducing its truth for the numbers between
259 Problem Prove that
two consecutive powers of 2. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , al be
É q È √ non-negative real numbers. Let P(l) be the assertion
π
2+ 2+ 2 + ··· + 2 = 2 cos n+1 the AM-GM Inequality
| {z } 2
n radical signs a1 + a2 + · · · + a l √
≥ l
a1 a2 · · · al
for n ∈ N. l
holds for the l given numbers.
260 Problem Let a1 = 3, b1 = 4, and
an = 3an−1 , bn = 4bn−1 when n > 1. Prove that 1. Prove that P(2) is true.
a1000 > b999 .
2. Prove that the truth of P(2k−1 ) implies that of
P(2k ).
261 Problem Let n ∈ N, n > 1. Prove that
3. Let 2k−1 < n < 2k . By considering the 2k
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) 1 quantities
< √ .
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n) 3n + 1
a 1 = y1 , a 2 = y2 , . . . , a n = yn ,
262 Problem Prove that for all natural number n > 1, y1 + y 2 + · · · + y n
n
an+1 = an+1 = · · · = a2k = ,
4 (2n)! n
< .
n+1 (n!)2 prove that P(n) is true.

3.6 Congruences
268 Definition The notation a ≡ b mod n is due to Gauß, and it means that n|(a − b).

Thus if a ≡ b mod n then a and b leave the same remainder upon division by n. For example, since 8 and
13 leave the same remainder upon division by 5, we have 8 ≡ 13 mod 5. Also observe that 5|(8 − 13). As a
further example, observe that −8 ≡ −1 ≡ 6 ≡ 13 mod 7.
40 Chapter 3

Consider all the integers and arrange them in five columns as follows.

... ... ... ... ...

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1

0 1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 9

... ... ... ... ...

The arrangement above shews that any integer comes in one of 5 flavours: those leaving remainder 0 upon
division by 5, those leaving remainder 1 upon division by 5, etc..
Since n|(a − b) implies that ∃k ∈ Z such that nk = a − b, we deduce that a ≡ b mod n if and only if there
is an integer k such that a = b + nk.
The following theorem is quite useful.

269 Theorem Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. If x ≡ y mod n and u ≡ v mod n then

ax + bu ≡ ay + bv mod n.

Proof: As n|(x − y), n|(u − v) then there are integers s, t with ns = x − y, nt = u − v. This
implies that
a(x − y) + b(u − v) = n(as + bt),
which entails that,
n|(ax + bu − ay − bv).
This last assertion is equivalent to saying

ax + bu ≡ ay + bv mod n.

This finishes the proof. ❑

270 Corollary Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. If x ≡ y mod n and u ≡ v mod n then

xu ≡ yv mod n.

Proof: Let a = u, b = y in Theorem 269. ❑

271 Corollary Let n > 1 be an integer, x ≡ y mod n and j a positive integer. Then xj ≡ yj mod n.

Proof: Use repeteadly Corollary 270 with u = x, v = y. ❑

272 Corollary Let n > 1 be an integer, x ≡ y mod n. If f is a polynomial with integral coefficients then
f(x) ≡ f(y) mod n.

273 Example Find the remainder when 61987 is divided by 37.

Congruences 41

Solution: 62 ≡ −1 mod 37. Thus

61987 ≡ 6 · 61986 ≡ 6(62 )993 ≡ 6(−1)993 ≡ −6 ≡ 31 mod 37
and the remainder sought is 31.

274 Example Find the remainder when

12233 · 455679 + 876533
is divided by 4.

Solution: 12233 = 12200 + 32 + 1 ≡ 1 mod 4. Similarly, 455679 = 455600 + 76 + 3 ≡ 3,

87653 = 87600 + 52 + 1 ≡ 1 mod 4. Thus
12233 · 455679 + 876533 ≡ 1 · 3 + 13 ≡ 4 ≡ 0 mod 4.
This means that 12233 · 455679 + 876533 is divisible by 4.

275 Example Prove that 7 divides 32n+1 + 2n+2 for all natural numbers n.

Solution: Observe that

32n+1 ≡ 3 · 9n ≡ 3 · 2n mod 7
and
2n+2 ≡ 4 · 2n mod 7
. Hence
32n+1 + 2n+2 ≡ 7 · 2n ≡ 0 mod 7,
for all natural numbers n.

276 Example Prove the following result of Euler: 641|(232 + 1).

Solution: Observe that 641 = 27 · 5 + 1 = 24 + 54 . Hence 27 · 5 ≡ −1 mod 641 and 54 ≡ −24 mod 641.
Now, 27 · 5 ≡ −1 mod 641 yields
54 · 228 = (5 · 27 )4 ≡ (−1)4 ≡ 1 mod 641.
This last congruence and
54 ≡ −24 mod 641
yield
−24 · 228 ≡ 1 mod 641,
32
which means that 641|(2 + 1).

277 Example Prove that 7|(22225555 + 55552222 ).

Solution: 2222 ≡ 3 mod 7, 5555 ≡ 4 mod 7 and 35 ≡ 5 mod 7. Now

22225555 + 55552222 ≡ 35555 + 42222 ≡ (35 )1111 + (42 )1111 ≡ 51111 − 51111 ≡ 0 mod 7.

7
278 Example Find the units digit of 77 .

7
Solution: We must find 77 mod 10. Now, 72 ≡ −1 mod 10, and so 73 ≡ 72 · 7 ≡ −7 ≡ 3 mod 10 and
74 ≡ (72 )2 ≡ 1 mod 10. Also, 72 ≡ 1 mod 4 and so 77 ≡ (72 )3 · 7 ≡ 3 mod 4, which means that there is
an integer t such that 77 = 3 + 4t. Upon assembling all this,
7
77 ≡ 74t+3 ≡ (74 )t · 73 ≡ 1t · 3 ≡ 3 mod 10.
Thus the last digit is 3.
42 Chapter 3

279 Example Find infinitely many integers n such that 2n + 27 is divisible by 7.

Solution: Observe that 21 ≡ 2, 22 ≡ 4, 23 ≡ 1, 24 ≡ 2, 25 ≡ 4, 26 ≡ 1 mod 7 and so 23k ≡ 1 mod 3 for all

positive integers k. Hence 23k + 27 ≡ 1 + 27 ≡ 0 mod 7 for all positive integers k. This produces the
infinitely many values sought.

280 Example Prove that 2k − 5, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . never leaves remainder 1 when divided by 7.

Solution: 21 ≡ 2, 22 ≡ 4, 23 ≡ 1 mod 7, and this cycle of three repeats. Thus 2k − 5 can leave only
remainders 3, 4, or 6 upon division by 7.

281 Example (AIME 1994) The increasing sequence

3, 15, 24, 48, . . . ,

consists of those positive multiples of 3 that are one less than a perfect square. What is the remainder when
the 1994-th term of the sequence is divided by 1000?

Solution: We want 3|n2 − 1 = (n − 1)(n + 1). Since 3 is prime, this requires n = 3k + 1 or

n = 3k − 1, k = 1, 2, 3, . . .. The sequence 3k + 1, k = 1, 2, . . . produces the terms n2 − 1 = (3k + 1)2 − 1 which
are the terms at even places of the sequence of 3, 15, 24, 48, . . .. The sequence 3k − 1, k = 1, 2, . . . produces
the terms n2 − 1 = (3k − 1)2 − 1 which are the terms at odd places of the sequence 3, 15, 24, 48, . . .. We must
find the 997th term of the sequence 3k + 1, k = 1, 2, . . .. Finally, the term sought is
(3(997) + 1)2 − 1 ≡ (3(−3) + 1)2 − 1 ≡ 82 − 1 ≡ 63 mod 1000. The remainder sought is 63.

Practice

282 Problem Prove that 0, 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 12 are 287 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad)
the only perfect squares modulo 13. What digits should be put instead of x and y in
30x0y03 in order to give a number divisible by 13?
(Hint: It is enough to consider 02 , 12 , 22 , . . . , 122 . In
fact, by observing that r2 ≡ (13 − r)2 mod n, you 288 Problem Prove that if 9|(a3 + b3 + c3 ), then
only have to go half way.) 3|abc, for integers a, b, c.

283 Problem Prove that there are no integers with 289 Problem Describe all integers n such that
x2 − 5y2 = 2. 10|n10 + 1.

(Hint: Find all the perfect squares mod 5.)

290 Problem Find the last digit of 3100 .
284 Problem Which digits must we substitute for a
and b in 30a0b03 so that the resulting integer be 291 Problem (AHSME 1992) What is the size of the
divisible by 13? largest subset S of {1, 2, . . . , 50} such that no pair of
distinct elements of S has a sum divisible by 7?
285 Problem Find the number of all n, 1 ≤ n ≤ 25
such that n2 + 15n + 122 is divisible by 6. 292 Problem Prove that there are no integer
solutions to the equation x2 − 7y = 3.
(Hint:
n2 + 15n + 122 ≡ n2 + 3n + 2 = (n + 1)(n + 2) mod 293 Problem Prove that if 7|a2 + b2 then 7|a and
6.) 7|b.

286 Problem (AIME 1983) Let an = 6n + 8n .

294 Problem Prove that there are no integers with
Determine the remainder when a83 is divided by 49.
800000007 = x2 + y2 + z2 .
Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers 43

295 Problem Prove that the sum of the decimal 300 Problem Shew that an integer is divisible by
digits of a perfect square cannot be equal to 1991. 2n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . if the number formed by its last n
digits is divisible by 2n .
296 Problem Prove that
n n
301 Problem Find the last digit of
7|42 + 22 + 1
2333333334 · 9987737 + 12 · 21327 + 12123 · 99987.
for all natural numbers n.
302 Problem (AIME 1994) The increasing sequence
100
297 Problem Find the last two digits of 3 .
3, 15, 24, 48, . . . ,
298 Problem (USAMO 1986) What is the smallest consists of all those multiples of 3 which are one less
integer n > 1, for which the root-mean-square of the than a square. Find the remainder when the 1994th
first n positive integers is an integer? term is divided by 1000.

Note. The root mean square of n numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an is Answer: 63

defined to be
 2 ‹1/2
a1 + a22 + · · · + a2n
. 303 Problem (AIME 1983) Let an = 6n + 8n . Find
n
the remainder when a83 is divided by 49.

299 Problem If 62ab427 is a multiple of 99, find the 304 Problem Shew that if 9|(a3 + b3 + c3 ), then
digits a and b. 3|abc, for the integers a, b, c.

3.7 Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers

Recall that TxU is the unique integer satisfying
x − 1 < TxU ≤ x (3.4)
Thus TxU is x is an integer, or the integer just to the left of x if x is not an integer. For example
T3.9U = 1, T−3.1U = −4.
Let p be a prime and n a positive integer. In the product n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n the number of factors contributing
n n
a factor of of p is T U the number of factors contributing a factor of p2 is T 2 U, etc.. This proves the following
p p
theorem.

305 Theorem (De Polignac-Legendre) The highest power of a prime p diving n! is given by
X∞
n
T kU (3.5)
k=1
p

306 Example How many zeroes are there at the end of 999! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · · · 998 · 999?

Solution: The number of zeroes is determined by the highest power of 10 dividing 999!. As there are fewer
multiples of 5 amongst {1, 2, . . . , 999} that multiples of 2, the number of zeroes is the determined by the
highest power of 5 dividing 999!. But the highest power of 5 dividing 999! is given by
999 999 999 999
T U+T U+T U+T U = 199 + 39 + 7 + 1 = 246.
5 52 53 54
Therefore 999! ends in 246 zeroes.

307 Example Let m, n be non-negative integers. Prove that

(m + n)!
is an integer. (3.6)
m!n!
44 Chapter 3

Solution: Let p be a prime and k a positive integer. By the De Polignac-Legendre Theorem, it suffices to shew
that
m+n m n
T U ≥ T k U + T k U.
pk p p
This inequality in turn will follow from the inequality

TαU + TβU ≤ Tα + βU (3.7)

which we will shew valid for all real numbers α, β.

Adding the inequalities TαU ≤ α, TβU ≤ β, we obtain TαU + TβU ≤ α + β. Since TαU + TβU is an integer
less than or equal to α + β, it must be less than or equal than the integral part of α + β, that is
TαU + TβU ≤ Tα + βU, as we wanted to shew.
Observe that (m + n)! = m!(m + 1)(m + 2) · · · (m + n). Thus cancelling a factor of m!,
(m + n)! (m + 1)(m + 2) · · · (m + n)
=
m!n! n!
we see that the product of n consecutive positive integers is divisible by n!. If all the integers are negative, we
may factor out a (−1)n , or if they include 0, their product is 0. This gives the following theorem.

308 Theorem The product of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!.

309 Example Prove that n5 − 5n3 + 4n is always divisible by 120 for all integers n.

Solution: We have

n5 − 5n3 + 4n = n(n2 − 4)(n2 − 1) = (n − 2)(n − 1)(n)(n + 1)(n + 2),

the product of 5 consecutive integers and hence divisible by 5! = 120.

310 Example Let A be a positive integer and let A ′ be the resulting integer after a specific permutation of
the digits of A. Shew that if A + A ′ = 1010 then A s divisible by 10.

Solution: Clearly, A and A ′ must have 10 digits each. Put

A = a10 a9 a8 . . . a1

and
A ′ = b10 b9 b8 . . . b1 ,
where ak , bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , 10 are the digits of A and A ′ respectively. As A + A ′ = 10000000000, we must
have a1 + b1 = a2 + b2 = · · · = ai + bi = 0 and

ai+1 + bi+1 = 10, ai+2 + bi+2 = · · · = a10 + b10 = 9,

for some subindex i, 0 ≤ i ≤ 9. Notice that if i = 9 there are no sums ai+2 + bi+2 , ai+3 + bi+3 , . . . and if
i = 0 there are no sums a1 + b1 , . . . , ai + bi .
Adding,

a1 + b1 + a2 + b2 + · · · + ai + bi + ai+1 + bi+1 + · · · + a10 + b10 = 10 + 9(9 − i).

If i is even, 10 + 9(9 − i) is odd and if i is odd 10 + 9(9 − i) is even. As

a1 + a2 + · · · + a10 = b1 + b2 + · · · + b10 ,

we have

a1 + b1 + a2 + b2 + · · · + ai + bi + ai+1 + bi+1 + · · · + a10 + b10 = 2(a1 + a2 + · · · + a10 ),

an even integer. We gather that i is odd, which entails that a1 = b1 = 0, that is , A and A ′ are both divisible
by 10.
Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers 45

311 Example (Putnam 1956) Prove that every positive integer has a multiple whose decimal representation
involves all 10 digits.

Solution: Let n be an arbitrary positive integer with k digits. Let m = 1234567890 · 10k+1 . Then all of the n
consecutive integers
m + 1, m + 2, . . . , m + n
begin with 1234567890 and one of them is divisible by n.

312 Example (Putnam 1966) Let 0 < a1 < a2 < . . . < amn+1 be mn + 1 integers. Prove that you can find
either m + 1 of them no one of which divides any other, or n + 1 of them, each dividing the following.

Solution: Let, for each 1 ≤ k ≤ mn + 1, nk denote the length of the longest chain, starting with ak and each
dividing the following one, that can be selected from ak , ak+1 , . . . , amn+1 . If no nk is greater than n, then
the are at least m + 1 nk ’s that are the same. However, the integers ak corresponding to these nk ’s cannot
divide each other, because ak |al implies that nk ≥ nl + 1.

313 Theorem If k|n then fk |fn .

Proof Letting s = kn, t = n in the identity fs+t = fs−1 ft + fs ft+1 we obtain

f(k+1)n = fkn+n = fn−1 fkn + fn fkn+1 .

It is clear that if fn |fkn then fn |f(k+1)n . Since fn |fn·1 , the assertion follows.

314 Example Prove that if p is an odd prime and if

a
= 1 + 1/2 + · · · + 1/(p − 1),
b
then p divides a.

Solution: Arrange the sum as

1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ··· + + .
p−1 2 p−2 (p − 1)/2 (p + 1)/2

After summing consecutive pairs, the numerator of the resulting fractions is p. Each term in the denominator
is < p. Since p is a prime, the p on the numerator will not be thus cancelled out.

315 Example The sum of some positive integers is 1996. What is their maximum product?

Solution: We are given some positive integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an with a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 1996. To maximise

a1 a2 · · · an , none of the ak ’s can be 1. Let us shew that to maximise this product, we make as many possible
ak = 3 and at most two aj = 2.
Suppose that aj > 4. Substituting aj by the two terms aj − 3 and 3 the sum is not changed, but the product
increases since aj < 3(aj − 3). Thus the ak ’s must equal 2, 3 or 4. But 2 + 2 + 2 = 3 + 3 and
2 × 2 × 2 < 3 × 3, thus if there are more than two 2’s we may substitute them by 3’s. As
1996 = 3(665) + 1 = 3(664) + 4, the maximum product sought is 3664 × 4.

316 Example Find all the positive integers of the form

1
r+ ,
r
where r is a rational number.
46 Chapter 3

Solution: We will shew that the expression r + 1/r is a positive integer only if r = 1, in which case
r + 1/r = 2. Let
1
r + = k,
r
k a positive integer. Then √
k ± k2 − 4
r= .
2
Since k is an integer, r will be an integer if and only k2 − 4 is a square of the same parity as k. Now, if k ≥ 3,

(k − 1)2 < k2 − 4 < k2 ,

2
that
p is, k − 4 is strictly between two consecutive squares and so it cannot be itself a square. If k = 1,
k − 4 is not a real number. If k = 2, k2 − 4 = 0. Therefore, r + 1/r = 2, that is, r = 1. This finishes the
2

proof.

317 Example For how many integers n in {1, 2, 3, . . . , 100} is the tens digit of n2 odd?

Solution: In the subset {1, 2, . . . 10} there are only two values of n (4 and 6) for which the digits of the tens of
n2 is odd. Now, the tens digit of (n + 10)2 = n2 + 20n + 100 has the same parity as the tens digit of n2 . Thus
there are only 20 n for which the prescribed condition is verified.

Practice

318 Problem Find the sum 323 Problem Find all real numbers satisfying the
equation
5 + 55 + 555 + · · · + 5
| .{z
. . 5} . Tx2 − x − 2U = TxU.
n 5 ′s

324 Problem Solve the equation

319 Problem √ Shew that for all numbers
a 6= 0, a 6= ±i 3 the following formula of Reyley x x
T U=T U
(1825) holds. 1999 2000
‚ Œ3
a6 + 45a5 − 81a2 + 27 325 Problem (Putnam 1948) Let n be a positive
a=
6a(a2 + 3)2 integer. Prove that
‚ Œ3
−a2 + 30a2 − 9 √ √ √
+ T n + n + 1U = T 4n + 2U
6a(a2 + 3)
‚ Œ3
−6a3 + 18a (Hint: Prove
+ . √ √that √ √
(a2 + 3)2 4n + 1 < n + n + 1 < 4n + 3. Argue that
neither 4n + 2 nor 4n + 3 are perfect squares.)
If a is rational this shews that every rational number
is expressible as the sum of the cubes of three
rational numbers. 326 Problem Prove that 6|n3 − n, for all integers n.

327 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad)

320 Problem What is the largest power of 7 that
Prove that if n is an even natural number, then the
divides 1000!?
number 13n + 6 is divisible by 7.

321 Problem Demonstrate that for all integer values

328 Problem Find, with proof, the unique square
n,
which is the product of four consecutive odd numbers.
n9 − 6n7 + 9n5 − 4n3
is divisible by 8640.
329 Problem (Putnam 1989) How many primes
amongst the positive integers, written as usual in
322 Problem Prove that if n > 4 is composite, then n base-ten are such that their digits are alternating 1’s
divides (n − 1)!. and 0’s, beginning and ending in 1?
Practice 47

330 Problem Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of

write 4n + 1 as the sum of two squares,
a triangle. Shew that 4n + 1 = x2 + y2 where x and y are expressed in
terms of a and b.
3(ab + bc + ca) ≤ (a + b + c)2 ≤ 4(ab + bc + ca). Conversely, shew that if 4n + 1 = x2 + y2 , then n is
the sum of two triangular numbers.
331 Problem Let k ≥ 2 be an integer. Shew that if n
is a positive integer, then nk can be represented as 336 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad)
the sum of n successive odd numbers. Prove that
amongst ten successive natural numbers, there are
always at least one and at most four numbers that
332 Problem (IMO 1979) If a, b are natural numbers
are not divisible by any of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7.
such that
a 1 1 1 1 1 337 Problem Are there five consecutive positive
=1− + − + ··· − + ,
b 2 3 4 1318 1319 integers such that the sum of the first four, each
raised to the fourth power, equals the fifth raised to
prove that 1979|a.
the fourth power?

333 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad) A 338 Problem Prove that

triangular number is one of the form
1 + 2 + . . . + n, n ∈ N. Prove that none of the digits (2m)!(3n)!
2, 4, 7, 9 can be the last digit of a triangular number. (m!)2 (n!)3

is always an integer.
334 Problem Demonstrate that there are infinitely
many square triangular numbers.
339 Problem Prove that for n ∈ N, (n!)! is divisible
by n!(n−1)!
335 Problem (Putnam 1975) Supposing that an
integer n is the sum of two triangular numbers,
340 Problem (Olimpíada matemática española, 1985)
a2 + a b2 + b If n is a positive integer, prove that
n= + , (n + 1)(n + 2) · · · (2n) is divisible by 2n .
2 2
Chapter 4
Sums, Products, and Recursions

4.1 Telescopic cancellation

We could sum the series

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + a n
if we were able to find {vk } satisfying ak = vk − vk−1 . For

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an = v1 − v0 + v2 − v1 + · · · + vn−1 − vn−2 + vn − vn−1 = vn − v0 .

If such sequence vn exists, we say that a1 + a2 + · · · + an is a telescopic series.

341 Example Simplify  ‹  ‹  ‹  ‹

1 1 1 1
1+ · 1+ · 1+ ··· 1 + .
2 3 4 99

Solution: Adding each fraction:

3 4 5 100
· · ··· ,
2 3 4 99
which simplifies to 100/2 = 50.

342 Example Find integers a, b so that

€ Š € 2
Š € 3
Š € 99
Š
(2 + 1) · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 + 1 = 2a + b.

Solution: Using the identity x2 − y2 = (x − y)(x + y) and letting P be the sought product:
€ Š € 2
Š € 3
Š € 99
Š
(2 − 1)P = (2 − 1) (2 + 1) · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 +1
€ Š € Š € 2
Š € 3
Š € 99
Š
= 22 − 1 · 2 2 + 1 · 2 2 + 1 · 2 2 + 1 · · · 2 2 +1
€ 2
Š € 2
Š € 3
Š € 99
Š
= 22 − 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 +1
€ 3
Š € 3
Š € 4
Š € 99
Š
= 22 − 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 +1
.. ..
. .
99 99
= (22 − 1)(22 + 1)
100
= 22 − 1,

48
Telescopic cancellation 49

whence
100
P = 22 − 1.

343 Example Find the exact value of the product

π 2π 4π
P = cos · cos · cos .
7 7 7

π
Solution: Multiplying both sides by sin and using sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x we obtain
7

π π π 2π 4π
sin P = (sin cos ) · cos · cos
7 7 77 7
1 2π 2π 4π
= (sin cos ) · cos
2 7 7 7
1 4π 4π
= (sin cos )
4 7 7
1 8π
= sin .
8 7
π 8π
As sin = − sin , we deduce that
7 7
1
P=− .
8

344 Example Shew that

1 3 5 9999 1
· · ··· < .
2 4 6 10000 100

Solution: Let
1 3 5 9999
A= · · ···
2 4 6 10000
and
2 4 6 10000
B= · · ··· .
3 5 7 10001
Clearly, x2 − 1 < x2 for all real numbers x. This implies that

x−1 x
<
x x+1
whenever these four quantities are positive. Hence

1/2 < 2/3

3/4 < 4/5

5/6 < 6/7

.. .. ..
. . .

9999/10000 < 10000/10001

As all the numbers involved are positive, we multiply both columns to obtain

1 3 5 9999 2 4 6 10000
· · ··· < · · ··· ,
2 4 6 10000 3 5 7 10001
50 Chapter 4

or A < B. This yields A2 = A · A < A · B. Now

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9999 10000 1
A·B= · · · · · · ··· · = ,
2 3 4 5 6
10000 10001 10001 7 8
√
and consequently, A2 < A · B = 1/10001. We deduce that A < 1/ 10001 < 1/100.
For the next example we recall that n! (n factorial) means

n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n.

For example, 1! = 1, 2! = 1 · 2 = 2, 3! = 1 · 2 · 3 = 6, 4! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 = 24. Observe that (k + 1)! = (k + 1)k!. We

make the convention 0! = 1.

345 Example Sum

1 · 1! + 2 · 2! + 3 · 3! + · · · + 99 · 99!.

Solution: From (k + 1)! = (k + 1)k! = k · k! + k! we deduce (k + 1)! − k! = k · k!. Thus

1 · 1! = 2! − 1!

2 · 2! = 3! − 2!

3 · 3! = 4! − 3!
.. .. ..
. . .

98 · 98 = 99! − 98!

99 · 99! = 100! − 99!

Adding both columns,

1 · 1! + 2 · 2! + 3 · 3! + · · · + 99 · 99! = 100! − 1! = 100! − 1.

Practice

346 Problem Find a closed formula for 348 Problem Simplify

 ‹  ‹
Dn = 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · + (−1)n−1 n. 1 1
log2 1 + + log2 1 +

2 ‹
3  ‹
1 1
347 Problem Simplify + log2 1 + + · · · + log2 1 + .
4 1023
 ‹  ‹  ‹  ‹
1 1 1 1
1− · 1− · 1− ··· 1 − . 349 Problem Prove that for all positive integers n,
22 32 42 992 n
22 + 1 divides
2n
22 +1 − 2.

4.2 Arithmetic Sums

An arithmetic progression is one of the form

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . , a + (n − 1)d, . . .

One important arithmetic sum is

Arithmetic Sums 51

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = .
2
To obtain a closed form, we utilise Gauss’ trick:
If
An = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n
then
An = n + (n − 1) + · · · + 1.
Adding these two quantities,

An = 1 + 2 + ··· + n

An = n + (n − 1) + ··· + 1

2An = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + ··· + (n + 1)

= n(n + 1),

n(n + 1)
since there are n summands. This gives An = , that is,
2
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = . (4.1)
2
For example,
100(101)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100 = = 5050.
2
Applying Gauss’s trick to the general arithmetic sum

(a) + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + · · · + (a + (n − 1)d)

we obtain
n(2a + (n − 1)d)
(a) + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + · · · + (a + (n − 1)d) = (4.2)
2

350 Example Find the sum of all the integers from 1 to 1000 inclusive, which are not multiples of 3 or 5.

Solution: One computes the sum of all integers from 1 to 1000 and weeds out the sum of the multiples of 3
and the sum of the multiples of 5, but puts back the multiples of 15, which one has counted twice. Put

An = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n,

B = 3 + 6 + 9 + · · · + 999 = 3A333 ,
C = 5 + 10 + 15 + · · · + 1000 = 5A200 ,
D = 15 + 30 + 45 + · · · + 990 = 15A66 .
The desired sum is

A1000 − B − C + D = A1000 − 3A333 − 5A200 + 15A66

= 500500 − 3 · 55611 − 5 · 20100 + 15 · 2211

= 266332.
52 Chapter 4

351 Example Each element of the set {10, 11, 12, . . . , 19, 20} is multiplied by each element of the set
{21, 22, 23, . . . , 29, 30}. If all these products are added, what is the resulting sum?

Solution: This is asking for the product (10 + 11 + · · · + 20)(21 + 22 + · · · + 30) after all the terms are
multiplied. But
(20 + 10)(11)
10 + 11 + · · · + 20 = = 165
2
and
(30 + 21)(10)
21 + 22 + · · · + 30 = = 255.
2
The required total is (165)(255) = 42075.

352 Example The sum of a certain number of consecutive positive integers is 1000. Find these integers.

Solution: Let the the sum of integers be S = (l + 1) + (l + 2) + (l + n). Using Gauss’ trick we obtain
n(2l + n + 1)
S= . As S = 1000, 2000 = n(2l + n + 1). Now 2000 = n2 + 2ln + n > n2 , whence
√ 2
n ≤ T 2000U = 44. Moreover, n and 2l + n + 1 divisors of 2000 and are of opposite parity. Since 2000 = 24 53 ,
the odd factors of 2000 are 1, 5, 25, and 125. We then see that the problem has te following solutions:

n = 1, l = 999,

n = 5, l = 197,
n = 16, l = 54,
n = 25, l = 27.

353 Example Find the sum of all integers between 1 and 100 that leave remainder 2 upon division by 6.

Solution: We want the sum of the integers of the form 6r + 2, r = 0, 1, . . . , 16. But this is
16
X 16
X 16
X 16(17)
(6r + 2) = 6 r+ 2=6 + 2(17) = 850.
r=0 r=0 r=0
2

Practice

354 Problem Shew that 358 Problem (AHSME 1991) Let

2 2
n (n + 1) Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n and
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n2 − 1) + n2 = .
2 T2 T3 T4 Tn
Pn = · · ··· .
T2 − 1 T3 − 1 T4 − 1 Tn − 1
355 Problem Shew that
Find P1991 .
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 .

359 Problem Given that

356 Problem (AHSME 1994) Sum the series
1 2 1 1 1
20 + 20 + 20 + · · · + 40. , ,
5 5 a+b b+c c+a
are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression,
357 Problem Shew that prove that
1 2 3 1995 b2 , a 2 , c 2
+ + + ··· +
1996 1996 1996 1996 are also consecutive terms in an arithmetic
is an integer. progression.
Geometric Sums 53

360 Problem Consider the following table: (7, 9, 11)

1=1 (13, 15, 17, 19)

(21, 23, 25, 27, 29)
2+3+4=1+8
...............................
5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 8 + 27
Find the sum of the nth row.
10 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 = 27 + 64
Conjecture the law of formation and prove your 362 Problem Sum
answer.
10002 − 9992 + 9982 − 9972 + · · · + 44 − 32 + 22 − 11 .

361 Problem The odd natural numbers are arranged

as follows: 363 Problem The first term of an arithmetic
(1) progression is 14 and its 100th term is −16. Find (i)
its 30th term and (ii) the sum of all the terms from
(3, 5) the first to the 100th.

4.3 Geometric Sums

A geometric progression is one of the form

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . . , arn−1 , . . . ,

364 Example Find the following geometric sum:

1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 1024.

Solution: Let
S = 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 1024.
Then
2S = 2 + 4 + 8 + · · · + 1024 + 2048.
Hence
S = 2S − S = (2 + 4 + 8 · · · + 2048) − (1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 1024) = 2048 − 1 = 2047.

365 Example Find the geometric sum

1 1 1 1
x= + + + ··· + .
3 32 33 399

Solution: We have
1 1 1 1 1
x= + + ··· + + .
3 32 33 399 3100
Then
2 1
x = x− x
3 3
1 1 1 1
= ( + + 3 + · · · + 99 )
3 32 3 3
1 1 1 1
−( 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100 )
3 3 3 3
1 1
= − 100 .
3 3
From which we gather
1 1
x= − .
2 2 · 399
The following example presents an arithmetic-geometric sum.
54 Chapter 4

366 Example Sum

a = 1 + 2 · 4 + 3 · 42 + · · · + 10 · 49 .

Solution: We have
4a = 4 + 2 · 42 + 3 · 43 + · · · + 9 · 49 + 10 · 410 .
Now, 4a − a yields
3a = −1 − 4 − 42 − 43 − · · · − 49 + 10 · 410 .
Adding this last geometric series,
10 · 410 410 − 1
a= − .
3 9

367 Example Find the sum

Sn = 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + · · · + 1/2n .
Interpret your result as n → ∞.

Solution: We have
1
Sn − Sn = (1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + · · · + 1/2n ) − (1/2 + 1/4 + · · · + 1/2n + 1/2n+1 ) = 1 − 1/2n .
2
Whence
Sn = 2 − 1/2n .
So as n varies, we have:
S1 = 2 − 1/20 = 1

S2 = 2 − 1/2 = 1.5

S3 = 2 − 1/22 = 1.875

S4 = 2 − 1/23 = 1.875

S5 = 2 − 1/24 = 1.9375

S6 = 2 − 1/25 = 1.96875

S10 = 2 − 1/29 = 1.998046875

Thus the farther we go in the series, the closer we get to 2.

Let us sum now the geometric series

S = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 .

Plainly, if r = 1 then S = na, so we may assume that r 6= 1. We have

rS = ar + ar2 + · · · + arn .

Hence
S − rS = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 − ar − ar2 − · · · − arn = a − arn .
From this we deduce that
a − arn
S= ,
1−r
that is,
a − arn
a + ar + · · · + arn−1 = (4.3)
1−r
If |r| < 1 then rn → 0 as n → ∞.
Practice 55

For |r| < 1, we obtain the sum of the infinite geometric series
a
a + ar + ar2 + · · · = (4.4)
1−r

368 Example A fly starts at the origin and goes 1 unit up, 1/2 unit right, 1/4 unit down, 1/8 unit left, 1/16
unit up, etc., ad infinitum. In what coordinates does it end up?

Solution: Its x coordinate is

1
1 1 1 2
2
− + − ··· = −1
= .
2 8 32 1− 4
5
Its y coordinate is
1 1 1 4
1− + − ··· = −1
= .
4 16 1− 4
5
2 4
Therefore, the fly ends up in ( , ).
5 5

Practice

369 Problem The 6th term of a geometric term, (ii) the sum of its first 30 terms.
progression is 20 and the 10th is 320. Find (i) its 15th

4.4 Fundamental Sums

In this section we compute several sums using telescoping cancellation.
We start with the sum of the first n positive integers, which we have already computed using Gauss’ trick.

370 Example Find a closed formula for

An = 1 + 2 + · · · + n.

Solution: Observe that

k2 − (k − 1)2 = 2k − 1.
From this
12 − 02 = 2·1−1

22 − 12 = 2·2−1

32 − 22 = 2·3−1
.. .. ..
. . .

n2 − (n − 1)2 = 2·n−1

Adding both columns,

n2 − 02 = 2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n) − n.
Solving for the sum,
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n2 /2 + n/2 = .
2

371 Example Find the sum

12 + 2 2 + 32 + · · · + n 2 .
56 Chapter 4

Solution: Observe that

k3 − (k − 1)3 = 3k2 − 3k + 1.
Hence
13 − 03 = 3 · 12 − 3 · 1 + 1

23 − 13 = 3 · 22 − 3 · 2 + 1

33 − 23 = 3 · 32 − 3 · 3 + 1
.. .. ..
. . .

n3 − (n − 1)3 = 3 · n2 − 3 · n + 1

Adding both columns,

n3 − 03 = 3(12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 ) − 3(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n) + n.

n(n + 1)
From the preceding example 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = ·n2 /2 + n/2 = so
2
3
n3 − 03 = 3(12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 ) − · n(n + 1) + n.
2
Solving for the sum,
n3 1 n
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n 2 = + · n(n + 1) − .
3 2 3
After simplifying we obtain
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n 2 = (4.5)
6

372 Example Add the series

1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· + .
1·2 2·3 3·4 99 · 100

Solution: Observe that

1 1 1
= − .
k(k + 1) k k+1
Thus
1 1 1
= −
1·2 1 2
1 1 1
= −
2·3 2 3
1 1 1
= −
3·4 3 4
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1 1
= −
99 · 100 99 100
Adding both columns,
1 1 1 1 1 99
+ + + ··· + =1− = .
1·2 2·3 3·4 99 · 100 100 100

373 Example Add

1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· + .
1·4 4·7 7 · 10 31 · 34
Fundamental Sums 57

Solution: Observe that

1 1 1 1 1
= · − · .
(3n + 1) · (3n + 4) 3 3n + 1 3 3n + 4
Thus
1 1 1
= −
1·4 3 12
1 1 1
= −
4·7 12 21
1 1 1
= −
7 · 10 21 30
1 1 1
= −
10 · 13 30 39
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1 1
= −
34 · 37 102 111
Summing both columns,

1 1 1 1 1 1 12
+ + + ··· + = − = .
1·4 4·7 7 · 10 31 · 34 3 111 37

374 Example Sum

1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· + .
1·4·7 4 · 7 · 10 7 · 10 · 13 25 · 28 · 31

Solution: Observe that

1 1 1 1 1
= · − · .
(3n + 1) · (3n + 4) · (3n + 7) 6 (3n + 1)(3n + 4) 6 (3n + 4)(3n + 7)

Therefore
1 1 1
= −
1·4·7 6·1·4 6·4·7
1 1 1
= −
4 · 7 · 10 6·4·7 6 · 7 · 10
1 1 1
= −
7 · 10 · 13 6 · 7 · 10 6 · 10 · 13
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1 1
= −
25 · 28 · 31 6 · 25 · 28 6 · 28 · 31
Adding each column,

1 1 1 1 1 1 9
+ + + ··· + = − = .
1·4·7 4 · 7 · 10 7 · 10 · 13 25 · 28 · 31 6·1·4 6 · 28 · 31 217

375 Example Find the sum

1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · · + 99 · 100.

Solution: Observe that

1 1
k(k + 1) = (k)(k + 1)(k + 2) − (k − 1)(k)(k + 1).
3 3
Therefore
58 Chapter 4

1 1
1·2 = ·1·2·3− ·0·1·2
3 3
1 1
2·3 = ·2·3·4− ·1·2·3
3 3
1 1
3·4 = ·3·4·5− ·2·3·4
3 3
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1
99 · 100 = · 99 · 100 · 101 − · 98 · 99 · 100
3 3
Adding each column,

1 1
1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · · + 99 · 100 = · 99 · 100 · 101 − · 0 · 1 · 2 = 333300.
3 3

Practice

376 Problem Shew that 381 Problem Shew that

 2
n(n + 1) n
13 + 2 3 + 3 3 + · · · + n 3 = (4.6) X k 1 n2 + n
2 = · .
k=1
k4 + k2 + 1 2 n2 + n + 1

377 Problem Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be arbitrary

numbers. Shew that 382 Problem Evaluate
 ‹1/3
1 · 2 · 4 + 2 · 4 · 8 + 3 · 6 · 12 + · · ·
a1 + a2 (1 + a1 ) + a3 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) .
1 · 3 · 9 + 2 · 6 · 18 + 3 · 9 · 27 + · · ·

+a4 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )(1 + a3 ) + · · ·

383 Problem Shew that
+an−1 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )(1 + a3 ) · · · (1 + an−2 ) ∞
X 1 π
arctan = .
= (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )(1 + a3 ) · · · (1 + an ) − 1. n=1
1+n+ n2 4

378 Problem Shew that Hint: From

csc 2 + csc 4 + csc 8 + · · · + csc 2n = cot 1 − cot 2n . tan x − tan y

tan x − tan y =
1 + tan x tan y
379 Problem Let 0 < x < 1. Shew that
∞ n deduce that
X x2 x
2n+1
= .
1−x 1−x a−b
n=1 arctan a − arctan b = arctan
1 + ab
380 Problem Shew that
for suitable a and b.
π π
tan + 2 tan
2100 299 384 Problem Prove the following result due to
π π
2
+2 tan + ··· + 2 98
tan Gramm
2298 22 Y∞
n3 − 1 2
π = .
= cot 100 . n3 + 1 3
2 n=2
First Order Recursions 59

4.5 First Order Recursions

We have already seen the Fibonacci numbers, defined by the recursion f0 = 0, f1 = 1 and

fn+1 = fn + fn−1 , n ≥ 1.

The order of the recurrence is the difference between the highest and the lowest subscripts. For example

un+2 − un+1 = 2

is of the first order, and

un+4 + 9u2n = n5
is of the fourth order.
A recurrence is linear if the subscripted letters appear only to the first power. For example

un+2 − un+1 = 2
is a linear recurrence and
x2n + nxn−1 = 1 and xn + 2xn−1 = 3
are not linear recurrences.
A recursion is homogeneous if all its terms contain the subscripted variable to the same power. Thus

xm+3 + 8xm+2 − 9xm = 0

is homogeneous. The equation

xm+3 + 8xm+2 − 9xm = m2 − 3
is not homogeneous.
A closed form of a recurrence is a formula that permits us to find the n-th term of the recurrence without
having to know a priori the terms preceding it.
We outline a method for solving first order linear recurrence relations of the form

xn = axn−1 + f(n), a 6= 1,

where f is a polynomial.

1. First solve the homogeneous recurrence xn = axn−1 by “raising the subscripts” in the form xn = axn−1 .
This we call the characteristic equation. Cancelling this gives x = a. The solution to the homogeneous
equation xn = axn−1 will be of the form xn = Aan , where A is a constant to be determined.
2. Test a solution of the form xn = Aan + g(n), where g is a polynomial of the same degree as f.

385 Example Let x0 = 7 and xn = 2xn−1 , n ≥ 1. Find a closed form for xn .

Solution: Raising subscripts we have the characteristic equation xn = 2xn−1 . Cancelling, x = 2. Thus we try a
solution of the form xn = A2n , were A is a constant. But 7 = x0 = A20 and so A = 7. The solution is thus
xn = 7(2)n .
Aliter: We have
x0 = 7

x1 = 2x0

x2 = 2x1

x3 = 2x2
.. .. ..
. . .

xn = 2xn−1
60 Chapter 4

Multiplying both columns,

x0 x1 · · · xn = 7 · 2n x0 x1 x2 · · · xn−1 .
Cancelling the common factors on both sides of the equality,

xn = 7 · 2 n .

386 Example Let x0 = 7 and xn = 2xn−1 + 1, n ≥ 1. Find a closed form for xn .

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain xn = 2xn−1 or x = 2. A solution to
the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(2)n . Now f(n) = 1 is a polynomial of degree 0 (a
constant) and so we test a particular constant solution C. The general solution will have the form
xn = A2n + B. Now, 7 = x0 = A20 + B = A + B. Also, x1 = 2x0 + 7 = 15 and so 15 = x1 = 2A + B. Solving the
simultaneous equations
A + B = 7,
2A + B = 15,
we find A = 8, B = −1. So the solution is xn = 8(2n ) − 1 = 2n+3 − 1.
Aliter: We have:
x0 = 7

x1 = 2x0 + 1

x2 = 2x1 + 1

x3 = 2x2 + 1
.. .. ..
. . .

xn−1 = 2xn−2 + 1

xn = 2xn−1 + 1

Multiply the kth row by 2n−k . We obtain

2 n x0 = 2n · 7

2n−1 x1 = 2n x0 + 2n−1

2n−2 x2 = 2n−1 x1 + 2n−2

2n−3 x3 = 2n−2 x2 + 2n−3

.. .. ..
. . .

22 xn−2 = 23 xn−3 + 22

2xn−1 = 22 xn−2 + 2

xn = 2xn−1 + 1

Adding both columns, cancelling, and adding the geometric sum,

xn = 7 · 2n + (1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n−1 ) = 7 · 2n + 2n − 1 = 2n+3 − 1.

Aliter: Let un = xn + 1 = 2xn−1 + 2 = 2(xn−1 + 1) = 2un−1 . We solve the recursion un = 2un−1 as we did on
our first example: un = 2n u0 = 2n (x0 + 1) = 2n · 8 = 2n+3 . Finally, xn = un − 1 = 2n+3 − 1.
First Order Recursions 61

387 Example Let x0 = 2, xn = 9xn−1 − 56n + 63. Find a closed form for this recursion.

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain the characteristic equation
xn = 9xn−1 or x = 9. A solution to the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(9)n . Now
f(n) = −56n + 63 is a polynomial of degree 1 and so we test a particular solution of the form Bn + C. The
general solution will have the form xn = A9n + Bn + C. Now
x0 = 2, x1 = 9(2) − 56 + 63 = 25, x2 = 9(25) − 56(2) + 63 = 176. We thus solve the system

2 = A + C,

25 = 9A + B + C,
176 = 81A + 2B + C.
We find A = 2, B = 7, C = 0. The general solution is xn = 2(9n ) + 7n.

388 Example Let x0 = 1, xn = 3xn−1 − 2n2 + 6n − 3. Find a closed form for this recursion.

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain the characteristic equation
xn = 3xn−1 or x = 9. A solution to the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(3)n . Now
f(n) = −2n2 + 6n − 3 is a polynomial of degree 2 and so we test a particular solution of the form
Bn2 + Cn + D. The general solution will have the form xn = A3n + Bn2 + Cn + D. Now
x0 = 1, x1 = 3(1) − 2 + 6 − 3 = 4, x2 = 3(4) − 2(2)2 + 6(2) − 3 = 13, x3 = 3(13) − 2(3)2 + 6(3) − 3 = 36. We
thus solve the system
1 = A + D,
4 = 3A + B + C + D,
13 = 9A + 4B + 2C + D,
36 = 27A + 9B + 3C + D.
We find A = B = 1, C = D = 0. The general solution is xn = 3n + n2 .

389 Example Find a closed form for xn = 2xn−1 + 3n−1 , x0 = 2.

Solution: We test a solution of the form xn = A2n + B3n . Then x0 = 2, x1 = 2(2) + 30 = 5. We solve the system

2 = A + B,

7 = 2A + 3B.
We find A = 1, B = 1. The general solution is xn = 2n + 3n .
We now tackle the case when a = 1. In this case, we simply consider a polynomial g of degree 1 higher than
the degree of f.

390 Example Let x0 = 7 and xn = xn−1 + n, n ≥ 1. Find a closed formula for xn .

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain the characteristic equation
xn = xn−1 or x = 1. A solution to the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(1)n = A, a constant.
Now f(n) = n is a polynomial of degree 1 and so we test a particular solution of the form Bn2 + Cn + D, one
more degree than that of f. The general solution will have the form xn = A + Bn2 + Cn + D. Since A and D
are constants, we may combine them to obtain xn = Bn2 + Cn + E. Now,
x0 = 7, x1 = 7 + 1 = 8, x2 = 8 + 2 = 10. So we solve the system

7 = E,

8 = B + C + E,
10 = 4B + 2C + E.
62 Chapter 4

1 n2 n
We find B = C = , E = 7. The general solution is xn = + + 7.
2 2 2
Aliter: We have
x0 = 7

x1 = x0 + 1

x2 = x1 + 2

x3 = x2 + 3
.. .. ..
. . .

xn = xn−1 + n

Adding both columns,

x0 + x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = 7 + x0 + x2 + · · · + xn−1 + (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n).

n(n + 1)
Cancelling and using the fact that 1 + 2 + · · · + n = ,
2
n(n + 1)
xn = 7 + .
2
Some non-linear first order recursions maybe reduced to a linear first order recursion by a suitable
transformation.

391 Example A recursion satisfies u0 = 3, u2n+1 = un , n ≥ 1. Find a closed form for this recursion.

1/2 1 vn−1
Solution: Let vn = log un . Then vn = log un = log un−1 = log un−1 = . As vn = vn−1 /2, we have
2 n 2
vn = v0 /2n , that is, log un = (log u0 )/2n . Therefore, un = 31/2 .

Practice

392 Problem Find a closed form for 397 Problem (AIME, 1994) If n ≥ 1,
xn−1 + 4
x0 = 3, xn = .
3 xn + xn−1 = n2 .
Given that x19 = 94, find the remainder when x94 is
393 Problem Find a closed form for
divided by 1000.
x0 = 1, xn = 5xn−1 − 20n + 25.

398 Problem Find a closed form for

394 Problem Find a closed form for
x0 = 1, xn = xn−1 + 12n. x0 = −1; xn = xn−1 + n2 , n > 0.

395 Problem Find a closed form for 399 Problem If u0 = 1/3 and un+1 = 2u2n − 1, find a
xn = 2xn−1 + 9(5n−1 ), x0 = 5. closed form for un .

396 Problem Find a closed form for 400 Problem Let x1 = 1, xn+1 = x2n − xn + 1, n > 0.
Shew that
a0 = 5, aj+1 = a2j + 2aj , j ≥ 0. X∞
1
= 1.
n=1 n
x
Second Order Recursions 63

4.6 Second Order Recursions

All the recursions that we have so far examined are first order recursions, that is, we find the next term of the
sequence given the preceding one. Let us now briefly examine how to solve some second order recursions.
We now outline a method for solving second order homogeneous linear recurrence relations of the form

xn = axn−1 + bxn−2 .

1. Find the characteristic equation by “raising the subscripts” in the form xn = axn−1 + bxn−2 . Cancelling
this gives x2 − ax − b = 0. This equation has two roots r1 and r2 .

2. If the roots are different, the solution will be of the form xn = A(r1 )n + B(r2 )n , where A, B are
constants.

3. If the roots are identical, the solution will be of the form xn = A(r1 )n + Bn(r1 )n .

401 Example Let x0 = 1, x1 = −1, xn+2 + 5xn+1 + 6xn = 0.

Solution: The characteristic equation is x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 3)(x + 2) = 0. Thus we test a solution of the form
xn = A(−2)n + B(−3)n . Since 1 = x0 = A + B, −1 = −2A − 3B, we quickly find A = 2, B = −1. Thus the
solution is xn = 2(−2)n − (−3)n .

402 Example Find a closed form for the Fibonacci recursion f0 = 0, f1 = 1, fn = fn−1 + fn−2 .

Solution: The characteristic equation is f2 − f − 1 = 0, whence a solution will have the form
‚ √ Œn ‚ √ Œn
1+ 5 1− 5
fn = A +B . The initial conditions give
2 2

0 = A + B,
‚ √ Œ ‚ √ Œ √ √
1+ 5 1− 5 1 5 5
1=A +B = (A + B) + (A − B) = (A − B)
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
This gives A = √ , B = − √ . We thus have the Cauchy-Binet Formula:
5 5
‚ √ Œn ‚ √ Œn
1 1+ 5 1 1− 5
fn = √ −√ (4.7)
5 2 5 2

403 Example Solve the recursion x0 = 1, x1 = 4, xn = 4xn−1 − 4xn−2 = 0.

Solution: The characteristic equation is x2 − 4x + 4 = (x − 2)2 = 0. There is a multiple root and so we must
test a solution of the form xn = A2n + Bn2n . The initial conditions give

1 = A,

4 = 2A + 2B.
This solves to A = 1, B = 1. The solution is thus xn = 2n + n2n .
64 Chapter 4

Practice

404 Problem Solve the recursion 406 Problem Solve the recursion
x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 21xn−2 . x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 21xn−2 + n.

405 Problem Solve the recursion 407 Problem Solve the recursion
x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 25xn−2 . x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 21xn−2 + 2n .

4.7 Applications of Recursions

408 Example Find the recurrence relation for the number of n digit binary sequences with no pair of
consecutive 1’s.

Solution: It is quite easy to see that a1 = 2, a2 = 3. To form an , n ≥ 3, we condition on the last digit. If it is 0,
the number of sequences sought is an−1 . If it is 1, the penultimate digit must be 0, and the number of
sequences sought is an−2 . Thus
an = an−1 + an−2 , a1 = 2, a2 = 3.

409 Example Let there be drawn n ovals on the plane. If an oval intersects each of the other ovals at exactly
two points and no three ovals intersect at the same point, find a recurrence relation for the number of regions
into which the plane is divided.

Solution: Let this number be an . Plainly a1 = 2. After the n − 1th stage, the nth oval intersects the previous
ovals at 2(n − 1) points, i.e. the nth oval is divided into 2(n − 1) arcs. This adds 2(n − 1) regions to the
an−1 previously existing. Thus
an = an−1 + 2(n − 1), a1 = 2.

410 Example Find a recurrence relation for the number of regions into which the plane is divided by n
straight lines if every pair of lines intersect, but no three lines intersect.

Solution: Let an be this number. Clearly a1 = 2. The nth line is cut by he previous n − 1 lines at n − 1
points, adding n new regions to the previously existing an−1 . Hence

an = an−1 + n, a1 = 2.

411 Example (Derangements) An absent-minded secretary is filling n envelopes with n letters. Find a
recursion for the number Dn of ways in which she never stuffs the right letter into the right envelope.

Solution: Number the envelopes 1, 2, 3, · · · , n. We condition on the last envelope. Two events might happen.
Either n and r(1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1) trade places or they do not.
In the first case, the two letters r and n are misplaced. Our task is just to misplace the other n − 2 letters,
(1, 2, · · · , r − 1, r + 1, · · · , n − 1) in the slots (1, 2, · · · , r − 1, r + 1, · · · , n − 1). This can be done in Dn−2
ways. Since r can be chosen in n − 1 ways, the first case can happen in (n − 1)Dn−2 ways.
In the second case, let us say that letter r, (1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1) moves to the n-th position but n moves not to the
r-th position. Since r has been misplaced, we can just ignore it. Since n is not going to the r-th position, we
may relabel n as r. We now have n − 1 numbers to misplace, and this can be done in Dn−1 ways.
As r can be chosen in n − 1 ways, the total number of ways for the second case is (n − 1)Dn−1 . Thus
Dn = (n − 1)Dn−2 + (n − 1)Dn−1 .
Practice 65

412 Example There are two urns, one is full of water and the other is empty. On the first stage, half of the
contains of urn I is passed into urn II. On the second stage 1/3 of the contains of urn II is passed into urn I.
On stage three, 1/4 of the contains of urn I is passed into urn II. On stage four 1/5 of the contains of urn II is
passed into urn I, and so on. What fraction of water remains in urn I after the 1978th stage?

Solution: Let xn , yn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . denote the fraction of water in urns I and II respectively at stage n.
Observe that xn + yn = 1 and that

x0 = 1; y0 = 0
1 1 1 1
x1 = x0 − x0 = ; y1 = y1 + x0 =
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1
x2 = x1 + y1 = ; y2 = y1 − y1 =
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
x3 = x2 − x2 = ; y1 = y1 + x2 =
4 2 4 2
1 3 1 2
x4 = x3 + y3 = ; y1 = y1 − y3 =
5 5 5 5
1 1 1 1
x5 = x4 − x4 = ; y1 = y1 + x4 =
6 2 6 2
1 4 1 3
x6 = x5 + y5 = ; y1 = y1 − y5 =
7 7 7 7
1 1 1 1
x7 = x6 − x6 = ; y1 = y1 + x6 =
8 2 8 2
1 5 1 4
x8 = x7 + y7 = ; y1 = y1 − y7 =
9 9 9 9
1
A pattern emerges (which may be proved by induction) that at each odd stage n we have xn = yn = and that
2
k+1 k 1978 990
at each even stage we have (if n = 2k) x2k = , y2k = . Since = 989 we have x1978 = .
2k + 1 2k + 1 2 1979

Practice

413 Problem At the Golem Gambling Casino of her five savings accounts. In this one, she earns
Research Institute an experiment is performed by 15% interest per year. Find a recurrence relation for
rolling a die until two odd numbers have appeared the amount of money after n years.
(and then the experiment stops). The tireless
researchers wanted to find a recurrence relation for
the number of ways to do this. Help them! 415 Problem Find a recurrence relation for the
number of ternary n-digit sequences with no
414 Problem Mrs. Rosenberg has $8 000 000 in one consecutive 2’s.
Chapter 5
Counting

5.1 Inclusion-Exclusion
In this section we investigate a tool for counting unions of events. It is known as The Principle of
Inclusion-Exclusion or Sylvester-Poincaré Principle.

416 Theorem (Two set Inclusion-Exclusion)

card (A ∪ B) = card (A) + card (B) − card (A ∩ B)

Proof: We have
A ∪ B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) ∪ (A ∩ B),
and this last expression is a union of disjoint sets. Hence

card (A ∪ B) = card (A \ B) + card (B \ A) + card (A ∩ B) .

But
A \ B = A \ (A ∩ B) =⇒ card (A \ B) = card (A) − card (A ∩ B) ,
B \ A = B \ (A ∩ B) =⇒ card (B \ A) = card (B) − card (A ∩ B) ,
from where we deduce the result. ❑

In the Venn diagram 5.1, we mark by R1 the number of elements which are simultaneously in both sets (i.e.,
in A ∩ B), by R2 the number of elements which are in A but not in B (i.e., in A \ B), and by R3 the number of
elements which are B but not in A (i.e., in B \ A). We have R1 + R2 + R3 = card (A ∪ B), which illustrates
the theorem.

6
A B A B

R2 R1 R3 18 10 6

Figure 5.1: Two-set Inclusion-Exclusion Figure 5.2: Example 417.

66
Inclusion-Exclusion 67

417 Example Of 40 people, 28 smoke and 16 chew tobacco. It is also known that 10 both smoke and chew.
How many among the 40 neither smoke nor chew?

Solution: Let A denote the set of smokers and B the set of chewers. Then

card (A ∪ B) = card (A) + card (B) − card (A ∩ B) = 28 + 16 − 10 = 34,

meaning that there are 34 people that either smoke or chew (or possibly both). Therefore the number of
people that neither smoke nor chew is 40 − 34 = 6.
Aliter: We fill up the Venn diagram in figure 5.2 as follows. Since card (A ∩ B) = 10, we put a 10 in the
intersection. Then we put a 28 − 10 = 18 in the part that A does not overlap B and a 16 − 10 = 6 in the part
of B that does not overlap A. We have accounted for 10 + 18 + 6 = 34 people that are in at least one of the set.
The remaining 40 − 34 = 6 are outside these sets.

418 Example How many integers between 1 and 1000 inclusive, do not share a common factor with 1000,
that is, are relatively prime to 1000?

Solution: Observe that 1000 = 23 53 , and thus from the 1000 integers we must weed out those that have a
factor of 2 or of 5 in their prime factorisation. If A2 denotes the set of those integers divisible by 2 in the
1000
interval [1; 1000] then clearly card (A2 ) = T U = 500. Similarly, if A5 denotes the set of those integers
2
1000 1000
divisible by 5 then card (A5 ) = T U = 200. Also card (A2 ∩ A5 ) = T U = 100. This means that there
5 10
are card (A2 ∪ A5 ) = 500 + 200 − 100 = 600 integers in the interval [1; 1000] sharing at least a factor with
1000, thus there are 1000 − 600 = 400 integers in [1; 1000] that do not share a factor prime factor with 1000.

We now deduce a formula for counting the number of elements of a union of three events.

R4

R6 R7

R3

A R2 R1 B

R5

Figure 5.3: Three-set Inclusion-Exclusion

419 Theorem (Three set Inclusion-Exclusion) Let A, B, C be events of the same sample space Ω. Then

card (A ∪ B ∪ C) = card (A) + card (B) + card (C)

−card (A ∩ B) − card (B ∩ C) − card (C ∩ A)

+card (A ∩ B ∩ C)
68 Chapter 5

Proof: Using the associativity and distributivity of unions of sets, we see that

card (A ∪ B ∪ C) = card (A ∪ (B ∪ C))

= card (A) + card (B ∪ C) − card (A ∩ (B ∪ C))

= card (A) + card (B ∪ C) − card ((A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C))

= card (A) + card (B) + card (C) − card (B ∩ C)

−card (A ∩ B) − card (A ∩ C)

+card ((A ∩ B) ∩ (A ∩ C))

= card (A) + card (B) + card (C) − card (B ∩ C)

− (card (A ∩ B) + card (A ∩ C) − card (A ∩ B ∩ C))

= card (A) + card (B) + card (C)

−card (A ∩ B) − card (B ∩ C) − card (C ∩ A)

+card (A ∩ B ∩ C) .

This gives the Inclusion-Exclusion Formula for three sets. See also figure 5.3.
❑

☞ In the Venn diagram in figure 5.3 there are 8 disjoint regions: the 7 that form A ∪ B ∪ C and
the outside region, devoid of any element belonging to A ∪ B ∪ C.

420 Example How many integers between 1 and 600 inclusive are not divisible by neither 3, nor 5, nor 7?

Solution: Let Ak denote the numbers in [1; 600] which are divisible by k. Then

600
card (A3 ) = T U = 200,
3
600
card (A5 ) = T U = 120,
5
600
card (A7 ) = T U = 85,
7
600
card (A15 ) = T U = 40
15
600
card (A21 ) = T U = 28
21
600
card (A35 ) = T U = 17
35
600
card (A105 ) = T U = 5
105
By Inclusion-Exclusion there are 200 + 120 + 85 − 40 − 28 − 17 + 5 = 325 integers in [1; 600] divisible by at
least one of 3, 5, or 7. Those not divisible by these numbers are a total of 600 − 325 = 275.

421 Example In a group of 30 people, 8 speak English, 12 speak Spanish and 10 speak French. It is known
that 5 speak English and Spanish, 5 Spanish and French, and 7 English and French. The number of people
speaking all three languages is 3. How many do not speak any of these languages?
Practice 69

Solution: Let A be the set of all English speakers, B the set of Spanish speakers and C the set of French
speakers in our group. We fill-up the Venn diagram in figure 5.4 successively. In the intersection of all three
we put 8. In the region common to A and B which is not filled up we put 5 − 2 = 3. In the region common to A
and C which is not already filled up we put 5 − 3 = 2. In the region common to B and C which is not already
filled up, we put 7 − 3 = 4. In the remaining part of A we put 8 − 2 − 3 − 2 = 1, in the remaining part of B we
put 12 − 4 − 3 − 2 = 3, and in the remaining part of C we put 10 − 2 − 3 − 4 = 1. Each of the mutually
disjoint regions comprise a total of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 + 2 + 3 = 16 persons. Those outside these three sets are
then 30 − 16 = 14.
C Sports

1 u
2 4 z t
3 x
A 1 3 B Movies 20 15 Reading
2 y

Figure 5.4: Example 421. Figure 5.5: Example 422.

422 Example A survey shews that 90% of high-schoolers in Philadelphia like at least one of the following
activities: going to the movies, playing sports, or reading. It is known that 45% like the movies, 48% like
sports, and 35% like reading. Also, it is known that 12% like both the movies and reading, 20% like only the
movies, and 15% only reading. What percent of high-schoolers like all three activities?

Solution: We make the Venn diagram in as in figure 5.5. From it we gather the following system of equations

x + y + z + 20 = 45

x + z + t + u = 48

x + y + t + 15 = 35

x + y = 12

x + y + z + t + u + 15 + 20 = 90

The solution of this system is seen to be x = 5, y = 7, z = 13, t = 8, u = 22. Thus the percent wanted is 5%.

Practice

423 Problem Consider the set ➏ How many are neither divisible by 3 nor 5?
A = {2, 4, 6, . . . , 114}. ➐ How many are divisible by exactly one of 3 or 5?
➊ How many elements are there in A?
424 Problem Consider the set of the first 100 positive
➋ How many are divisible by 3? integers:
➌ How many are divisible by 5? A = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 100}.

➍ How many are divisible by 15? ➊ How many are divisible by 2?

➎ How many are divisible by either 3, 5 or both? ➋ How many are divisible by 3?
70 Chapter 5

➌ How many are divisible by 7? ➏ perfect fifteenth powers?

➍ How many are divisible by 6? ➐ perfect thirtieth powers?

➎ How many are divisible by 14? ➑ neither perfect squares, perfect cubes, perfect
fifth powers?
➏ How many are divisible by 21?

➐ How many are divisible by 42? 429 Problem An auto insurance company has 10, 000
policyholders. Each policy holder is classified as
➑ How many are relatively prime to 42?
• young or old,
➒ How many are divisible by 2 and 3 but not by 7?
• male or female, and
➓ How many are divisible by exactly one of 2, 3
and 7? • married or single.

425 Problem A survey of a group’s viewing habits Of these policyholders, 3000 are young, 4600 are
over the last year revealed the following information: male, and 7000 are married. The policyholders can
also be classified as 1320 young males, 3010 married
➊ 28% watched gymnastics males, and 1400 young married persons. Finally, 600
of the policyholders are young married males. How
➋ 29% watched baseball many of the company’s policyholders are young,
➌ 19% watched soccer female, and single?

➍ 14% watched gymnastics and baseball 430 Problem (AHSME 1988) X, Y, and Z are pairwise
➎ 12% watched baseball and soccer disjoint sets of people. The average ages of people in
the sets X, Y, Z, X ∪ Y, X ∪ Y, and Y ∪ Z are given
➏ 10% watched gymnastics and soccer below:

➐ 8% watched all three sports.

Set X Y Z X∪Y X∪Z Y ∪Z
Calculate the percentage of the group that watched
none of the three sports during the last year. Average Age 37 23 41 29 39.5 33

426 Problem Out of 40 children, 30 can swim, 27 can What is the average age of the people in the set
play chess, and only 5 can do neither. How many X ∪ Y ∪ Z?
children can swim and play chess?
431 Problem Each of the students in the maths class
427 Problem At Medieval High there are forty twice attended a concert. It is known that 25, 12, and
students. Amongst them, fourteen like Mathematics, 23 students attended concerts A, B, and C
sixteen like theology, and eleven like alchemy. It is respectively. How many students are there in the
also known that seven like Mathematics and maths class? How many of them went to concerts A
theology, eight like theology and alchemy and five and B, B and C, or B and C?
like Mathematics and alchemy. All three subjects are
favoured by four students. How many students like 432 Problem The films A, B, and C were shewn in
neither Mathematics, nor theology, nor alchemy? the cinema for a week. Out of 40 students (each of
which saw either all the three films, or one of them,
428 Problem How many strictly positive integers 13 students saw film A, 16 students saw film B, and
less than or equal to 1000 are 19 students saw film C. How many students saw all
three films?
➊ perfect squares?

➋ perfect cubes? 433 Problem Would you believe a market

investigator that reports that of 1000 people, 816 like
➌ perfect fifth powers? candy, 723 like ice cream, 645 cake, while 562 like
both candy and ice cream, 463 like both candy and
➍ perfect sixth powers?
cake, 470 both ice cream and cake, while 310 like all
➎ perfect tenth powers? three? State your reasons!
The Product Rule 71

434 Problem
€ Š (AHSME 1991) For a set S, let 80% an arm, and at least 85% a leg. What can be said
card 2S denote the number of subsets of S. If about the percentage who lost all four members?
A, B, C, are sets for which
€ Š € Š € Š € Š
card 2A +card 2B +card 2C = card 2A∪B∪C 436 Problem Let x, y be real numbers. Prove that

and x + y = min(x, y) + max(x, y)

card (A) = card (B) = 100,
then what is the minimum possible value of 437 Problem Let x, y, z be real numbers. Prove that
card (A ∩ B ∩ C)?

max(x, y, z) = x + y + z − min(x, y) − min(y, z)

435 Problem (Lewis Carroll in A Tangled Tale.) In a
very hotly fought battle, at least 70% of the − min(z, x) + min(x, y, z)
combatants lost an eye, at least 75% an ear, at least

5.2 The Product Rule

438 Rule (Product Rule) Suppose that an experiment E can be performed in k stages: E1 first, E2 second, . . . ,
Ek last. Suppose moreover that Ei can be done in ni different ways, and that the number of ways of
performing Ei is not influenced by any predecessors E1 , E2 , . . . , Ei−1 . Then E1 and E2 and . . . and Ek can
occur simultaneously in n1 n2 · · · nk ways.

439 Example In a group of 8 men and 9 women we can pick one man and one woman in 8 · 9 = 72 ways.
Notice that we are choosing two persons.

440 Example A red die and a blue die are tossed. In how many ways can they land?

Solution: If we view the outcomes as an ordered pair (r, b) then by the multiplication principle we have the
6 · 6 = 36 possible outcomes

(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)

(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)

(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)

(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)

(5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)

(6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)

The red die can land in any of 6 ways,

and also, the blue die may land in any of 6 ways

6 6 .

441 Example A multiple-choice test consists of 20 questions, each one with 4 choices. There are 4 ways of
answering the first question, 4 ways of answering the second question, etc., hence there are
420 = 1099511627776 ways of answering the exam.
72 Chapter 5

442 Example There are 9 · 10 · 10 = 900 positive 3-digit integers:

100, 101, 102, . . . , 998, 999.

For, the leftmost integer cannot be 0 and so there are only 9 choices {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} for it,

9 .

There are 10 choices for the second digit

9 10 ,

and also 10 choices for the last digit

9 10 10 .

443 Example There are 9 · 10 · 5 = 450 even positive 3-digit integers:

100, 102, 104, . . . , 996, 998.

For, the leftmost integer cannot be 0 and so there are only 9 choices {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} for it,

9 .

There are 10 choices for the second digit

9 10 .

Since the integer must be even, the last digit must be one of the 5 choices {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

9 10 5 .

444 Definition A palindromic integer or palindrome is a positive integer whose decimal expansion is
symmetric and that is not divisible by 10. In other words, one reads the same integer backwards or forwards.1

445 Example The following integers are all palindromes:

1, 8, 11, 99, 101, 131, 999, 1234321, 9987899.

446 Example How many palindromes are there of 5 digits?

Solution: There are 9 ways of choosing the leftmost digit.

9 .

Once the leftmost digit is chosen, the last digit must be identical to it, so we have

9 1 .

There are 10 choices for the second digit from the left

9 10 1 .

1
A palindrome in common parlance, is a word or phrase that reads the same backwards to forwards. The Philadelphia street name
Camac is a palindrome. So are the phrases (if we ignore punctuation) (a) “A man, a plan, a canal, Panama!” (b) “Sit on a potato pan!, Otis.”
(c) “Able was I ere I saw Elba.” This last one is attributed to Napoleon, though it is doubtful that he knew enough English to form it.
The Product Rule 73

Once this digit is chosen, the second digit from the right must be identical to it, so we have only 1 choice for it,

9 10 1 1 .

Finally, there are 10 choices for the third digit from the right,

9 10 10 1 1 ,

which give us 900 palindromes of 5-digits.

447 Example How many palindromes of 5 digits are even?

Solution: A five digit even palindrome has the form ABCBA, where A belongs to {2, 4, 6, 8}, and B, C belong
to {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Thus there are 4 choices for the first digit, 10 for the second, and 10 for the third.
Once these digits are chosen, the palindrome is completely determined. Therefore, there are
4 × 10 × 10 = 400 even palindromes of 5 digits.

448 Example How many positive divisors does 300 have?

Solution: We have 300 = 3 · 22 52 . Thus every factor of 300 is of the form 3a 2b 5c , where 0 ≤ a ≤ 1, 0 ≤ b ≤ 2,
and 0 ≤ c ≤ 2. Thus there are 2 choices for a, 3 for b and 3 for c. This gives 2 · 3 · 3 = 18 positive divisors.

449 Example How many paths consisting of a sequence of horizontal and/or vertical line segments, each
segment connecting a pair of adjacent letters in figure 5.6 spell BIPOLAR?

B B

B I B B I

B I P I B B I P

B I P O P I B B I P O

B I P O L O P I B B I P O L

B I P O L A L O P I B B I P O L A

B I P O L A R A L O P I B B I P O L A R

Figure 5.7: Problem 449.

Figure 5.6: Problem 449.

Solution: Split the diagram, as in figure 5.7. Since every required path must use the R, we count paths
starting from R and reaching up to a B. Since there are six more rows that we can travel to, and since at each
stage we can go either up or left, we have 26 = 64 paths. The other half of the figure will provide 64 more
paths. Since the middle column is shared by both halves, we have a total of 64 + 64 − 1 = 127 paths.

We now prove that if a set A has n elements, then it has 2n subsets. To motivate the proof, consider the set
{a, b, c}. To each element we attach a binary code of length 3. We write 0 if a particular element is not in the
set and 1 if it is. We then have the following associations:
74 Chapter 5

∅ ↔ 000, {a, b} ↔ 110,

{a} ↔ 100, {a, c} ↔ 101,

{b} ↔ 010, {b, c} ↔ 011,

{c} ↔ 001, {a, b, c} ↔ 111.

Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between the subsets of a finite set of 3 elements and binary
sequences of length 3.

450 Theorem (Cardinality of the Power Set) Let A be a finite set with card (A) = n. Then A has 2n subsets.

Proof: We attach a binary code to each element of the subset, 1 if the element is in the subset and 0
if the element is not in the subset. The total number of subsets is the total number of such binary
codes, and there are 2n in number. ❑

Homework

451 Problem A true or false exam has ten questions. 456 Problem In problem 455, how many different
How many possible answer keys are there? license plates can you make if (i) you may repeat
letters but not digits?, (ii) you may repeat digits but
452 Problem Out of nine different pairs of shoes, in not letters?, (iii) you may repeat neither letters nor
how many ways could I choose a right shoe and a left digits?
shoe, which should not form a pair?
457 Problem An alphabet consists of the five
consonants {p, v, t, s, k} and the three vowels {a, e, o}.
453 Problem In how many ways can the following
A license plate is to be made using four letters of this
prizes be given away to a class of twenty boys: first
alphabet.
and second Classical, first and second Mathematical,
first Science, and first French? ➊ How many letters does this alphabet have?
➋ If a license plate is of the form CCVV where C
454 Problem Under old hardware, a certain denotes a consonant and V denotes a vowel,
programme accepted passwords of the form how many possible license plates are there,
assuming that you may repeat both consonants
eell and vowels?
where ➌ If a license plate is of the form CCVV where C
denotes a consonant and V denotes a vowel,
e ∈ {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, l ∈ {a, b, c, d, u, v, w, x, y, z}. how many possible license plates are there,
assuming that you may repeat consonants but
The hardware was changed and now the software not vowels?
accepts passwords of the form
➍ If a license plate is of the form CCVV where C
eeelll. denotes a consonant and V denotes a vowel,
how many possible license plates are there,
How many more passwords of the latter kind are assuming that you may repeat vowels but not
there than of the former kind? consonants?
➎ If a license plate is of the form LLLL where L
455 Problem A license plate is to be made according denotes any letter of the alphabet, how many
to the following provision: it has four characters, the possible license plates are there, assuming that
first two characters can be any letter of the English you may not repeat letters?
alphabet and the last two characters can be any digit.
One is allowed to repeat letters and digits. How
458 Problem A man lives within reach of three boys’
many different license plates can be made?
schools and four girls’ schools. In how many ways can
he send his three sons and two daughters to school?
Homework 75

459 Problem How many distinct four-letter words 469 Problem How many factors of 295 are larger
can be made with the letters of the set {c, i, k, t} than 1, 000, 000?

➊ if the letters are not to be repeated?

470 Problem How many positive divisors does 360
➋ if the letters can be repeated? have? How many are even? How many are odd? How
many are perfect squares?
460 Problem How many distinct six-digit numbers
that are multiples of 5 can be formed from the list of 471 Problem (AHSME 1988) At the end of a
digits {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} if we allow repetition? professional bowling tournament, the top 5 bowlers
have a play-off. First # 5 bowls #4. The loser receives
461 Problem Telephone numbers in Land of the the 5th prize and the winner bowls # 3 in another
Flying Camels have 7 digits, and the only digits game. The loser of this game receives the 4th prize
available are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8}. No telephone and the winner bowls # 2. The loser of this game
number may begin in 0, 1 or 5. Find the number of receives the 3rd prize and the winner bowls # 1. The
telephone numbers possible that meet the following loser of this game receives the 2nd prize and the
criteria: winner the 1st prize. In how many orders can
bowlers #1 through #5 receive the prizes?
➊ You may repeat all digits.

➋ You may not repeat any of the digits. 472 Problem The password of the anti-theft device of
a car is a four digit number, where one can use any
➌ You may repeat the digits, but the phone digit in the set
number must be even.
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
➍ You may repeat the digits, but the phone
number must be odd. A. ➊ How many such passwords are possible?
➎ You may not repeat the digits and the phone ➋ How many of the passwords have all their
numbers must be odd. digits distinct?

B. After an electrical failure, the owner must

462 Problem How many 5-lettered words can be reintroduce the password in order to deactivate
made out of 26 letters, repetitions allowed, but not the anti-theft device. He knows that the four
consecutive repetitions (that is, a letter may not digits of the code are 2, 0, 0, 3 but does not recall
follow itself in the same word)? the order.

463 Problem How many positive integers are there ➊ How many such passwords are possible
having n ≥ 1 digits? using only these digits?
➋ If the first attempt at the password fails,
464 Problem How many n-digits integers (n ≥ 1) are the owner must wait two minutes before a
there which are even? second attempt, if the second attempt fails
he must wait four minutes before a third
attempt, if the third attempt fails he must
465 Problem How many n-digit nonnegative integers wait eight minutes before a fourth attempt,
do not contain the digit 5? etc. (the time doubles from one attempt to
the next). How many passwords can the
466 Problem How many n-digit numbers do not have owner attempt in a period of 24 hours?
the digit 0?
473 Problem The number 3 can be expressed as a
467 Problem There are m different roads from town sum of one or more positive integers in four ways,
A to town B. In how many ways can Dwayne travel namely, as 3, 1 + 2, 2 + 1, and 1 + 1 + 1. Shew that
from town A to town B and back if (a) he may come any positive integer n can be so expressed in 2n−1
back the way he went?, (b) he must use a different ways.
road of return?
474 Problem Let n = 231 319 . How many positive
468 Problem How many positive divisors does integer divisors of n2 are less than n but do not
28 39 52 have? What is the sum of these divisors? divide n?
76 Chapter 5

475 Problem Let n ≥ 3. Find the number of n-digit the set

ternary sequences that contain at least one 0, one 1 {1, 2, 3, . . . , 100}
and one 2.
into subsets A, B, C satisfying

476 Problem In how many ways can one decompose A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 100} and A ∩ B ∩ C = ∅

5.3 The Sum Rule

477 Rule (Sum Rule: Disjunctive Form) Let E1 , E2 , . . . , Ek , be pairwise mutually exclusive events. If Ei can
occur in ni ways, then either E1 or E2 or, . . . , or Ek can occur in
n1 + n2 + · · · n k
ways.

☞ Notice that the “or” here is exclusive.

478 Example In a group of 8 men and 9 women we can pick one man or one woman in 8 + 9 = 17 ways.
Notice that we are choosing one person.

479 Example There are five Golden retrievers, six Irish setters, and eight Poodles at the pound. How many
ways can two dogs be chosen if they are not the same kind.

Solution: We choose: a Golden retriever and an Irish setter or a Golden retriever and a Poodle or an Irish
setter and a Poodle.

One Golden retriever and one Irish setter can be chosen in 5 · 6 = 30 ways; one Golden retriever and one
Poodle can be chosen in 5 · 8 = 40 ways; one Irish setter and one Poodle can be chosen in 6 · 8 = 48 ways. By
the sum rule, there are 30 + 40 + 48 = 118 combinations.

480 Example To write a book 1890 digits were utilised. How many pages does the book have?

Solution: A total of
1 · 9 + 2 · 90 = 189
digits are used to write pages 1 to 99, inclusive. We have of 1890 − 189 = 1701 digits at our disposition which
is enough for 1701/3 = 567 extra pages (starting from page 100). The book has 99 + 567 = 666 pages.

481 Example The sequence of palindromes, starting with 1 is written in ascending order
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 22, 33, . . .
Find the 1984-th positive palindrome.

Solution: It is easy to see that there are 9 palindromes of 1-digit, 9 palindromes with 2-digits, 90 with
3-digits, 90 with 4-digits, 900 with 5-digits and 900 with 6-digits. The last palindrome with 6 digits, 999999,
constitutes the 9 + 9 + 90 + 90 + 900 + 900 = 1998th palindrome. Hence, the 1997th palindrome is 998899,
the 1996th palindrome is 997799, the 1995th palindrome is 996699, the 1994th is 995599, etc., until we find
the 1984th palindrome to be 985589.

482 Example Find the sum of all odd 5-digit palindromes.

Solution: By example 446 there are 900 5-digit palindromes, and by example 447, there are 4 × 10 × 10 = 400
even palindromes of five digits. Thus there are 900 − 400 = 500 odd palindromes of five digits. Observe that
each pair below has the same sum
110000 = 10001 + 99999 = 10101 + 99899 = · · · .
Homework 77

Since there are 250 such pairs, the total sum is thus

110000 × 250 = 27500000.

483 Example The integers from 1 to 1000 are written in succession. Find the sum of all the digits.

Solution: When writing the integers from 000 to 999 (with three digits), 3 × 1000 = 3000 digits are used.
Each of the 10 digits is used an equal number of times, so each digit is used 300 times. The the sum of the
digits in the interval 000 to 999 is thus

(0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9)(300) = 13500.

Therefore, the sum of the digits when writing the integers from 000 to 1000 is 13500 + 1 = 13501.

484 Example How many 4-digit integers can be formed with the set of digits {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} such that no digit
is repeated and the resulting integer is a multiple of 3?

Solution: The integers desired have the form D1 D2 D3 D4 with D1 6= 0. Under the stipulated constraints, we
must have
D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 ∈ {6, 9, 12}.
We thus consider three cases.

Case I: D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 6. Here we have {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, D1 6= 0. There are then 3

choices for D1 . After D1 is chosen, D2 can be chosen in 3 ways, D3 in 2 ways, and D1 in 1 way. There are
thus 3 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3 · 3! = 18 integers satisfying case I.

Case II: D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 9. Here we have {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 2, 3, 4}, D1 6= 0 or

{D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 1, 3, 5}, D1 6= 0. Like before, there are 3 · 3! = 18 numbers in each possibility, thus we
have 2 × 18 = 36 numbers in case II.

Case III: D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 12. Here we have {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 3, 4, 5}, D1 6= 0 or

{D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {1, 2, 4, 5}. In the first possibility there are 3 · 3! = 18 numbers, and in the second there
are 4! = 24. Thus we have 18 + 24 = 42 numbers in case III.

The desired number is finally 18 + 36 + 42 = 96.

Homework

485 Problem How many different sums can be 489 Problem The Morse code consists of points and
thrown with two dice, the faces of each die being dashes. How many letters can be in the Morse code if
numbered 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31? no letter contains more than four signs, but all must
have at least one?
486 Problem How many different sums can be
thrown with three dice, the faces of each die being 490 Problem An n × n × n wooden cube is painted
numbered 1, 4, 13, 40, 121, 364? blue and then cut into n3 1 × 1 × 1 cubes. How many
cubes (a) are painted on exactly three sides, (b) are
487 Problem How many two or three letter initials painted in exactly two sides, (c) are painted in exactly
for people are available if at least one of the letters one side, (d) are not painted?
must be a D and one allows repetitions?
491 Problem (AIME 1993) How many even integers
488 Problem How many strictly positive integers between 4000 and 7000 have four different digits?
have all their digits distinct?
78 Chapter 5

492 Problem All the natural numbers, starting with 497 Problem (AHSME 1989) Five people are sitting
1, are listed consecutively at a round table. Let f ≥ 0 be the number of people
sitting next to at least one female, and let m ≥ 0 be
123456789101112131415161718192021 . . . the number of people sitting next to at least one male.
Find the number of possible ordered pairs (f, m).
Which digit occupies the 1002nd place?

493 Problem All the positive integers are written in 498 Problem How many integers less than 10000 can
succession. be made with the eight digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7?

123456789101112131415161718192021222324 . . .
499 Problem (ARML 1999) In how many ways can
Which digit occupies the 206790th place? one arrange the numbers 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, and 81
such that the sum of every four consecutive numbers
is divisible by 3?
494 Problem All the positive integers with initial
digit 2 are written in succession:
500 Problem Let S be the set of all natural numbers
2, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 200, 201, . . . , whose digits are chosen from the set {1, 3, 5, 7} such
Find the 1978-th digit written. that no digits are repeated. Find the sum of the
elements of S.

495 Problem (AHSME 1998) Call a 7-digit telephone

number d1 d2 d3 − d4 d5 d6 d7 memorable if the prefix 501 Problem Find the number of ways to choose a
sequence d1 d2 d3 is exactly the same as either of the pair {a, b} of distinct numbers from the set
sequences d4 d5 d6 or d5 d6 d7 or possibly both. {1, 2, . . . , 50} such that
Assuming that each di can be any of the ten decimal
digits 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9, find the number of different ➊ |a − b| = 5
memorable telephone numbers.
➋ |a − b| ≤ 5.
496 Problem Three-digit numbers are made using
the digits {1, 3, 7, 8, 9}. 502 Problem (AIME 1994) Given a positive integer n,
➊ How many of these integers are there? let p(n) be the product of the non-zero digits of n. (If
n has only one digit, then p(n) is equal to that digit.)
➋ How many are even? Let
➌ How many are palindromes? S = p(1) + p(2) + · · · + p(999).

➍ How many are divisible by 3? Find S.

5.4 Permutations without Repetitions

503 Definition We define the symbol ! (factorial), as follows: 0! = 1, and for integer n ≥ 1,
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · · n.
n! is read n factorial.

504 Example We have

1! = 1,

2! = 1 · 2 = 2,

3! = 1 · 2 · 3 = 6,

4! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 = 24,

5! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 = 120.
Permutations without Repetitions 79

505 Example We have

7! 7 · 6 · 5 · 4!
= = 210,
4! 4!

(n + 2)! (n + 2)(n + 1)n!

= = (n + 2)(n + 1),
n! n!

(n − 2)! (n − 2)! 1
= = .
(n + 1)! (n + 1)(n)(n − 1)(n − 2)! (n + 1)(n)(n − 1)

506 Definition Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be n distinct objects. A permutation of these objects is simply a

rearrangement of them.

507 Example There are 24 permutations of the letters in MATH, namely

MATH MAHT MTAH MTHA MHTA MHAT

AMTH AMHT ATMH ATHM AHTM AHMT

TAMH TAHM TMAH TMHA THMA THAM

HATM HAMT HTAM HTMA HMTA HMAT

508 Theorem Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be n distinct objects. Then there are n! permutations of them.

Proof: The first position can be chosen in n ways, the second object in n − 1 ways, the third in
n − 2, etc. This gives
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 2 · 1 = n!.
❑

509 Example The number of permutations of the letters of the word RETICULA is 8! = 40320.

510 Example A bookshelf contains 5 German books, 7 Spanish books and 8 French books. Each book is
different from one another.

➊ How many different arrangements can be done ➌ How many different arrangements can be done
of these books? of these books if all the French books must be
next to each other?
➋ How many different arrangements can be done ➍ How many different arrangements can be done
of these books if books of each language must be of these books if no two French books must be
next to each other? next to each other?

Solution:

➊ We are permuting 5 + 7 + 8 = 20 objects. Thus permute the German books in 5! ways, the
the number of arrangements sought is Spanish books in 7! ways and the French books
20! = 2432902008176640000. in 8! ways. Hence the total number of ways is
3!5!7!8! = 146313216000.
➋ “Glue” the books by language, this will assure
that books of the same language are together. ➌ Align the German books and the Spanish books
We permute the 3 languages in 3! ways. We first. Putting these 5 + 7 = 12 books creates
80 Chapter 5

12 + 1 = 13 spaces (we count the space before 12 + 1 = 13 spaces (we count the space before
the first book, the spaces between books and the the first book, the spaces between books and the
space after the last book). To assure that all the space after the last book). To assure that no two
French books are next each other, we “glue” French books are next to each other, we put
them together and put them in one of these them into these spaces. The first French book
spaces. Now, the French books can be permuted can be put into any of 13 spaces, the second into
in 8! ways and the non-French books can be any of 12, etc., the eighth French book can be
permuted in 12! ways. Thus the total number of put into any 6 spaces. Now, the non-French
permutations is books can be permuted in 12! ways. Thus the
total number of permutations is
(13)8!12! = 251073478656000.
(13)(12)(11)(10)(9)(8)(7)(6)12!,
➍ Align the German books and the Spanish books
first. Putting these 5 + 7 = 12 books creates which is 24856274386944000.

Homework

511 Problem How many changes can be rung with a denominator. For how many rational numbers
peal of five bells? between 0 and 1 will 20! be the resulting product?

512 Problem A bookshelf contains 3 Russian novels, 516 Problem (AMC12 2001) A spider has one sock
4 German novels, and 5 Spanish novels. In how many and one shoe for each of its eight legs. In how many
ways may we align them if different orders can the spider put on its socks and
shoes, assuming that, on each leg, the sock must be
➊ there are no constraints as to grouping? put on before the shoe?
➋ all the Spanish novels must be together?
517 Problem How many trailing 0’s are there when
➌ no two Spanish novels are next to one another? 1000! is multiplied out?

513 Problem How many permutations of the word 518 Problem In how many ways can 8 people be
IMPURE are there? How many permutations start seated in a row if
with P and end in U? How many permutations are
there if the P and the U must always be together in ➊ there are no constraints as to their seating
the order PU? How many permutations are there in arrangement?
which no two vowels (I, U, E) are adjacent?
➋ persons X and Y must sit next to one another?
514 Problem How many arrangements can be made ➌ there are 4 women and 4 men and no 2 men or 2
of out of the letters of the word DRAUGHT, the women can sit next to each other?
vowels never separated?
➍ there are 4 married couples and each couple
must sit together?
515 Problem (AIME 1991) Given a rational number,
write it as a fraction in lowest terms and calculate ➎ there are 4 men and they must sit next to each
the product of the resulting numerator and other?

5.5 Permutations with Repetitions

We now consider permutations with repeated objects.

519 Example In how many ways may the letters of the word

MASSACHUSETTS

be permuted?
Permutations with Repetitions 81

Solution: We put subscripts on the repeats forming

MA1 S1 S2 A2 CHUS3 ET1 T2 S4 .

There are now 13 distinguishable objects, which can be permuted in 13! different ways by Theorem 508. For
each of these 13! permutations, A1 A2 can be permuted in 2! ways, S1 S2 S3 S4 can be permuted in 4! ways,
and T1 T2 can be permuted in 2! ways. Thus the over count 13! is corrected by the total actual count
13!
= 64864800.
2!4!2!
A reasoning analogous to the one of example 519, we may prove

520 Theorem Let there be k types of objects: n1 of type 1; n2 of type 2; etc. Then the number of ways in
which these n1 + n2 + · · · + nk objects can be rearranged is
(n1 + n2 + · · · + nk )!
.
n1 !n2 ! · · · nk !

521 Example In how many ways may we permute the letters of the word MASSACHUSETTS in such a way
that MASS is always together, in this order?

Solution: The particle MASS can be considered as one block and the 9 letters A, C, H, U, S, E, T, T, S. In A,
C, H, U, S, E, T, T, S there are four S’s and two T ’s and so the total number of permutations sought is
10!
= 907200.
2!2!

522 Example In how many ways may we write the number 9 as the sum of three positive integer summands?
Here order counts, so, for example, 1 + 7 + 1 is to be regarded different from 7 + 1 + 1.

Solution: We first look for answers with

a + b + c = 9, 1 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ c ≤ 7

and we find the permutations of each triplet. We have

(a, b, c) Number of permutations

3!
(1, 1, 7) =3
2!
(1, 2, 6) 3! = 6

(1, 3, 5) 3! = 6
3!
(1, 4, 4) =3
2!
3!
(2, 2, 5) =3
2!
(2, 3, 4) 3! = 6
3!
(3, 3, 3) =1
3!
Thus the number desired is
3 + 6 + 6 + 3 + 3 + 6 + 1 = 28.

523 Example In how many ways can the letters of the word MURMUR be arranged without letting two
letters which are alike come together?
82 Chapter 5

Solution: If we started with, say , MU then the R could be arranged as follows:

M U R R ,

M U R R ,

M U R R .
In the first case there are 2! = 2 of putting the remaining M and U, in the second there are 2! = 2 and in the
third there is only 1!. Thus starting the word with MU gives 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 possible arrangements. In the
general case, we can choose the first letter of the word in 3 ways, and the second in 2 ways. Thus the number
of ways sought is 3 · 2 · 5 = 30.

524 Example In how many ways can the letters of the word AFFECTION be arranged, keeping the vowels
in their natural order and not letting the two F’s come together?

9!
Solution: There are ways of permuting the letters of AFFECTION. The 4 vowels can be permuted in 4!
2!
9!
ways, and in only one of these will they be in their natural order. Thus there are ways of permuting the
2!4!
letters of AFFECTION in which their vowels keep their natural order.

Now, put the 7 letters of AFFECTION which are not the two F’s. This creates 8 spaces in between them
where we put the two F’s. This means that there are 8 · 7! permutations of AFFECTION that keep the two
8 · 7!
F’s together. Hence there are permutations of AFFECTION where the vowels occur in their natural
4!
order.

In conclusion, the number of permutations sought is

 ‹
9! 8 · 7! 8! 9 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4! 7
− = −1 = · = 5880
2!4! 4! 4! 2 4! 2

525 Example How many arrangements of five letters can be made of the letters of the word PALLMALL?

Solution: We consider the following cases:

➊ there are four L’s and a different letter. The different letter can be chosen in 3 ways, so there are
3 · 5!
= 15 permutations in this case.
4!
5!
➋ there are three L’s and two A’s. There are = 10 permutations in this case.
3!2!
➌ there are three L’s and two different letters. The different letters can be chosen in 3 ways ( either P and
3 · 5!
A; or P and M; or A and M), so there are = 60 permutations in this case.
3!
➍ there are two L’s, two A’s and a different letter from these two. The different letter can be chosen in 2
2 · 5!
ways. There are = 60 permutations in this case.
2!2!
➎ there are two L’s and three different letters. The different letters can be chosen in 1 way. There are
1 · 5!
= 60 permutations in this case.
2!
➏ there is one L. This forces having two A’s and two other different letters. The different letters can be
1 · 5!
chosen in 1 way. There are = 60 permutations in this case.
2!
The total number of permutations is thus seen to be
15 + 10 + 60 + 60 + 60 + 60 = 265.
Homework 83

Homework
526 Problem In how many ways may one permute ➋ How many are there if the orange flag must
the letters of the word MEPHISTOPHELES? always be first?

527 Problem How many arrangements of four letters ➌ How many are there if there must be a white
can be made out of the letters of KAFFEEKANNE flag at the beginning and another white flag at
without letting the three E’s come together? the end?

528 Problem How many numbers can be formed 530 Problem In how many ways may we write the
with the digits number 10 as the sum of three positive integer
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1 summands? Here order counts, so, for example,
so that the odd digits occupy the odd places? 1 + 8 + 1 is to be regarded different from 8 + 1 + 1.

529 Problem In this problem you will determine how 531 Problem Three distinguishable dice are thrown.
many different signals, each consisting of 10 flags In how many ways can they land and give a sum of 9?
hung in a line, can be made from a set of 4 white
flags, 3 red flags, 2 blue flags, and 1 orange flag, if 532 Problem In how many ways can 15 different
flags of the same colour are identical. recruits be divided into three equal groups? In how
➊ How many are there if there are no constraints many ways can they be drafted into three different
on the order? regiments?

5.6 Combinations without Repetitions

 
n
533 Definition Let n, k be non-negative integers with 0 ≤ k ≤ n. The symbol (read “n choose k”) is
k
defined and denoted by
 
n n! n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1)
= = .
k k!(n − k)! 1 · 2 · 3···k

☞ Observe that in the last fraction, there are k factors in both the numerator and denominator.
Also, observe the boundary conditions
       
n n n n
= = 1, = = n.
0 n 1 n−1

534 Example We have

 
6 6·5·4
= = 20,

3  1·2·3
11 11 · 10
= = 55,

2 1·2
12 12 · 11 · 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6
= = 792,

7  1·2·3·4·5·6·7
110
= 110,

109
110
= 1.
0

☞ Since n − (n − k) = k, we have for integer n, k, 0 ≤ k ≤ n, the symmetry identity

   
n n! n! n
= = = .
k k!(n − k)! (n − k)!(n − (n − k))! n−k
84 Chapter 5

This can be interpreted as follows: if there are n different tickets in a hat, choosing k of them out of
the hat is the same as choosing n − k of them to remain in the hat.

535 Example    
11 11
= = 55,
9 2
   
12 12
= = 792.
5 7

536 Definition Let there be n distinguishable objects. A k-combination is a selection of k, (0 ≤ k ≤ n) objects

from the n made without regards to order.

537 Example The 2-combinations from the list {X, Y, Z, W} are

XY, XZ, XW, YZ, YW, WZ.

538 Example The 3-combinations from the list {X, Y, Z, W} are

XYZ, XYW, XZW, YWZ.

539 Theorem Let there be n distinguishable

  objects, and let k, 0 ≤ k ≤ n. Then the numbers of
n
k-combinations of these n objects is .
k

Proof: Pick any of the k objects. They can be ordered in n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1), since
there are n ways of choosing the first, n − 1 ways of choosing the second, etc. This particular choice
of k objects can be permuted in k! ways. Hence the total number of k-combinations is
 
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − k + 1) n
= .
k! k
❑
 
10
540 Example From a group of 10 people, we may choose a committee of 4 in = 210 ways.
4

541 Example In a group of 2 camels, 3 goats, and 10 sheep in how many ways may one choose 6 animals if

➊ there are no constraints in species? ➎ there must be at most 2 sheep?

➋ the two camels must be included? ➏ Joe Camel, Billy Goat and Samuel Sheep hate
➌ the two camels must be excluded? each other and they will not work in the same
group. How many compatible committees are
➍ there must be at least 3 sheep? there?

Solution:

➊ There are 2 + 3 +10 

= 15 animals and we must ➌ Since the 2 camels must be excluded, we must
15 choose
choose 6, whence = 5005   6 animals from a list of 15 − 2 = 13, so
6 13
= 1716
6
➋ Since the 2 camels are included, we must choose
6 − 2 = 4 more animals froma list of
13 ➍ If k sheep are chosen from the 10 sheep, 6 − k
15 − 2 = 13 animals, so = 715 animals must be chosen from the remaining 5
4
Combinations without Repetitions 85

animals, hence thus      

10 5 10 5
            + = 235.
10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 2 4 1 5
+ + + ,
3 3 4 2 5 1 6 0
➏ A compatible group will either exclude all these
which simplifies to 4770. three animals or include exactly one of them.
This can be done in
➎ First observe that there cannot be 0 sheep, since     
12 3 12
that would mean choosing 6 other animals. + = 3300
6 1 5
Hence, there must be either 1 or 2 sheep, and so
3 or 4 of the other animals. The total number is ways.

542 Example To count the number of shortest routes from A to B in figure 5.8 observe that any shortest path
must consist of 6 horizontal moves and 3 vertical ones for a total of 6 + 3 = 9 moves.
  Of these 9 moves once we
9
choose the 6 horizontal ones the 3 vertical ones are determined. Thus there are = 84 paths.
6

543 Example To count the number of shortest routes from   B in figure 5.9 that pass through point O we
A to
5
count the number of paths from A to O (of which there are = 20) and the number of paths from O to B
  3   
4 5 4
(of which there are = 4). Thus the desired number of paths is = (20)(4) = 80.
3 3 3
without a 9

B B

bO
9550

14266 14266

14406

A A 9550 9550

14266

without a 7 without an 8

Figure 5.8: Example 542. Figure 5.9: Example 543. Figure 5.10: Example 544.

544 Example Consider the set of 5-digit positive integers written in decimal notation.

1. How many are there? 7. How many have exactly four 9’s?
2. How many do not have a 9 in their decimal 8. How many have exactly five 9’s?
representation?
9. How many have neither an 8 nor a 9 in their
3. How many have at least one 9 in their decimal decimal representation?
representation?
10. How many have neither a 7, nor an 8, nor a 9 in
4. How many have exactly one 9?
their decimal representation?
5. How many have exactly two 9’s?
11. How many have either a 7, an 8, or a 9 in their
6. How many have exactly three 9’s? decimal representation?

Solution:
86 Chapter 5

1. There are 9 possible choices for the first digit remaining digits must be different from 9,
and 10 possible choices for the remaining digits. giving 6 · 92 = 486 such numbers. If the first
The number of choices is thus 9 · 104 = 90000. digit is not a 9, then there are
 8 choices for this
4
2. There are 8 possible choices for the first digit first digit. Also, we have = 4 ways of
3
and 9 possible choices for the remaining digits. choosing were the three 9’s will be, and we have
The number of choices is thus 8 · 94 = 52488. 9 ways of filling the remaining spot. Thus in
3. The difference 90000 − 52488 = 37512. this case there are 8 · 4 · 9 = 288 such numbers.
Altogether there are 486 + 288 = 774 five-digit
4. We condition on the first digit. If the first digit positive integers with exactly three 9’s in their
is a 9 then the other four remaining digits must decimal representation.
be different from 9, giving 94 = 6561 such
numbers. If the first digit is not a 9, then there 7. If the first digit is a 9 then three of the
are
 8 choices for this first digit. Also, we have remaining four must be 9’s, and the choice of
 
4 4
= 4 ways of choosing were the 9 will be, place can be accomplished in = 4 ways. The
1 3
and we have 93 ways of filling the 3 remaining other remaining digit must be different from 9,
spots. Thus in this case there are giving 4 · 9 = 36 such numbers. If the first digit
8 · 4 · 93 = 23328 such numbers. In total there is not a 9, then thereare  8 choices for this first
are 6561 + 23328 = 29889 five-digit positive 4
digit. Also, we have = 4 ways of choosing
integers with exactly one 9 in their decimal 4
representation. were the four 9’s will be, thus filling all the
spots. Thus in this case there are 8 · 1 = 8 such
5. We condition on the first digit. If the first digit numbers. Altogether there are 36 + 8 = 44
is a 9 then one of the remaining four must be a five-digit positive integers with exactly three 9’s
 and
9,  the choice of place can be accomplished in in their decimal representation.
4
= 4 ways. The other three remaining digits
1 8. There is obviously only 1 such positive integer.
must be different from 9, giving 4 · 93 = 2916
such numbers. If the first digit is not a 9, then
thereare8 choices for this first digit. Also, we
☞Observe that
4 37512 = 29889 + 6804 + 774 + 44 + 1.
have = 6 ways of choosing were the two 9’s
2
will be, and we have 92 ways of filling the two 9. We have 7 choices for the first digit and 8
remaining spots. Thus in this case there are choices for the remaining 4 digits, giving
8 · 6 · 92 = 3888 such numbers. Altogether there 7 · 84 = 28672 such integers.
are 2916 + 3888 = 6804 five-digit positive
10. We have 6 choices for the first digit and 7
integers with exactly two 9’s in their decimal
choices for the remaining 4 digits, giving
representation.
6 · 74 = 14406 such integers.
6. Again we condition on the first digit. If the first
digit is a 9 then two of the remaining four must 11. We use inclusion-exclusion. From figure 5.10,
be 9’s, and the choice the numbers inside the circles add up to 85854.
  of place can be
4 Thus the desired number is
accomplished in = 6 ways. The other two 90000 − 85854 = 4146.
2

Homework
 
545 Problem Verify the following. n n(n − 1)
➍ =
  2 2
20
➊ = 1140      
3 6 6 6
   ➎ + + = 25 .
12 12 1 3 6
➋ = 457380        
4 6 7 7 7 6 7
➏ + + =2 −
n
0 2 4 6
1
➌ n
=1
n−1
Homework 87

546 Problem A publisher proposes to issue a set of ➋ if all books of the same language must be
dictionaries to translate from any one language to together?
any other. If he confines his system to ten languages,
➌ if all the Spanish novels must be together?
how many dictionaries must be published?
➍ if no two Spanish novels are adjacent?
547 Problem From a group of 12 people—7 of which ➎ if all the Spanish novels must be together, and
are men and 5 women—in how many ways may all the English novels must be together, but no
choose a committee of 4 with 1 man and 3 women? Spanish novel is next to an English novel?

548 Problem N friends meet and shake hands with 558 Problem How many committees of seven with a
one another. How many handshakes? given chairman can be selected from twenty people?

549 Problem How many 4-letter words can be made 559 Problem How many committees of seven with a
by taking 4 letters of the word RETICULA and given chairman and a given secretary can be selected
permuting them? from twenty people? Assume the chairman and the
secretary are different persons.
550 Problem (AHSME 1989) Mr. and Mrs. Zeta want
to name baby Zeta so that its monogram (first, middle 560 Problem (AHSME 1990) How many of the
and last initials) will be in alphabetical order with no numbers
letters repeated. How many such monograms are 100, 101, . . . , 999,
possible? have three different digits in increasing order or in
decreasing order?
551 Problem In how many ways can {1, 2, 3, 4} be
written as the union of two non-empty, disjoint 561 Problem There are twenty students in a class.
subsets? In how many ways can the twenty students take five
different tests if four of the students are to take each
test?
552 Problem How many lists of 3 elements taken
from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} list the elements in
increasing order? 562 Problem In how many ways can a deck of
playing cards be arranged if no two hearts are
adjacent?
553 Problem How many times is the digit 3 listed in
the numbers 1 to 1000?
563 Problem Given a positive integer n, find the
number of quadruples (a, b, c, d, ) such that
554 Problem How many subsets of the set 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ c ≤ d ≤ n.
{a, b, c, d, e} have exactly 3 elements?
564 Problem There are T books on Theology, L books
555 Problem How many subsets of the set on Law and W books on Witchcraft on Dr. Faustus’
{a, b, c, d, e} have an odd number of elements? shelf. In how many ways may one order the books
➊ there are no constraints in their order?
556 Problem (AHSME 1994) Nine chairs in a row are
➋ all books of a subject must be together?
to be occupied by six students and Professors Alpha,
Beta and Gamma. These three professors arrive ➌ no two books on Witchcraft are juxtaposed?
before the six students and decide to choose their
➍ all the books on Witchcraft must be together?
chairs so that each professor will be between two
students. In how many ways can Professors Alpha,
Beta and Gamma choose their chairs? 565 Problem From a group of 20 students, in how
many ways may a professor choose at least one in
order to work on a project?
557 Problem There are E (different) English novels,
F (different) French novels, S (different) Spanish
novels, and I (different) Italian novels on a shelf. 566 Problem From a group of 20 students, in how
How many different permutations are there if many ways may a professor choose an even number
number of them, but at least four in order to work on
➊ if there are no restrictions? a project?
88 Chapter 5

567 Problem How many permutations of the word 573 Problem A square chessboard has 16 squares (4
rows and 4 columns). One puts 4 checkers in such a
CHICHICUILOTE way that only one checker can be put in a square.
Determine the number of ways of putting these
are there checkers if
➊ if there are no restrictions? ➊ there must be exactly one checker per row and
➋ if the word must start in an I and end also in an column.
I? ➋ there must be exactly one column without a
➌ if the word must start in an I and end in a C? checker.

➍ if the two H’s are adjacent? ➌ there must be at least one column without a
checker.
➎ if the two H’s are not adjacent?

➏ if the particle LOTE must appear, with the 574 Problem A box contains 4 red, 5 white, 6 blue,
letters in this order? and 7 magenta balls. In how many of all possible
samples of size 5, chosen without replacement, will
every colour be represented?
568 Problem There are M men and W women in a
group. A committee of C people will be chosen. In
how many ways may one do this if 575 Problem In how many ways can eight students
be divided into four indistinguishable teams of two
➊ there are no constraints on the sex of the each?
committee members?

➋ there must be exactly T women? 576 Problem How many ways can three boys share
fifteen different sized pears if the youngest gets seven
➌ A committee must always include George and pears and the other two boys get four each?those in
Barbara? which the digit 1 occurs or those in which it does not
occur?
➍ A committee must always exclude George and
Barbara?
577 Problem Four writers must write a book
Assume George and Barbara form part of the original containing seventeen chapters. The first and third
set of people. writers must each write five chapters, the second
must write four chapters, and the fourth must write
three chapters. How many ways can the book be
569 Problem There are M men and W women in a
divided between the authors? What if the first and
group. A committee of C people will be chosen. In
third had to write ten chapters combined, but it did
how many ways may one do this if George and
not matter which of them wrote how many (i.e. the
Barbara are feuding and will not work together in a
first could write ten and the third none, the first
committee? Assume George and Barbara form part of
could write none and the third one, etc.)?
the original set of people.

578 Problem In how many ways can a woman choose

570 Problem Out of 30 consecutive integers, in how
three lovers or more from seven eligible suitors? may
many ways can three be selected so that their sum be
be opened by depressing—in any order—the correct
even?
five buttons. Suppose that these locks are redesigned
so that sets of as many as nine buttons or as few as
571 Problem In how many ways may we choose one button could serve as combinations. How many
three distinct integers from {1, 2, . . . , 100} so that one additional combinations would this allow?
of them is the average of the other two?
➊ how many straight lines are determined?
572 Problem How many vectors (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) ➋ how many straight lines pass through a
with integral particular point?
ai ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}
➌ how many triangles are determined?
are there satisfying
➍ how many triangles have a particular point as a
1 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ ak ≤ n? vertex?
Homework 89

579 Problem In how many ways can you pack twelve 589 Problem Give a combinatorial proof that for
books into four parcels if one parcel has one book, integer n ≥ 1,
another has five books, and another has two books,   n  2
X
and another has four books? 2n n
= .
n k=0
k
580 Problem In how many ways can a person invite
three of his six friends to lunch every day for twenty 590 Problem In each of the 6-digit numbers
days if he has the option of inviting the same or
different friends from previous days? 333333, 225522, 118818, 707099,

581 Problem A committee is to be chosen from a set each digit in the number appears at least twice. Find
of nine women and five men. How many ways are the number of such 6-digit natural numbers.
there to form the committee if the committee has
three men and three women? 591 Problem In each of the 7-digit numbers

1001011, 5550000, 3838383, 7777777,

582 Problem At a dance there are b boys and g girls.
In how many ways can they form c couples consisting each digit in the number appears at least thrice. Find
of different sexes? the number of such 7-digit natural numbers.

583 Problem From three Russians, four Americans, 592 Problem (AIME 1983) The numbers 1447, 1005
and two Spaniards, how many selections of people and 1231 have something in common: each is a
can be made, taking at least one of each kind? four-digit number beginning with 1 that has exactly
two identical digits. How many such numbers are
584 Problem The positive integer r satisfies there?

1 1 11 593 Problem If there are fifteen players on a

9
10
11

− = .
r r
6 r
baseball team, how many ways can the coach choose
nine players for the starting lineup if it does not
Find r. matter which position the players play (i.e., no
distinction is made between player A playing
   
28 24 shortstop, left field, or any other positions as long as
585 Problem If 11 = 225 , find r. he is on the field)? How many ways are there if it
2r 2r − 4
does matter which position the players play?

586 Problem Compute the number of ten-digit

numbers which contain only the digits 1, 2, and 3 594 Problem (AHSME 1989) A child has a set of 96
with the digit 2 appearing in each number exactly distinct blocks. Each block is one of two materials
twice. (plastic, wood), three sizes (small, medium, large),
four colours (blue, green, red, yellow), and four shapes
(circle, hexagon, square, triangle). How many blocks
587 Problem Prove Pascal’s Identity: in the set are different from the “plastic medium red
      circle” in exactly two ways? (The “wood medium red
n n−1 n−1
= + , square” is such a block.)
k k−1 k

for integers 1 ≤ k ≤ n. 595 Problem (AHSME 1989) Suppose that k boys and
n − k girls line up in a row. Let S be the number of
places in the row where a boy and a girl are standing
588 Problem Give a combinatorial interpretation of next to each other. For example, for the row
Newton’s Identity:
      GBBGGGBGBGGGBGBGGBGG,
n r n n−k
= (5.1)
r k k r−k with k = 7, n = 20 we have S = 12. Shew that the
2k(n − k)
average value of S is .
for 0 ≤ k ≤ r ≤ n. n
90 Chapter 5

596 Problem There are four different kinds of sweets 0’s are written?
at a sweets store. I want to buy up to four sweets (I’m
not sure if I want none, one, two, three, or four
sweets) and I refuse to buy more than one of any kind 599 Problem In how many ways can we distribute k
of sweet. How many ways can I do this? identical balls into n different boxes so that each box
contains at most one ball and no two consecutive
boxes are empty?
597 Problem Suppose five people are in a lift. There
are eight floors that the lift stops at. How many
distinct ways can the people exit the lift if either one 600 Problem In a row of n seats in the doctor’s
or zero people exit at each stop? waiting-room k patients sit down in a particular
order from left to right. They sit so that no two of
598 Problem If the natural numbers from 1 to them are in adjacent seats. In how many ways could
222222222 are written down in succession, how many a suitable set of k seats be chosen?

5.7 Combinations with Repetitions

601 Theorem (De Moivre) Let n be a positive integer. The number of positive integer solutions to
x1 + x 2 + · · · + x r = n
is  
n−1
.
r−1

Proof: Write n as
n = 1 + 1 + · · · + 1 + 1,
where there are n 1s and n − 1 +s. To decompose n in r summands we only need to choose r − 1
pluses from the n − 1, which proves the theorem. ❑

602 Example In how many ways may we write the number 9 as the sum of three positive integer summands?
Here order counts, so, for example, 1 + 7 + 1 is to be regarded different from 7 + 1 + 1.

Solution: Notice that this is example 522. We are seeking integral solutions to
a + b + c = 9, a > 0, b > 0, c > 0.
By Theorem 601 this is    
9−1 8
= = 28.
3−1 2

603 Example In how many ways can 100 be written as the sum of four positive integer summands?

Solution: We want the number of positive integer solutions to

a + b + c + d = 100,
which by Theorem 601 is  
99
= 156849.
3

604 Corollary Let n be a positive integer. The number of non-negative integer solutions to
y1 + y 2 + · · · + y r = n
is  
n+r−1
.
r−1
Combinations with Repetitions 91

Proof: Put xr − 1 = yr . Then xr ≥ 1. The equation

x1 − 1 + x 2 − 1 + · · · + x r − 1 = n

is equivalent to
x1 + x2 + · · · + xr = n + r,
which from Theorem 601, has  
n+r−1
r−1
solutions. ❑

605 Example Find the number of quadruples (a, b, c, d) of integers satisfying

a + b + c + d = 100, a ≥ 30, b > 21, c ≥ 1, d ≥ 1.

Solution: Put a ′ + 29 = a, b ′ + 20 = b. Then we want the number of positive integer solutions to

a ′ + 29 + b ′ + 21 + c + d = 100,

or
a ′ + b ′ + c + d = 50.
By Theorem 601 this number is  
49
= 18424.
3

606 Example There are five people in a lift of a building having eight floors. In how many ways can they
choose their floor for exiting the lift?

Solution: Let xi be the number of people that floor i receives. We are looking for non-negative solutions of the
equation
x1 + x2 + · · · + x8 = 5.
Putting yi = xi + 1, then

x1 + x2 + · · · + x 8 = 5 =⇒ (y1 − 1) + (y2 − 1) + · · · + (y8 − 1) = 5

=⇒ y1 + y2 + · · · + y8 = 13,

whence the number sought is the number of positive solutions to

y1 + y2 + · · · + y8 = 13
 
12
which is = 792.
7

607 Example Find the number of quadruples (a, b, c, d) of non-negative integers which satisfy the
inequality
a + b + c + d ≤ 2001.

Solution: The number of non-negative solutions to

a + b + c + d ≤ 2001

equals the number of solutions to

a + b + c + d + f = 2001
92 Chapter 5

where f is a non-negative integer. This number is the same as the number of positive integer solutions to

a1 − 1 + b1 − 1 + c1 − 1 + d1 − 1 + f1 − 1 = 2001,
 
2005
which is easily seen to be .
4

608 Example
How many integral solutions to the equation

a + b + c + d = 100,

are there given the following constraints:

1 ≤ a ≤ 10, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, 20 ≤ d ≤ 30?
 
80
Solution: We use Inclusion-Exclusion. There are = 82160 integral solutions to
3
a + b + c + d = 100, a ≥ 1, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, d ≥ 20.

Let A be the set of solutions with

a ≥ 11, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, d ≥ 20
and B be the set of solutions with
a ≥ 1, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, d ≥ 31.
     
70 69 59
Then card (A) = , card (B) = , card (A ∩ B) = and so
3 3 3
     
70 69 59
card (A ∪ B) = + − = 74625.
3 3 3

The total number of solutions to

a + b + c + d = 100
with
1 ≤ a ≤ 10, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, 20 ≤ d ≤ 30
is thus        
80 70 69 59
− − + = 7535.
3 3 3 3

Homework

609 Problem How many positive integral solutions 612 Problem How many integral solutions are there
are there to to the equation
a + b + c = 10?
x1 + x2 + · · · + x100 = n
610 Problem Three fair dice, one red, one white, and
one blue are thrown. In how many ways can they subject to the constraints
land so that their sum be 10 ?
x1 ≥ 1, x2 ≥ 2, x3 ≥ 3, . . . , x99 ≥ 99, x100 ≥ 100?
611 Problem Adena has twenty indistinguishable
pieces of sweet-meats that she wants to divide
amongst her five stepchildren. How many ways can 613 Problem (AIME 1998) Find the number of
she divide the sweet-meats so that each stepchild ordered quadruplets (a, b, c, d) of positive odd
gets at least two pieces of sweet-meats? integers satisfying a + b + c + d = 98.
The Binomial Theorem 93

5.8 The Binomial Theorem

We recall that the symbol  
n!n
= , n, k ∈ N, 0 ≤ k ≤ n,
k (n − k)!k!
counts the number of ways of selecting k different objects from n different objects. Observe that we have the
following absorbtion identity:    
n n n−1
= .
k k k−1

614 Example Prove Pascal’s Identity:

     
n n−1 n−1
= + ,
k k−1 k
for integers 1 ≤ k ≤ n.

Solution: We have
   
n−1 n−1 (n − 1)! (n − 1)!
+ = +
k−1 k (k − 1)!(n − k)! k!(n − k − 1)!
 ‹
(n − 1)! 1 1
= +
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! n − k k
(n − 1)! n
=
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! (n − k)k
n!
= .
(n − k)!k!
 
n
=
k

615 Example Prove Newton’s Identity:

     
n i n n−j
= ,
i j j j−i
for integers 0 ≤ j ≤ i ≤ n.

Solution: We have   
n i n!i! n!(n − j)!
= =
i j i!(n − i)!j!(i − j)! (n − j)!j!(n − i)!(i − j)!
which is the same as   
n n−j
.
j i−j
Using Pascal’s Identity we obtain Pascal’s Triangle.
 
0
  0  
1 1
  0   1  
2 2 2
  0   1   2  
3 3 3 3
  0   1   2   3  
4 4 4 4 4
  0   1   2   3   4  
5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
94 Chapter 5

When the numerical values are substituted, the triangle then looks like this.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

We see from Pascal’s

 Triangle that binomial coefficients are symmetric. This symmetry is easily justified by
n n
the identity = . We also notice that the binomial coefficients tend to increase until they reach
k n−k  
n
the middle, and that they decrease symmetrically. That is, the satisfy
k
               
n n n n n n n n
< < ··· < < > > > ··· > >
0 1 [n/2] − 1 [n/2] [n/2] + 1 [n/2] + 2 n−1 n

if n is even, and that

                 
n n n n n n n n n
< < ··· < < = > > > ··· > >
0 1 [n/2] − 1 [n/2] [n/2] + 1 [n/2] + 2 [n/2] + 3 n−1 n

for odd n. We call this property the unimodality

  of
 thebinomial coefficients.
   Forexample,
 without finding the
200 200 200 200 200
exact numerical values we can see that < and that = < .
17 69 131 69 99
We now present some examples on the use of binomial coefficients.

616 Example The Catalan number of order n is defined as

 
1 2n
Cn = .
n+1 n

Prove that Cn is an integer for all natural numbers n.

Solution: Observe that      

1 2n 2n 2n
= − ,
n+1 n n n−1
the difference of two integers.

617 Example (Putnam 1972) Shew that no four consecutive binomial coefficients
       
n n n n
, , ,
r r+1 r+2 r+3

(n, r positive integers and r + 3 ≤ n) are in arithmetic progression.

       
n n n n
Solution: Assume that a = ,a + d = , a + 2d = , a + 3d = . This yields
r r+1 r+2 r+3
     
n n n
2 = + ,
r+1 r r+2

or equivalently
r+1 n−r−1
2= + (∗).
n−r r+2
The Binomial Theorem 95

This is a quadratic equation in r, having r as one of its roots. The condition that the binomial coefficients are
in arithmetic progression means that r + 1 is also a root of (∗). Replacing r by n − r − 2 we also obtain
n−r−1 r+1
2= + ,
r+2 n−r
which is the same as (∗). This means that n − r − 3 and n − r − 2 are also roots of (∗). Since a quadratic
equation can only have two roots, we must have r = n − r − 3. The four binomial coefficients must then be
       
2r + 3 2r + 3 2r + 3 2r + 3
, , , .
r r+1 r+2 r+3
But these cannot be in an arithmetic progression, since binomial coefficients are unimodal and symmetric.
 
n
618 Example Let N(a) denote the number of solutions to the equation a = for nonnegative integers
k
n, k. For example, N(1) = ∞, N(3) = N(5) = 2, N(6) = 3, etc. Prove that N(a) ≤ 2 + 2 log2 a.
 
2b
Solution: Let b be the first time that > a. By the unimodality of the binomial coefficients,
    b
i+j i+j
= is monotonically increasing in i and j. Hence
i j
     
b+i+b+j b+b+j 2b
≥ ≥ >a
b+j b b
   
i+j i+j
for all i, j ≥ 0. Hence = a implies i < b, or j < b. Also, for each fixed value of i (or j), = a has
j i
at most one solution. It follows that N(a) < 2b. Since
 
2(b − 1)
a≥ ≥ 2b−1 ,
b−1
it follows that b ≤ log2 a + 1, and the statement is proven.
We now use Pascal’s Triangle in order to expand the binomial
(a + b)n .
The Binomial Theorem states that for n ∈ Z, n ≥ 0,
n  
X n
(1 + x)n = xk .
k=0
k

As a way of proving this, we observe that expanding

(1 + x)(1 + x) · · · (1 + x)
| {z }
n factors

consists of adding up all the terms obtained from multiplying either a 1 or a x from the first set of
parentheses times either a 1 or an x from the second set of parentheses
  etc. To get xk , x must be chosen from
n
exactly k of the sets of parentheses. Thus the number of xk terms is . It follows that
k
        n  
n n n n X n
(1 + x)n = + x+ x2 + · · · + xn = xk .
0 1 2 n k=0
k

619 Example Prove that

n  
X n
= 2n .
k=0
k
96 Chapter 5

Solution: This follows from letting x = 1 in the expansion

n  
X n
(1 + x)n = xk .
k=0
k

620 Example Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

n   
X  
n j n
= 2n−i , i ≤ n.
j=i
j i i

Solution: Recall that by Newton’s Identity

     
n j n n−i
= .
j i i j−i
Thus
n   
X  n  
n j n X n−i
= .
j=0
j i i j=0
j−i

But upon re-indexing

n 
X 
X
n−i 
n−i n−i
= = 2n−i ,
j=0
j−i j=0
j

by the preceding problem. Thus the assertion follows.

621 Example Prove that

X m + k 
n+m+1

= .
k≤n
k n

Solution: Using Pascal’s Identity

n 
X           
k+m 0+m 0+m 1+m 2+m 3+m
= + + + +
k −1 0 1 2 3
k=0    
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
   n − 1  n  
1+m 1+m 2+m 3+m
= + + +
0  1  2  3
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
   n − 1  n
2+m 2+m 3+m
= + +
1  2  3 
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
   n − 1 n
3+m 3+m
= +
2  3   
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
n−1 n
..
.    
n+m n+m
= +
n−1  n
n+m+1
= ,
n
which is what we wanted.
The Binomial Theorem 97

622 Example Find a closed formula for

  −1
X m n
n ≥ m ≥ 0.
0≤k≤m
k k

Solution: Using Newton’s Identity,

  −1  −1  
X m n n X n−k
= .
0≤k≤m
k k m 0≤k≤m
m−k

Re-indexing,  
X n−k X n − m + k 
n+1

= = ,
0≤k≤m
m−k k≤m
k m

by the preceding problem. Thus

  −1    
X m n n+1 n n+1
= / = .
0≤k≤m
k k m m n+1−m

623 Example Simplify  

X 100
.
0≤k≤50
2k

Solution: By the Binomial Theorem

         
100 100 100 100 100
(1 + 1)100 = + + + ... + +
 0   1   2   99  100
100 100 100 100 100 100
(1 − 1) = − + − ... − + ,
0 1 2 99 100
whence summing both columns
     
100 100 100
2100 = 2 +2 + ... + 2 .
0 2 100

Dividing by 2, the required sum is thus 299 .

624 Example Simplify

50 
X 
100
.
k=1
2k − 1

Solution: We know that

100 
X 
100
= 2100
k=0
k
and
50 
X 
100
= 299 .
k=0
2k

The desired sum is the difference of these two values 2100 − 299 = 299 .

625 Example Simplify

10  
X 11
2k .
k=1
k
98 Chapter 5

11 
X 
11
Solution: By the Binomial Theorem, the complete sum 2k = 311 . The required sum lacks the zeroth
k
    k=0
11 0 11 11
term, 2 = 1, and the eleventh term, 2 from this complete sum. The required sum is thus
0 11
311 − 211 − 1.

626 Example Which coefficient of the expansion of

 ‹10
1 2
+ x
3 3
has the greatest magnitude?

Solution: By the Binomial Theorem,

10 
X  10
X
1 2 10
( + x)10 = (1/3)k (2x/3)10−k = a k xk .
3 3 k=0
k k=0

ak
We consider the ratios , k = 1, 2, . . . n. This ratio is seen to be
ak−1

ak 2(10 − k + 1)
= .
ak−1 k

This will be < 1 if k < 22/3 < 8. Thus a0 < a1 < a2 < . . . < a7 . If k > 22/3, the ratio above will be < 1. Thus
a7 > a8 > a9 > a10 . The largest term is that of k = 7, i.e. the eighth term.

627 Example At what positive integral value of x is the x4 term in the expansion of (2x + 9)10 greater than
the adjacent terms?

Solution: We want to find integral x such that

   
10 10
(2x)4 (9)6 ≥ (2x)3 (9)7 ,
4 3

and    
10 10
(2x)4 (9)6 ≥ (2x)5 (9)5 .
4 5
After simplifying the factorials, the two inequalities sought are

x ≥ 18/7

and
15/4 ≥ x.
The only integral x that satisfies this is x = 3.

628 Example Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

n  
X n
k = n2n−1 .
k=1
k

Solution: Using the absorption identity

n   n  
X n−1 X n
n = k ,
k=0
k − 1 k=0
k
The Binomial Theorem 99

 
n−1
with the convention that = 0. But since
−1
n 
X 
X
n−1 
n−1 n−1
= = 2n−1 ,
k=0
k−1 k=0
k

we obtain the result once again.

629 Example Find a closed formula for

n  
X 1 n
.
k=0
k+1 k

Solution: Using the absorption identity

n   n  
X 1 n 1 X n+1 1
= = (2n+1 − 1).
k=0
k+1 k n+1 k=0
k+1 n+1

630 Example Prove that if m, n are nonnegative integers then

  n  
n+1 X k
= .
m+1 k=m
m

Solution: Using Pascal’s Identity

n  
X        
k m m m+1 n
= + + ··· +
+
m m+1 m m m
k=m       
m+1 m+2 m+1 n
= + + + ··· +
m + 1   m   m  m
m+2 m+2 m+3 n
= + + + ··· +
m+1 m m m
..
.    
n n
= +
m + 1  m
n+1
= .
m+1

631 Example Find a closed form for X

k(k + 1).
k≤n

Solution: Let X
S= k(k + 1).
k≤n

Then
X k(k + 1) X  k + 1
S/2! = = .
k≤n
2! k≤n
2

By the preceding problem

X  k + 1 
n+2

= .
k≤n
2 3
 
n+2
We gather that S = 2 = n(n + 1)(n + 2)/3.
3
100 Chapter 5

Practice

632 Problem Prove that 640 Problem What is the exact numerical value of
   
X n X 100
= 2n−1 . k3k ?
2k + 1 k≤100
k
0≤k≤n/2

633 Problem Expand 641 Problem Find a closed formula for

n
X
1 √ 1 √ k2 − k.
(1 + x)100 + (1 − x)100 .
2 2 k=1

634 Problem Four writers must write a book 642 Problem Find a closed formula for
containing seventeen chapters. The first and third  
X m−k−1
writers must each write five chapters, the second k m > n ≥ 0.
must write four chapters, and the fourth writer must 0≤k≤n
n−k−1
write three chapters. How many ways can the book
be written? What if the first and third writers had to
643 Problem What is the exact numerical value of
write ten chapters combined, but it did not matter
 
which of them wrote how many (e.g., the first could X 5k 100
write ten and the third none, the first could write ?
k≤100
k+1 k
none and the third one, etc.)?
     
10 10 n
635 Problem Prove that 644 Problem Find n if + = .
4 3 4
m jn j1  
X X X n+m
··· 1= . 645 Problem If
n+1
jn =1 jn−1 =1 k=1        
1991 1991 1991 1991
+ + + ··· + = 2a ,
636 Problem The expansion of (x + 2y) contains 20 1 3 5 1991
two terms with the same coefficient, Kxa yb and find a.
Kxa+1 yb−1 . Find a.
   
20 20
646 Problem True or False: = .
637 Problem Prove that for n ∈ N, n > 1 the identity 5 15
n  
X n
(−1)k−1 k =0 647 Problem True or False:
k    
k=1 48 49
49 = 10 .
holds true. 9 10

638 Problem If n is an even natural number, shew 648 Problem What is the coefficient of x24 y24 in the
that expansion
(2x3 + 3y2 )20 ?
1 1
+
1!(n − 1)! 3!(n − 3)! 649 Problem What is the coefficient of x12 y7 in the
1 1
+ + ··· + expansion
5!(n − 5)! (n − 1)!1! (x3/2 + y)15 ?
2n−1
= .
n! 650 Problem What is the coefficient of x4 y6 in
√
639 Problem Find a closed formula for (x 2 − y)10 ?
 
X n−k
(−1)k . 651 Problem Shew that the binomial coefficients
0≤k≤n
k
satisfy the following hexagonal property:
Multinomial Theorem 101

   
n−1 n n+1 656 Problem Simplify
k − 1 k +
1 k 
n−1 n+1 n        
= . 5 6 7 999
k k+1 k−1 + + + ··· +
5 5 5 5

652 Problem (AIME 1991) In the expansion 657 Problem Simplify

X 
1000
1000

(1 + 0.2)1000 = (0.2)k ,            
k 15 15 15 15 15 15
k=0 − + − ··· + −
1 2 3 4 13 14
which one of the 1001 terms is the largest?

653 Problem (Putnam 1971) Shew that for 0 < ǫ < 1 658 Problem What is the exact numerical value of
the expression
1994  
X 1994
(x + y)n (x2 − (2 − ǫ)xy + y2 ) (−1)k−1 ?
k=0
k
is a polynomial with positive coefficients for integral
n sufficiently large. For ǫ = .002 find the smallest
admissible value of n. 659 Problem True or False:
           
654 Problem Prove that for integer n ≥ 1, 4 5 199 16 17 199
  + +· · ·+ > + +· · ·+ .
n
X 4 4 4 16 16 16
3 n 2 n−3
k = n (n + 3)2 .
k=1
k
660 Problem (AIME 1992) In which row of Pascal’s
655 Problem Expand and simplify triangle (we start with zeroth row, first row ,etc.) do
p p three consecutive entries occur that are in the ratio
( 1 − x2 + 1)7 − ( 1 − x2 − 1)7 . 3 : 4 : 5?

5.9 Multinomial Theorem

If n, n1 , n2 , . . . , nk are nonnegative integers and n = n1 + n2 + · · · nk we put
 
n n!
= .
n 1 , n2 · · · n k n1 !n2 ! · · · nk !
Using the De-Polignac Legendre Theorem, it is easy to see that this quantity is an integer. Proceeding in the
same way we proved the Binomial Theorem, we may establish the Multinomial Theorem:
X
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xk )n = xn 1 n2 nk
1 x2 · · · x k .
n1 +n2 +···+nk =n
n1 ,n2 ,...,nk ≥0

We give a few examples on the use of the Multinomial Theorem.

661 Example Determine the coefficient of x2 y3 z3 in

(x + 2y + z)8
.

Solution: By the Multinomial Theorem

 
X 8
(x + 2y + z)8 = xn1 (2y)n2 zn3 .
n1 ,n2 ,n3 ≥0
n 1 , n2 , n3
n1 +n2 +n3 =8
 
8
This requires n1 = 2, n2 = 3, n3 = 3. The coefficient sought is then 23 .
2, 3, 3
102 Chapter 5

662 Example In (1 + x5 + x9 )23 , find the coefficient of x23 .

Solution: By the Multinomial Theorem

 
X 23
x5n2 +9n3 .
n1 ,n2 ,n3 ≥0
n 1 , n2 , n3
n1 +n2 +n3 =23

Since5n2 + 9n  3 = 23 and n1 + n2 + n3 = 23, we must have n1 = 20, n2 = 1, n3 = 2. The coefficient sought is

23
thus .
20, 1, 2

663 Example How many different terms are there in the expansion of

(x + y + z + w + s + t)20 ?

Solution: There as many terms as nonnegative integral solutions of

n1 + n2 + · · · + n6 = 20.
 
25
But we know that there are of these.
5

Practice

664 Problem How many terms are in the expansion 666 Problem Find the coefficient of x2 y3 z5 in the
(x + y + z)10 ? expansion of
(x + y + z)10 ?
665 Problem Find the coefficient of x4 in the
expansion of
(1 + 3x + 2x3 )10 ?
Chapter 6
Equations

6.1 Equations in One Variable

Let us start with the following example.

667 Example Solve the equation 2|x| = sin x2 .

Solution: Clearly x = 0 is not a solution. Since 2y > 1 for y > 0, the equation does not have a solution.

2
668 Example Solve the equation |x − 3|(x −8x+15)/(x−2)
= 1.

Solution: We want either the exponent to be zero, or the base to be 1. We cannot have, however, 00 as this is
undefined. So, |x − 3| = 1 implies x = 4 or x = 2. We discard x = 2 as the exponent is undefined at this value.
For the exponent we want x2 − 8x + 15 = 0 or x = 5 or x = 3. We cannot have x = 3 since this would give 00 .
So the only solutions are x = 4 and x = 5.

669 Example What would be the appropriate value of xif

.
..
xx
x =2
made sense?
.
..
xx
Solution: Since x = 2, we have x2 = 2 (the chain is infinite,
√ so cutting it at one step does not change the
value). Since we want a positive value we must have x = 2.

670 Example Solve 9 + x−4 = 10x−2 .

Solution: Observe that

x−4 − 10x−2 + 9 = (x−2 − 9)(x−2 − 1).
1
Then x = ± and x = ±1.
3

671 Example Solve 9x − 3x+1 − 4 = 0.

Solution: Observe that 9x − 3x+1 − 4 = (3x − 4)(3x + 1). As no real number x satisfies 3x + 1 = 0, we discard
this factor. So 3x − 4 = 0 yields x = log3 4.

672 Example Solve

(x − 5)(x − 7)(x + 6)(x + 4) = 504.

103
104 Chapter 6

Solution: Reorder the factors and multiply in order to obtain

(x − 5)(x − 7)(x + 6)(x + 4) = (x − 5)(x + 4)(x − 7)(x + 6) = (x2 − x − 20)(x2 − x − 42).

Put y = x2 − x. Then (y − 20)(y − 42) = 504, which is to say, y2 − 62y + 336 = (y − 6)(y − 56) = 0. Now,
y = 6, 56, implies
x2 − x = 6
and
x2 − x = 56.
Solving both quadratics, x = −2, 4, −7, 8.

673 Example Solve 12x4 − 56x3 + 89x2 − 56x + 12 = 0.

Solution: Reordering
12x4 + 12 − 56(x3 + x) + 89x2 = 0. (6.1)
Dividing by x2 ,
1 1
12(x2 + ) − 56(x + ) + 89 = 0.
x2 x
Put u = x + 1/x. Then u2 − 2 = x2 + 1/x2 . Using this, (6) becomes 12(u2 − 2) − 56u + 89 = 0, whence
u = 5/2, 13/6. From this
1 5
x+ =
x 2
and
1 13
x+ = .
x 6
Solving both quadratics we conclude that x = 1/2, 2, 2/3, 3/2.

674 Example Find the real solutions to

p
x2 − 5x + 2 x2 − 5x + 3 = 12.

Solution: Observe that p

x2 − 5x + 3 + 2 x2 − 5x + 3 − 15 = 0.
Let u = x2 − 5x + 3 and so u + 2u1/2 − 15 = (u1/2 + 5)(u1/2 − 3) = 0. This means that u = 9 (we discard
u1/2 + 5 = 0, why?). Therefore x2 − 5x + 3 = 9 or x = −1, 6.

675 Example Solve p p

3x2 − 4x + 34 − 3x2 − 4x − 11 = 9. (6.2)

Solution: Notice the trivial identity

(3x2 − 4x + 34) − (3x2 − 4x − 11) = 45. (6.3)

Dividing each member of (8) by the corresponding members of (7), we obtain

p p
3x2 − 4x + 34 + 3x2 − 4x − 11 = 5. (6.4)

Adding (7) and (9) p

3x2 − 4x + 34 = 7,
5
from where x = − , 3.
3

676 Example Solve √ √

3 3
14 + x + 14 − x = 4.
Practice 105

√
3
√
3
Solution: Letu = 14 + x, v = 14 − x. Then

64 = (u + v)3 = u3 + v3 + 3uv(u + v) = 14 + x + 14 − x + 12(196 − x2 )1/3 ,

whence
3 = (196 − x2 )1/3 ,
which upon solving yields x = ±13.

677 Example Find the exact value of cos 2π/5.

Solution: Using the identity

cos(u ± v) = cos u cos v ∓ sin u sin v
twice, we obtain
cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 (6.5)
and
cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ. (6.6)
Let x = cos 2π/5. As cos 6π/5 = cos 4π/5, thanks to (5) and (6), we see that x satisfies the equation

4x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0,

which is to say
(x − 1)(4x2 + 2x − 1) = 0.
As x = cos 2π/5 6= 1, and cos 2π/5 > 0, x positive root of the quadratic equation 4x2 + 2x − 1 = 0, which is to
say √
2π 5−1
cos = .
5 4

678 Example How many real numbers x satisfy

x
sin x = ?
100

Solution: Plainly x = 0 is a solution. Also, if x > 0 is a solution, so is −x < 0. So, we can restrict ourselves to
positive solutions.
If x is a solution then |x| = 100| sin x| ≤ 100. So we can further restrict x to the interval ]0; 100]. Decompose
]0; 100] into 2π-long intervals (the last interval is shorter):

]0; 100] =]0; 2π] ∪ ]2π; 4π] ∪ ]4π; 6π] ∪ · · · ∪ ]28π; 30π] ∪ ]30π; 100].

From the graphs of y = sin x, y = x/100 we that the interval ]0; 2π] contains only one solution. Each interval
of the form ]2πk; 2(k + 1)π], k = 1, 2, . . . , 14 contains two solutions. As 31π < 100, the interval ]30π; 100]
contains a full wave, hence it contains two solutions. Consequently, there are 1 + 2 · 14 + 2 = 31 positive
solutions, and hence, 31 negative solutions. Therefore, there is a total of 31 + 31 + 1 = 63 solutions.

Practice

679 Problem Solve for x 681 Problem Solve

É É
x a b 6a
2 +3 = + . x4 + x3 − 4x2 + x + 1 = 0.
a x a b
682 Problem Solve the equation
680 Problem Solve
2 2
(x − 7)(x − 3)(x + 5)(x + 1) = 1680. 2sin x
+ 5 · 2cos x
= 7.
106 Chapter 6

683
É Problem If the equation 691 Problem Find a real solution to
q È √
x + x + x + · · · = 2 made sense, what would (x2 − 9x − 1)10 + 99x10 = 10x9 (x2 − 1).
be the value of x?
Hint: Write this equation as
684 Problem How many real solutions are there to
(x2 − 9x − 1)10 − 10x9 (x2 − 9x − 1) + 9x10 = 0.
sin x = loge x?

685 Problem Solve the equation

|x + 1| − |x| + 3|x − 1| − 2|x − 2| = x + 2. 692 Problem Find the real solutions to
Ê É q È
686 Problem Find the real roots of √
È È
x+2 x+2 x + ··· + 2 x + 2 3x = x.
√ √ | {z }
x + 3 − 4 x − 1 + x + 8 − 6 x − 1 = 1. n radicals

687 Problem Solve the equation 693 Problem Solve the equation

6x4 − 25x3 + 12x2 + 25x + 6 = 0. 1

= x.
1
1+
688 Problem Solve the equation 1
1+
x(2x + 1)(x − 2)(2x − 3) = 63. ..
.
1+
1
689 Problem Find the value of 1+
√ x
30 · 31 · 32 · 33 + 1.
where the fraction is repeated n times.

690 Problem Solve

√ √ 694 Problem Solve for x
x + x2 − 1 x − x2 − 1 È È
√ + √ = 98. √ √
x − x2 − 1 x + x2 − 1 x+ x + 11 + x+ x − 11 = 4.

6.2 Systems of Equations

695 Example Solve the system of equations

x+y+u = 4,
y+u+v = −5,
u+v+x = 0,
v+x+y = −8.

Solution: Adding all the equations and dividing by 3,

x + y + u + v = −3.

This implies
4+v = −3,
−5 + x = −3,
0+y = −3,
−8 + u = −3,

whence x = 2, y = −3, u = 5, v = −7.

Practice 107

696 Example Solve the system

(x + y)(x + z) = 30,

(y + z)(y + x) = 15,

(z + x)(z + y) = 18.

Solution: Put u = y + z, v = z + x, w = x + y. The system becomes

vw = 30, wu = 15, uv = 18. (6.7)

Multiplying all of these equations we obtain u2 v2 w2 = 8100, that is, uvw = ±90. Dividing each of the
equations in (7), we gather u = 3, v = 6, w = 5, or u = −3, v = −6, w = −5. This yields

y+z = 3, or y + z = −3,
z+x = 6, or z + x = −6,
x+y = 5, or x + y = −5,

whence x = 4, y = 1, z = 2 or x = −4, y = −1, z = −2..

Practice

697 Problem Let a,b, c be real constants, abc 6= 0. 702 Problem Solve the system
Solve
x2 − (y − z)2 = a2 , x2 − yz = 3,
y2 − (z − x)2 = b2 ,
y2 − zx = 4,
z2 − (x − y)2 = c2 .
z2 − xy = 5.
698 Problem Solve
x3 + 3x2 y + y3 = 8, 703 Problem Solve the system
2x3 − 2x2 y + xy2 = 1.
2x + y + z + u = −1

699 Problem Solve the system x + 2y + z + u = 12

È
x+2+y+3+ (x + 2)(y + 3) = 39,
x + y + 2z + u = 5
2 2
(x + 2) + (y + 3) + (x + 2)(y + 3) = 741.
x + y + z + 2u = −1
700 Problem Solve the system
704 Problem Solve the system
x4 + y4 = 82,
x − y = 2. x2 + x + y = 8,

701 Problem Solve the system y2 + 2xy + z = 168,

x1 x2 = 1, x2 x3 = 2, . . . , x100 x101 = 100, x101 x1 = 101. z2 + 2yz + 2xz = 12480.

6.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems

The Division Algorithm for polynomials states that if the polynomial p(x) is divided by a(x) then there exist
polynomials q(x), r(x) with
p(x) = a(x)q(x) + r(x) (6.8)
108 Chapter 6

and 0 ≤ degree r(x) < degree a(x). For example, if x5 + x4 + 1 is divided by x2 + 1 we obtain

x5 + x4 + 1 = (x3 + x2 − x − 1)(x2 + 1) + x + 2,

and so the quotient is q(x) = x3 + x2 − x − 1 and the remainder is r(x) = x + 2.

705 Example Find the remainder when (x + 3)5 + (x + 2)8 + (5x + 9)1997 is divided by x + 2.

Solution: As we are dividing by a polynomial of degree 1, the remainder is a polynomial of degree 0, that is, a
constant. Therefore, there is a polynomial q(x) and a constant r with

(x + 3)5 + (x + 2)8 + (5x + 9)1997 = q(x)(x + 2) + r

Letting x = −2 we obtain

(−2 + 3)5 + (−2 + 2)8 + (5(−2) + 9)1997 = q(−2)(−2 + 2) + r = r.

As the sinistral side is 0 we deduce that the remainder r = 0.

706 Example A polynomial leaves remainder −2 upon division by x − 1 and remainder −4 upon division by
x + 2. Find the remainder when this polynomial is divided by x2 + x − 2.

Solution: From the given information, there exist polynomials q1 (x), q2 (x) with p(x) = q1 (x)(x − 1) − 2 and
p(x) = q2 (x)(x + 2) − 4. Thus p(1) = −2 and p(−2) = −4. As x2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 2) is a polynomial of
degree 2 the remainder r(x) upon dividing p(x) by x2 + x − 1 is of degree 1 or less, that is r(x) = ax + b for
some constants a, b which we must determine. By the Division Algorithm,

p(x) = q(x)(x2 + x − 1) + ax + b.

Hence
−2 = p(1) = a + b
and
−4 = p(−2) = −2a + b.
From these equations we deduce that a = 2/3, b = −8/3. The remainder sought is r(x) = 2x/3 − 8/3.

707 Example Let f(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1. Find the remainder when f(x5 ) is divided by f(x).

Solution: Observe that f(x)(x − 1) = x5 − 1 and

f(x5 ) = x20 + x15 + x10 + x5 + 1 = (x20 − 1) + (x15 − 1) + (x10 − 1) + (x5 − 1) + 5.

Each of the summands in parentheses is divisible by x5 − 1 and, a fortiori, by f(x). The remainder sought is
thus 5.
Using the Division Algorithm we may derive the following theorem.

708 Theorem Factor Theorem The polynomial p(x) is divisible by x − a if and only if p(a) = 0.

Proof As x − a is a polynomial of degree 1, the remainder after diving p(x) by x − a is a polynomial of

degree 0, es that is, a constant. Therefore

p(x) = q(x)(x − a) + r.

From this we gather that p(a) = q(a)(a − a) + r = r, from where the theorem easily follows.

709 Example If p(x) is a cubic polynomial with p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5, find p(6).
Practice 109

Solution: Put g(x) = p(x) − x. Observe that g(x) is a polynomial of degree 3 and that
g(1) = g(2) = g(3) = 0. Thus g(x) = c(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) for some constant c that we must determine.
Now, g(4) = c(4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3) = 6c and g(4) = p(4) − 4 = 1, whence c = 1/6. Finally

(6 − 1)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)
p(6) = g(6) + 6 = + 6 = 16.
6

710 Example The polynomial p(x) has integral coefficients and p(x) = 7 for four different values of x. Shew
that p(x) never equals 14.

Solution: The polynomial g(x) = p(x) − 7 vanishes at the 4 different integer values a, b, c, d. In virtue of the
Factor Theorem,
g(x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x − d)q(x),
where q(x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients. Suppose that p(t) = 14 for some integer t. Then
g(t) = p(t) − 7 = 14 − 7 = 7. It follows that

7 = g(t) = (t − a)(t − b)(t − c)(t − d)q(t),

that is, we have factorised 7 as the product of at least 4 different factors, which is impossible since 7 can be
factorised as 7(−1)1, the product of at most 3 distinct integral factors. From this contradiction we deduce
that such an integer t does not exist.

Practice

711 Problem If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n such 712 Problem The polynomial p(x) satisfies
that p(k) = 1/k, k = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1, find p(n + 2). p(−x) = −p(x). When p(x) is divided by x − 3 the
remainder is 6. Find the remainder when p(x) is
divided by x2 − 9.

6.4 Viète’s Formulae

Let us consider first the following example.

713 Example Expand the product

(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5)(x + 6).

Solution: The product is a polynomial of degree 5. To obtain the coefficient of x5 we take an x from each of the
five binomials. Therefore, the coefficient of x5 is 1. To form the x4 term, we take an x from 4 of the binomials
and a constant from the remaining binomial. Thus the coefficient of x4 is

1 − 2 + 4 − 5 + 6 = 4.

To form the coefficient of x3 we take three x from 3 of the binomials and two constants from the remaining
binomials. Thus the coefficient of x3 is

(1)(−2) + (1)(4) + (1)(−5) + (1)(6) + (−2)(4) + (−2)(−5) + (−2)(6)

+(4)(−5) + (4)(6) + (−5)(6) = −33.

2
Similarly, the coefficient of x is

(1)(−2)(4) + (1)(−2)(−5) + (1)(−2)(6) + (1)(4)(−5) + (1)(4)(6) + (−2)(4)(−5)

+(−2)(4)(6) + (4)(−5)(6) = −134

110 Chapter 6

and the coefficient of x is

(1)(−2)(4)(−5) + (1)(−2)(4)(6) + (1)(−2)(−5)(6) + (1)(4)(−5)(6) + (−2)(4)(−5)(6) = 172.
Finally, the constant term is (1)(−2)(4)(−5)(6) = 240. The product sought is thus
x5 + 4x4 − 33x3 − 134x2 + 172x + 240.

From the preceding example, we see that each summand of the expanded product has “weight” 5, because of
the five given binomials we either take the x or take the constant.

If a0 6= 0 and
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + · · · + an−1 x + an
is a polynomial with roots α1 , α2 , . . . , αn then we may write
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + · · · + an−1 x + an = a0 (x − α1 )(x − α2 )(x − α3 ) · · · (x − αn−1 )(x − αn ).
From this we deduce the Viète Formulæ:
n
X
a1
− = αk ,
a0 k=1
a2 X
= αj αk ,
a0 1≤j<k≤n
a3 X
− = αj αk αl ,
a0 1≤j<k<l≤n
a4 X
= αj αk αl αs ,
a0 1≤j<k<l<s≤n
..........
..........
...........
n an
(−1) = α1 α2 · · · αn .
a0

714 Example Find the sum of the roots, the sum of the roots taken two at a time, the sum of the square of the
roots and the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of
2x3 − x + 2 = 0.

Solution: Let a, b, c be the roots of 2x3 − x + 2 = 0. From the Viète Formulæ the sum of the roots is
0
a+b+c=− =0
2
and the sum of the roots taken two at a time is
−1
ab + ac + bc = .
2
To find a2 + b2 + c2 we observe that

a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 − 2(ab + ac + bc).

Hence
a2 + b2 + c2 = 02 − 2(−1/2) = 1.
Finally, as abc = −2/2 = −1, we gather that
1 1 1 ab + ac + bc −1/2
+ + = = = 1/2.
a b c abc −1
Viète’s Formulae 111

715 Example Let α, β, γ be the roots of x3 − x2 + 1 = 0. Find

1 1 1
+ + .
α2 β2 γ2

Solution: From x3 − x2 + 1 = 0 we deduce that 1/x2 = 1 − x. Hence

1 1 1
+ + = (1 − α) + (1 − β) + (1 − γ) = 3 − (α + β + γ) = 3 − 1 = 2.
α2 β2 γ2

Together with the Viète Formulæ we also have the Newton-Girard Identities for the sum of the powers
sk = αk k k
1 + α2 + · · · + αn of the roots:
a0 s1 + a1 = 0,
a0 s2 + a1 s1 + 2a2 = 0,
a0 s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s1 + 3a3 = 0,
etc..

716 Example If a, b, c are the roots of x3 − x2 + 2 = 0, find

a 2 + b2 + c 2

a 3 + b3 + c 3
and
a 4 + b4 + c 4 .

Solution: First observe that

a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 − 2(ab + ac + bc) = 12 − 2(0) = 1.

As x3 = x2 − 2, we gather

a3 + b3 + c3 = a2 − 2 + b2 − 2 + c2 − 2 = a2 + b2 + c2 − 6 = 1 − 6 = −5.

Finally, from x3 = x2 − 2 we obtain x4 = x3 − 2x, whence

a4 + b4 + c4 = a3 − 2a + b3 − 2b + c3 − 2c = a3 + b3 + c3 − 2(a + b + c) = −5 − 2(1) = −7.

717 Example (USAMO 1973) Find all solutions (real or complex) of the system

x + y + z = 3,

x2 + y2 + z2 = 3,
x3 + y3 + z3 = 3.

Solution: Let x, y, z be the roots of

p(t) = (t − x)(t − y)(t − z) = t3 − (x + y + z)t2 + (xy + yz + zx)t − xyz.

Now xy + yz + zx = (x + y + z)2 /2 − (x2 + y2 + z2 )/2 = 9/2 − 3/2 = 3 and from

x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx)

we gather that xyz = 1. Hence

p(t) = t3 − 3t2 + 3t − 1 = (t − 1)3 .
Thus x = y = z = 1 is the only solution of the given system.
112 Chapter 6

Practice
718 Problem Suppose that find the sum

xn + a1 xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + · · · + an α100 + α100 + · · · + α100

1 2 100 .
= (x + r1 )(x + r2 ) · · · (x + rn )
where r1 , r2 , . . . , rn are real numbers. Shew that 722 Problem Let α, β, γ be the roots of
x3 − x − 1 = 0. Find
(n − 1)a21 ≥ 2na2 .
1 1 1
+ +
719 Problem (USAMO 1984) The product of the roots α3 β3 γ3
of
x4 − 18x3 + kx2 + 200x − 1984 = 0 y
is −32. Determine k. α5 + β5 + γ5 .

720 Problem The equation 723 Problem The real numbers α, β satisfy
x4 − 16x3 + 94x2 + px + q = 0 has two double roots.
Find p + q. α3 − 3α2 + 5α − 17 = 0,

721 Problem If α1 , α2 , . . . , α100 are the roots of β3 − 3β2 + 5β + 11 = 0.

x100 − 10x + 10 = 0, Find α + β.

6.5 Lagrange’s Interpolation

724 Example Find a cubic polynomial p(x) vanishing at x = 1, 2, 3 and satisfying p(4) = 666.

Solution: The polynomial must be of the form p(x) = a(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3), where a is a constant. As
666 = p(4) = a(4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3) = 6a, a = 111. The desired polynomial is therefore
p(x) = 111(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

725 Example Find a cubic polynomial p(x) satisfying p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5.

Solution: We shall use the following method due to Lagrange. Let

p(x) = a(x) + 2b(x) + 3c(x) + 5d(x),

where a(x), b(x), c(x), d(x) are cubic polynomials with the following properties: a(1) = 1 and a(x) vanishes
when x = 2, 3, 4;b(2) = 1 and b(x) vanishes when x = 1, 3, 4; c(3) = 1 and c(3) = 1 vanishes when x = 1, 2, 4,
and finally, d(4) = 1, d(x) vanishing at x = 1, 2, 3.
Using the technique of the preceding example, we find
(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
a(x) = − ,
6
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
b(x) = ,
2
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 4)
c(x) = −
2
y
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
d(x) = .
6
Thus
1
p(x) = − · (x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 4) + (x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
6
Practice 113

3 5
− · (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 4) + (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).
2 6
It is left to the reader to verify that the polynomial satisfies the required properties.

Practice

726 Problem Find a polynomial p(x) of degree 4 727 Problem Find a polynomial p(x) of degree 4 with
with p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 4, p(5) = 5. p(1) = −1, p(2) = 2, p(−3) = 4, p(4) = 5, p(5) = 8.
Chapter 7
Geometry

7.1 Angles
An angle is formed by two rays which extend from a common point, called the vertex of the angle. Two rays
spanning from a common vertex form a convex angle and a concave angle. Thus without any sort of
convention, the notation ∠AOB as refers to figure 7.1 could mean either the convex angle spanned or the
concave angle spanned. In order to overcome this ambiguity, we will simply put a letter next to the angle we
refer to, so in in figure 7.1 α is the convex angle and β is the concave angle.

B D
B
convex angle α
β C δ
concave angle
γ
O β A

A α
ǫ
E
Figure 7.1: Angles
Figure 7.2: Angle Notation Conventions in a Polygon.

In the case of a simple polygon (one whose sides do not intersect), as in figure 7.2, we may use any of the
following notations to refer to the interior angles of the polygon: (1) the name of the vertex, (2) a letter next to
this interior angle, or (3) three letters (with the vertex in the middle). Thus in figure 7.2 we have

α = ∠A = ∠EAB = ∠BEA
β = ∠B = ∠ABC = ∠CBA
γ = ∠C = ∠BCD = ∠DCB
δ = ∠D = ∠CDE = ∠EDC
α = ∠E = ∠DEA = ∠AED

1
The angle measurement unit will be the radian, which is defined as the -th part of a unit circle. We will
2π
use the notation ∠ to denote both the physical angle and its measure, without chance for ambiguity. An angle
π π
is null if it measures 0 radians. An angle α is acute if 0 ≤ α < . An angle α is a right angle if α = . An
2 2
π
angle α is obtuse if α > . An angle α is a straight or flat angle if α = π. An angle α is a reflex angle if
2
π < α < 2π. Two angles whose sum is a right angle are said to be complementary. Two angles whose sum is a
straight angle are supplementary.

114
Angles 115

Two angles with a leg in common are adjacent angles, as α and β in figure 7.3.

β1

β
α2 α1
α B
α
α A β2
′
B

Figure 7.3: Adjacent angles Figure 7.4: Vertical Angles.

728 Definition A bisector is a straight line dividing an angle into two equal angles. A point on the angle
bisector lies at equal distances from the two sides of the angle, as in figure 7.1, where AB = AB ′ .

729 Definition Two intersecting straight lines form two pairs of vertical angles, as α1 and α2 ; and β1 and β2
in figure 7.4.

730 Theorem Vertical angles are equal.

Proof: In figure 7.4, α1 + β1 = π and α1 + β2 = π, since both form a straight line. Thus β1 = β2 .
In the same fashion, we can prove that α1 = α2 , proving the theorem.❑

A transversal cutting two parallel lines produces many pairs of angles, some of which might be equal, by
virtue of Theorem 730. Thus in figure 7.5, α1 , β1 , γ2 , δ2 are exterior angles; γ1 , δ1 , α2 , β2 are interior angles;
and α1 is the corresponding angle to α2 , β1 corresponds to β2 , etc.. Alternate exterior angles are equal: thus
α1 = γ2 , and also, β1 = δ2 . Alternate interior angles are equal: thus γ1 = α2 , and also δ1 = β2 .
Corresponding angles are equal: thus α1 = α2 ,; β1 = β2 ,; γ1 = γ2 ,; and δ1 = δ2 .

Db Ab Eb
′
α1 β γ′
β1 α
γ1 δ1

β γ
B b bC

β2 α2

γ2 δ2

Figure 7.5: Parallel Lines and a Transversal. Figure 7.6: α + β + γ = π.

731 Theorem The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is π radians.

Proof: Draw line DE through vertex A, parallel to side BC, as in figure 7.6. Then β = β ′ and
γ = γ ′ , as these are alternate interior angles. Now

β ′ + α + γ ′ = π,

as they form the flat angle of line DE. This completes the proof. ❑

732 Example Find the sum of the angles

α+β+γ+δ+ǫ+ζ
116 Chapter 7

in figure 7.58.

γ ζ γ ζ

δ ǫ δ a b ǫ

c
α β α β

Figure 7.7: Example 788. Figure 7.8: Example 788.

Solution: Add the labels a, b, c as in figure 7.8. The angles a, b, c are vertical with those of the inner triangle
and so
a + b + c = π.
Also
α + β + a = π, γ + δ + b = π, ǫ + ζ + c = π.
Hence

α + β + a + γ + δ + b + ǫ + ζ + c = 3π
Thus
α + β + γ + δ + ǫ + ζ = 3π − (a + b + c) = 3π − π = 2π.

733 Example A sequence of isosceles triangles is constructed starting with AB = BC, then BC = CD, and so
on, as in figure 7.9. If the angle BAC = x > 0, prove that only
π
T U
2x
triangles can be drawn.

b2 c3
B
a2
c1 c2 a
a1 b1 3 b3

A C E

Figure 7.9: Example 733. Figure 7.10: Example 733.

Solution: Let n be the number of triangles that can be drawn. Consider figure 7.10. Let a1 = x. As the
triangles formed are isosceles, b1 = a1 = x. This entails that c1 = π − a1 − b1 and so

a2 = π − c1 = 2x,
b2 = a2 = 2x,
c2 = π − a2 − b2 = π − 4x,
a3 = π − b1 − c2 = 3x,
b3 = 3x,
..
.
an = nx
bn = nx.
Angles 117

In other words n-th triangle has two angles equal to nx. We can construct such triangles as long as 2nx < π .
Thus
π
n = T U.
2x

734 Definition A polygon is simple if no two sides cross each other. A polygon is convex, if given any to points
inside the polygon or on its boundary, the straight line joining these two points is inside the polygon, or on its
boundary.

It is clear that a simple non-convex polygon must have at least one reflex angle at one vertex.

735 Theorem The sum of the interior angles of a simple polygon of n sides is π(n − 2).

Proof: First assume that the polygon is convex. Then choose any vertex, and join this vertex to the
n − 2 other vertices that are not incident to this vertex. In this way, n − 2 triangles are formed, and
so the interior angle sum of the polygon is the interior angle sum of these n − 2 triangles, that is
(n − 2)π.

Assume now that the polygon is simple, but not convex. There is a reflex angle on at least one vertex.
A ray emanating from this vertex must strike another vertex creating an interior diagonal,
otherwise the polygon would enclose an infinite area. This diagonal divides the polygon into two
sub-polygons. Either both sub-polygons are convex, in which case we are done, or at least one is
non-convex. Again we search for a reflex angle in this sub-polygon and subdivide it into two regions.
This process eventually terminates in a triangle, since the number of vertices is finite. ❑

736 Example In diagram 7.11, what is the angle sum

α+β+γ+δ

between the two parallel lines?

β α β α
γ γ
δ δ

Figure 7.11: Example 736. Figure 7.12: Example 736.

Solution: Draw a straight line perpendicular to both parallel lines, as shewn in figure 7.12. This closed figure
forms a hexagon, with interior angle measure (6 − 2)π = 4π, by virtue of Theorem 735. Subtract the two
right angles from the closed figure to obtain the angle sum

α + β + γ + δ = 4π − π = 3π.

π
737 Example In square ABCD (figure 7.13), α = . Prove that △ABE is equilateral.
12

Solution: Construct equilateral △DFC as shewn in figure 7.14. First observe that DE = EC, as △DEC is
π π 5π
isosceles. Also ∠ADE = ∠BCE = − = . Hence △ADE ∼ = △BCE, by S.A.S, and so AE = AB. Thus it is
2 12 12
 118 Chapter 7

5π
enough to shew that ∠AED = , because then △ADE will be isosceles and we will get AB = AD = AE = EB,
12
meaning that △ABE is equilateral. As △DEC and △DFC are both isosceles, the line segment EC is the

angle bisector of the summit angles ∠E and ∠F, and the perpendicular bisector of line segment DC. Thus
π π 5π π π 5π π π 5π
∠DEF = π − − = . Since ∠ADE = − = and ∠EDF = + = , and since AD = DF,
12 6 12 2 12 12 12 3 12
5π
△ADE ∼ = △FDE by S.A.S. This entails that ∠AED = ∠DEF = , which is what we wanted to prove.
12

A B A B

E E
α α α α
D C D C

Figure 7.13: Example 737 Figure 7.14: Example 737

A G

A
A3

B F B α ǫ E
A
b A6 A5

P b
β
δ B
b bC
C E A1 A4 A2
γ

C D

Figure 7.15: Problem 740 Figure 7.16: Problem 741. Figure 7.17: Problem 742. Figure 7.18: Problem 744.

Practice

738 Problem Prove that the sum of the exterior 740 Problem (AHSME 1980) In figure 7.15, CDE is
angles of a convex polygon of n sides is 2π. an equilateral triangle and ABCD and DEFG are
squares. What is the measure of (the convex) ∠GDA?
739 Problem ABCD is a square. P and Q are points
outside the square such that △ABP and △BCQ are
both equilateral. How big is (the convex) ∠PQB? 741 Problem Shew that the angle sum

∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = π.
Circles 119

in the five-pointed star in figure 7.16. 743 Problem How big is the angle between the hour
hand and the minute hand of a clock at 4:40?

742 Problem (AHSME 1994) In △ABC, AB = AC. If 744 Problem (AHSME 1978) If in figure
there is a point P strictly between A and B such that 7.18,△A1 A2 A3 is equilateral and An+3 is the
AP = PC = CB, find (the convex) ∠A. See figure 7.17. midpoint of line segment An An+1 for all positive
integers n, find the measure of ∠A44 A45 A46 .

7.2 Circles
Let us start by defining some parts of a circle.

Ab bB b r rθ
θ
O β
b b r

C b bD b α b

Figure 7.21: Central Angles and Arc

Figure 7.19: Parts of a circle. Figure 7.20: Angles in a circle.
Length

÷ and CD
745 Definition An arc (of a circle) is any portion of the circumference, as AC ø in figure 7.19.

☞ We measure arc length in radians. A radian is a 2π1 th part of a unit circle.

746 Definition A chord is a straight line joining the extremities of an arc, as AB in figure 7.19. The arc is said
to be subtended by the chord.

☞
1. Every chord subtends two arcs.
2. A diameter is the longest chord of a circle. A radius is half of a diameter.
3. In the same circle, chords of equal length are at equal distance from the centre of a circle. In
the same circle, chords of equal length subtend arcs of equal length. In the same circle, the
greater of two arcs is subtended by the greater chord.

747 Definition A central angle is an angle whose vertex is at the centre, and whose sides are the radii of a
circle, as α in figure 7.20.

748 Definition An inscribed or peripheral angle is an angle whose vertex is on the circumference, and whose
sides are chords, as β, in figure 7.20.

☞
1. In a circle of radius 1, if a central angle cuts an arc of θ radians, then that central angle has
angle measure of θ radians as well.
2. In a circle of radius r, if a central angle measures θ radians, then the arc cut by that central
angle has arc length rθ radians (figure 7.21).
120 Chapter 7

749 Example Find the perimeter of the Reuleaux triangle shewn in figure 7.22. The figure is constructed by
drawing arcs with centres at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side s and radius equal to the side of the
equilateral triangle.
C

A B

Figure 7.22: Example 749.

π
Solution: Each of the central angles subtended by the arcs measures . Since the figure is composed of three
3
identical arcs, the perimeter sought is  π
3 s = sπ.
3
A A A

α α2 αδ
α1
O
O O
β2 β
α β β1 γ
B
B B

Figure 7.23: Theorem 750.

750 Theorem An inscribed angle is measured by one-half the central angle of the subtended arc.

Proof: There are three cases here to consider. First, when one side of the angle is a diameter, as the
first drawing in figure 7.23, where O is the centre of the circle. In this case, we draw radius OB.
Since OA = OB, both being radii, △OAB is isosceles, and so
∠BOA = ∠OBA = α.
Now, β is an exterior angle to △OAB and so β = α + α = 2α. Hence
1
α= β.
2

The second case occurs when the centre of the circle is within the angle, as in the middle drawing of
figure 7.23. Draw diameter AB. In this case
1 1 1
α1 + α2 = β1 + β2 = (β1 + β2 ) ,
2 2 2
by virtue of Case I.

The third case occurs when the centre of the circle is without the angle, as in the third drawing in
π
figure 7.23. Draw diameter AB. Then β + γ = , being a quadrant. Therefore
2
1 1 1
α = (α + δ) − δ = (β + γ) − γ = β,
2 2 2
by two applications of Case I. This finishes the proof. ❑
Circles 121

The following Corollary is now obvious. See figure 7.24.

α π
α 2

Figure 7.24: Corollary 751. Figure 7.25: Corollary 752.

751 Corollary Peripheral angles subtending the same arc are congruent.

Since a semicircle subtends a flat angle, the following corollary is also obvious. See figure 7.25.

752 Corollary An inscribed angle subtending a semicircle is a right angle.

753 Definition A straight line is tangent to a circle when it touches the circle at exactly one point, as line CD
in figure 7.26.

Observe that a tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of contact. For OT is the
shortest line that can be drawn from O to line CD. Conversely, any straight line perpendicular to a radius of
a circle at its extremity is tangent to the circle. See figure 7.26.

T B
C D A E

O
A B C

Figure 7.26: Tangents and Secants. Figure 7.27: Theorem 755.

754 Definition A secant is a straight line which intersects the circumference in two points, as line AB in
figure 7.26.

755 Theorem The angle between a tangent and a chord is measured by one-half the central angle subtended
by the chord.

π
Proof: Draw diameter BD. Then BD⊥AE and so ∠ABD = . Also, notice that
2
1
∠CBD = ∠COD in view of Theorem 750. Therefore
2
π 1 1
∠ABC = ∠ABD − ∠CBD = − ∠COD = ∠BOC.
2 2 2

This completes the proof. ❑

122 Chapter 7

756 Corollary The tangents to a circle from an outside point are equal.

π
Proof: By Theorem 755, ∠ABO = ∠ACO = . Thus the right triangles △ABO, △ACO are
2
congruent. This means that AB = AC, proving the corollary. ❑

b
A
b
C

D
b
b
C
B
b

B b bO bA

Figure 7.28: Corollary 756. Figure 7.29: Example 757.

757 Example Two circles, of radius a, b, a < b are externally mutually tangent at point A, as in figure 7.29.
A common exterior tangent to both circles touches the smaller circle at B and the larger circle at C 6= B. Find
the measure of ∠BAC.

Solution: Draw the tangent line passing through A and cutting BC in D as shewn in figure 7.29. We have
DA = DB = DC by Corollary 756. This means that BC is the diameter of a circle passing through A. Since
π
∠BAC subtends a semicircle we gather that ∠BAC = .
2
Ab
bS 4 B
P b A
B b 1
b
T bO
Q b b
O

b
D
C b
R
Figure 7.30: Example 758. Figure 7.31: Example 759.

758 Example (Canadian Mathematical Olympiad, 1975) In figure 7.30, A, B, C, D are four “consecutive”
points on the circumference of a circle and P, Q, R, S are points on the circumference which are, respectively,
÷ BC,
the midpoints of the arcs, AB, ÷ CD,ø DA.ø Prove that PR is perpendicular to QS.
Circles 123

Solution: Let PR and QS intersect at T as in figure 7.30, and let O be the centre of the circle. Observe that
ù and arc RDS
arc PBQ ù together comprise exactly half the circumference. From △PSQ,

∠PQS = π − (∠PST + ∠SPT )

1
= π − (∠POQ + ∠ROS)
2
1
= π− π
2
π
= ,
2
which shews that the lines are perpendicular.

759 Example In figure 7.31 AB is tangent to the circle with centre O at B and AB = 4. If the radius of the
circle is 1, find the length AO.

Solution: Since AB is tangent at B and OB is a radius, AB⊥OB. By the Pythagorean Theorem,

È p √
AO = AB2 + BO2 = 42 + 12 = 17.

A
D
O
b
b
E
C
B

Figure 7.32: Theorem 760.

760 Theorem The angle between two chords intersecting within the circumference is measured by one-half
the sum of the central angles subtending the intercepted arcs of the vertical angles formed.

Proof: In figure 7.32, we must prove that

1
∠AEC = (∠AOC + ∠DOB) .
2
But this follows from Theorem 750, since ∠AEC is an interior angle to △BCE and so
∠AEC = ∠B + ∠C, and then

∠AEC = ∠B + ∠C
1 1
= ∠AOC = ∠DOB.
2 2
This completes the proof. ❑

761 Example The circle with centre at O is tangent to the line AG at D, to the line AH at E, and to the line
at BC at F (see figure 7.34). If ∠HAG = α, find ∠BOC in terms of α.
 124 Chapter 7

Solution: First observe that ∠ADO and ∠AEO are right angles.
α π α
Now, AO bisects ∠HAG and so ∠DAO = and ∠DOA = − . As BD and BF are tangent to the circle,
2 2 2
OB bisects ∠DOF. Hence
∠DOA 1 π α
∠BOF = = − .
2 2 2 2
π α E

Therefore, the angle sought is 2(∠BOF) = − .

2 2
D
B
G G

D D
B B C
O
O O
F F
A
H H
A C E A C E

Figure 7.33: Example 761. Figure 7.34: Example 761. Figure 7.35: Theorem 762.

762 Theorem The angle between two secants, intersecting without the circumference, is measured by
one-half the difference of the central angles subtending the intercepted arcs.

Proof: In figure 7.35, we must prove that

1 1
∠E = ∠AOC − ∠BOD.
2 2
But since ∠E is an exterior angle to △BCE, we have ∠E = ∠ABC − ∠C. By virtue of Theorem 750,
we have
1 1
∠E = ∠ABC − ∠C = ∠AOC − ∠BOD,
2 2
whence the theorem. ❑

763 Definition A polygon is said to be inscribed in a circle when all its vertices lie on the circumference.

764 Definition A quadrilateral is cyclic if it can be inscribed in a circle, as ABCD in figure 7.36.

765 Theorem A quadrilateral is cyclic if and only if its opposite angles are supplementary.

Proof: Assume first that the quadrilateral is cyclic, as in figure 7.36, where O is the centre of the
circle. Since ∠A and ∠C subtend the whole circumference,
1
∠A + ∠C = (2π) = π,
2
whence ∠A and ∠C are supplementary. In a similar fashion, we may prove that ∠B and ∠D are
supplementary.

Assume now that the opposite angles of a quadrilateral ABCD are supplementary. Draw a circle
through A, B, and C. We must prove that D also lies on this circle. We will do this by contradiction,
assuming, alternatively, that D is within and without the circle (figure 7.37) . Assume that D lies

outside the circle passing through A, B, and C, as in the first diagram of figure 7.37, where α and β
Circles 125

are the central angles subtending the arcs cut by ∠D. Observe that ∠B and β together subtend the
whole circumference, and so 2∠B + β = 2π. Then using Theorems 750 and 762

π = ∠B + ∠D
1 1
= ∠B + β − α
2 2
1
= π − α.
2
This gives a contradiction, unless α = 0, i.e., D is actually on the circumference.

Finally, assume that D lies within the circle, as in the second diagram of figure 7.37. In this case we
again have 2∠B + β = 2π, and by Theorem 760,

π = ∠B + ∠D
1 1
= ∠B + α + β
2 2
1
= π + α,
2
and so we must have α = 0 again. This completes the proof. ❑
Db

Db Fb
bC
Fb
b bC b α b
Ob E α bC
A b b E Db
β β
bB bB
bB
b
b
A
A
Figure 7.36: A cyclic quadrilat- Figure 7.37: Theorem 765. Figure 7.38: Theorem 765.
eral.

766 Definition A sector of a circle is the portion included between an arc and the radii drawn to its
extremities. See figure 7.39.

segment

sector

Figure 7.39: Sectors and Segments.

☞ Inθ a circle of radius r, the sector enclosed by a central angle of θ radians within the circle, has
area r2 . We can think of a sector as a “curvy” triangle with height of length r (the radius of the
2
circle) and base of length rθ (the length of the arc subtending the central angle formed by the radii
of the sector).
126 Chapter 7

767 Definition A circular segment is the portion included between an arc and its chord. See figure 7.39.

768 Example Find the area of the circular segment in figure 7.40. The circle has radius 3 and ∠BOA is a
right angle.

Solution: The area of the circular segment is the difference between the area of the sector including the
π
segment and the area of △OAB. Now, ∠AOB = and OA = OB = 3, hence △OAB is a right triangle of area
2
1 9
(3)(3) = . The area sought then is
2 2
1 π 9 9π 9
· (3)2 − = − .
2 2 2 4 2

769 Example A circular trapezoid is formed by arcs of two concentric circles, of radii 4 and 6, as in figure
π
7.41. If the central angle that cuts the arc measures radians, (i) find the perimeter of the circular
3
trapezoid, (ii) find the area of the circular trapezoid.

Solution: The figure is composed by two arcs, one with arc length
π 4π π
4( ) = and the other with arc length 6( ) = 2π, plus two straight line segments of length 6 − 4 = 2 each.
3 3 3
The total perimeter of the figure is thus
4π 10π
+ 2π + 2(2) = + 4.
3 3
The area of the circular trapezoid can be found by taking the difference of the areas of the two circular sectors
that span the circular trapezoid:
1 π 1 π 10π
· · (6)2 − · · (4)2 = .
2 3 2 3 3
B
4

O θ = π
3
A
6

Figure 7.40: Example 768. Figure 7.41: Example 769.

770 Example Three circles of radius R are mutually tangential as shewn in figure 7.42. What is the area of
the region surrounded by the three circles?

Solution: The area sought is the area of the equilateral triangle formed joining the centres of the three circles
minus the three angular sectors (figure 7.43). Since the equilateral triangle has side 2R, it has area
√
R2 3.
π πR2
Since is 1/6 of the circumference, each of the angular sectors has area . Thus the area sought is
3 6
√ R2 π
R2 3− .
2
Practice 127

Figure 7.42: Example 770. Figure 7.43: Example 770. Figure 7.44: Example 771 Figure 7.45: Example 771.

771 Example The square in figure 7.44 has side 1. The shaded region below is formed by overlapping
quarter-circles each centred at a corner of the square. Diagonally opposite quarter-circles are tangent. Find
the area of the cross-shaped figure shaded.

Solution The area of the figure is twice that shaded in figure 7.45. We first find the (identical) radii of the two
quarter circles in figure 7.45. Clearly, the diagonal of the above square measures 2r. Thus by the
Pythagorean Theorem,
(2r)2 = 12 + 12 ,
√
2
whence r = . The shaded part of figure 7.45 has as area that of the square minus two quarter circles and
2
two small isosceles right triangles at the corners. That is, its area is
‚ √ Œ2 ‚ √ Œ2
π 2 1 2 √ 1 π
1−2· · −2· 1− = 2− − .
4 2 2 2 2 4

The required area is thus

√ π
2 2−1− .
2
A

A B C
b b b b
b b b b
D E F
B C

Figure 7.47: Problem 775

Figure 7.46: Problem 772 Figure 7.48: Problem 776. Figure 7.49: Problem 777.

Practice

772 Problem Four cylinders each of diameter 1 are and a tangent, or two tangents, is measured by
tightly held together by a rope, as shewn in figure one-half the difference of central angles subtending
7.46. Shew that the rope has length 4 + π. Also, shew the intercepted arcs.
π
that the area of the shaded region is 1 − .
4
774 Problem Find the area of the Reuleaux triangle
in figure 7.22.
773 Problem Prove that the angle between a secant
128 Chapter 7

775 Problem △ABC is equilateral, with side of 776 Problem The square has side 4. Shew that the
length a. Two tangent circles with centres at B and C area of the “four-petal rose” shewn in figure 7.48 is
are drawn, as shewn in figure 7.47. Shew that the
perimeter of the shaded surface is
8π − 16.
πa
a+
3
The rose is the intersection of semicircles of radius 2
and is thus independent of the radii of the circles. with diameter at the sides of the square.
Also demonstrate that the area of this region is
√
a2 3 π
− (R2 + r2 ) 777 Problem (AHSME 1984) A rectangle intersects a
4 6 circle as shewn in figure 7.49, where AB = 4, BC = 5
, where R and r are the radii of the circles. and DE = 3. Find the length of EF.

7.3 Triangles
We will now examine some special lines of the triangle.

778 Definition A line which is perpendicular to a segment and divides this segment in half is called the
perpendicular bisector of the segment.

☞ By examining the congruent right triangles formed we see that if point P lies in the
perpendicular of the line segment AB, then P is equidistant from both A and B. Conversely, any
point equidistant from A and B lies in the perpendicular bisector of AB.

779 Theorem The three perpendicular bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. Their point of intersection is
called the circumcentre. The circumcentre is the centre of the circle that passes through all the vertices of the
triangle.
C
Ub b
Cb Cb
b bT T S
S
b
Ob E b bD b
A
b b bB b Ob F bB b O bB
V A A
R

Figure 7.50: Theorem 779. Circumcir- Figure 7.51: Theorem 781. Incircle Figure 7.52: Theorem 7.3.
cle.

Proof: In figure 7.50, let S be the foot of the perpendicular bisector to AC and let T be the foot of
the perpendicular bisector to BC. Draw the perpendicular bisectors to both AC and BC and let
them meet at O (they do meet at some point, otherwise we would have a “flat” triangle). Then
SO⊥AC, AS = SC, TO⊥BC, BT = TC. Now △OSC and △OSA are congruent right triangles,
since their two legs are equal. Thus their hypotenuses CO and AO must be equal in length. A
similar argument with △BOT and △COT gives CO = BO. Thus CO = BO = AO, meaning that
the point O is equidistant from A, B and C. Thus O lies in UV, the perpendicular bisector to AB.
This completes the proof. ❑

☞
1. The circumcentre is the centre of the circumscribed circle about △ABC, as in figure 7.50.
2. The circumcentre of a right triangle is the midpoint of its hypotenuse.
Triangles 129

780 Definition A line which passes through the vertex of an angle and divides the angle into two equal angles
is called an angle bisector.

781 Theorem The three angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent. Their point of intersection is called the
incentre.

Proof: In figure 7.51, let the angle bisectors AD and BE intersect at O. Since O lies in the bisector
AD, O is equidistant from sides AB and AC. In the same fashion, as O is in the bisector BE, O is
equidistant from sides AB and BC. Conclusion: O is equidistant from sides AC and BC and
therefore it must lie in the angle bisector CF. Hence, AD, BE and CF are concurrent at O. ❑

782 Theorem In △ABC let a = BC, b = CA, c = AB, let r be radius of the incircle, and

a+b+c
s=
2
be the semiperimeter. Then the area [ABC] of △ABC is given by

[ABC] = sr.

Proof: Draw perpendiculars OR, OS, OT . Since these perpendiculars are radii,
r = OR = OS = OT. Now

[ABC] = [AOB] + [BOC] + [AOC]

1 1 1
= (AB)(OR) + (BC)(OS) + (CA)(OT )
2 2 ‹ 2
AB + BC + CA
= r
 2 ‹
c+a+b
= r
2
= rs,

proving the theorem. ❑

F

C γ

A α β B D α β E

Figure 7.53: Similar Triangles. △ABC ∼ △DEF.

783 Definition Two triangles are similar if one is a magnified version of the other.

☞
1. To prove that two triangles are similar we only need to prove that two of the angles on each
triangle are the same.
130 Chapter 7

2. We use the notation ∼ to indicate similarity. Thus in figure 7.53, △ABC ∼ △DEF. Notice that
the vertices are listed in each triangle so that the angles at the vertices are the same. Thus
△ABC ≁ △FED.
3. In similar triangles the corresponding sides have a constant ratio. Thus in figure 7.53
AB BC CA
= = = k.
DE EF FD
The constant k is called the similarity ratio.
4. The ratio of the areas of △ABC ∼ △DEF satisfies

[ABC]
= k2 .
[DEF]

784 Theorem (Pythagorean Theorem) Let △ABC be right-angled at A. Then

AB2 + CA2 = BC2 .

Proof: Drop a perpendicular from A to side BC, and let D be its foot, as in figure 7.54. Then
△ADC ∼ △BAC ∼ △BDA. Hence
DC CA
=
CA BC
and
BC − DC AB
= .
AB BC
This translates into CA2 = (DC)(BC) and AB2 = BC2 − (BC)(DC). Adding proves the required
result. ❑
C

B b
D

bD

A B b b b
F A C

Figure 7.54: Pythagorean Theorem. Figure 7.55: Angle Bisector Theorem 785.

785 Theorem (Angle Bisector Theorem) In △ABC let D be the intersection of the bisector of ∠A with BC.
Then
BD AB
= .
CD AC

Proof: Draw BF parallel to bisector AD, as in figure 7.55. Since the corresponding angles are
congruent, △FBC ∼ △ADC. This means that
FC BC
= .
AC DC
Now △FAB is isosceles at A, because ∠FBA = ∠BAD, being alternate interior angles between two
parallels. Hence FA = AB. Thus FC = FA + AC = AB + AC. From this
FC AB
=1+
AC AC
Triangles 131

and
BC BD + DC BD
= =1+ .
DC DC DC
Therefore
AB BD
1+ =1+ ,
AC DC B
b
from where the theorem follows. ❑ 3 2
K bQ
b
bC 2 3 S
E b R b bF
M
B b Eb
T
b bD A b b b bC
O 3 2 P N

F b 2 3

Figure 7.56: Example 786. Figure 7.57: Example 787. Figure 7.58: Example 788.

786 Example (Canadian Mathematical Olympiad, 1971) DEB is a chord of a circle such that DE = 3, and
EB = 5. Let O be the centre of the circle. Join OE and extend OE to cut the circle at C, as in figure . Given
that EC = 1, find the radius of the circle.

Solution: In figure 7.56, ∠BEF = ∠CED, as these are vertical angles. ∠BDC = ∠BFC, as they subtend the
same arc. Thus △EFB ∼ EDC. Hence
FE EB
=
ED EC
or
FE 5
= ,
3 1
whence FE = 15. If r is the radius of the circle then 2r = FC = FE + EC = 16, whence r − 8.

787 Example Find the area, in square units, of the cross-shaped region enclosed in the 5 × 5 square. (Figure
7.57.)

Solution: Let A be the area of one of the four smaller corner right triangles (the ones with hypotenuse 3).
Then the area sought is 25 − 4A. Now, each of these smaller triangles is similar√ to a large triangle (with legs
5 and 3). Since the hypotenuse of these triangles must be in proportion, 3k = 34, for some constant k. Now,
15 15 135
the areas keep the square proportionality, hence Ak2 = . This gives A = 2
= . Hence
2 2k 68
135 290
25 − 4A = 25 − = .
17 17

788 Example Three straight lines, each parallel to a side of △ABC, pass through a point M in the interior of
the triangle, as in figure 7.58. If the areas of the resulting three triangles inside △ABC are R, S, T , shew that
√ √ √
[ABC] = ( R + S + T )2 .

Solution: Observe that △EKM ∼ △MQF ∼ △PMN. Thus

R EM2 S MF2 T PN2

= 2
, = 2
, = .
[ABC] AC [ABC] AC [ABC] AC2
132 Chapter 7

This gives Ê Ê Ê
R S T
EM = AC, MF = AC, PN = AC.
[ABC] [ABC] [ABC]
Now, because of parallelism, EM = AP, and MF = NC. This gives

EM + PN + MF = AP + PN + NC = AC.

From the last equality it follows that

Ê Ê Ê
R S T
AC + AC + AC = AC,
[ABC] [ABC] [ABC]
which gives, upon cancelling AC and solving for [ABC],
√ √ √
[ABC] = ( R + S + T )2 .

C
C

252 D F
E P
105
A B E
90 F

120
A B
D

Figure 7.60: Example 790. Figure 7.61: Example 791.

Figure 7.59: Example 789.

789 Example A triangular pennant is coloured as shewn below, the area of each region given in square units
How many square units of blue are there? How many square units of yellow?

Solution: From similar triangles,

b 120 + 90 + b
=
252 252 + 105 + y
and
y 252 + y + b
= .
105 120 + 105 + 90
It follows that y = 210, b = 168.

790 Example Point P is interior to an equilateral triangle △ABC of side 3 units. The distance of P to AB is
a, the distance of P to AC is 2a and the distance of P to CB is 3a. Find the length of a. (Figure 7.60.)

Solution: Let D, E, F, be the feet of the perpendiculars to the sides BC, CA and AB respectively. Then
PF = a, PE = 2a, PF = 3a, and
[ABC] = [APB] + [APC] + [CPA].
Therefore, s
 ‹2
1 3 1 1 1
·3· 32 − = ·3·a+ · 3 · 3a + · 3 · 2a,
2 2 2 2 2
Practice 133

√
3
which gives a = after simplification.
4

791 Example In figure 7.61, the inscribed circle to △ABC is tangent to the side AB at D. Shew that

1
BD = (AB + BC − CA).
2

Solution: Drop perpendiculars from the centre of the circle to F on AB and to E on AC. Then

AB = AD + DB
= AE + DB
= AC − EC + DB
= AC − CF + DB
= AC − (BC − FB) + DB
= AB − BC + DB + DB
= AB − BC + 2DB.

Rearranging from
AB = AB − BC + 2DB,
we obtain the desired result.

C B

Figure 7.62: Problem 795.

Practice

792 Problem Prove that in a right triangle, the 794 Problem In △ABC, straight lines parallel to the
bisector of the right angle halves the angle between sides AC and AB are drawn through a point M lying
the median and the altitude drawn from the same on the side BC. The area of the resulting
vertex. 5
parallelogram is of the area of △ABC. Find the
18
ratio in which M divides the line segment BC.
793 Problem (Viviani’s Theorem) Let h be the height
of equilateral △ABC, and let P be any point interior
to the triangle. If R, S, T are the feet of the Answer: 5 : 1
perpendiculars from P to the sides AB, BC, CA
respectively, then 795 Problem △ABC is right-angled at C. Let D be
the foot of the perpendicular drawn from C to AB. A
PR + PS + PT = h. circle of radius r1 is inscribed in △ACD and another
134 Chapter 7

circle of radius r2 is inscribed in the △ADB, as in

figure 7.62. Shew that if the radius of the inscribed
circle of △ABC is r, then
È
r= r21 + r22 .

7.4 Right Angle Trigonometry

Place the vertex of any of the non-right angles of a right △OA ′ B ′ at the origin and draw a unit circle, as
shewn in figure 7.63. Assume ∠B ′ OA ′ measures θ radians. As △OAB ∼ OA ′ B ′ , the ratios are preserved,
and upon observing that OB measures 1 unit, we gather that

B′

Opposite Leg
se
nu
e
ot
yp
H
OA Length of the Opposite Leg B
sin θ = =
OB Length of the Hypotenuse θ
Adjacent Leg
AB Length of the Adjacent Leg O A A′
cos θ = =
OB Length of the Hypotenuse
AB Length of the Opposite Leg
tan θ = =
OA Length of the Hypotenuse Figure 7.63: A right triangle and the unit circle

12
796 Example Given △ABC, right-angled at A, and such that BC = 13 and cos ∠B = . Find AB, AC,
13
cos ∠C, and tan ∠C.

Solution: We have
12 AB AB
= cos ∠B = = ,
13 BC 13
and hence AB = 12. By the Pythagorean Theorem,

BC2 = AB2 + AC2 =⇒ 132 = 122 + AC2 ,

whence AC = 5. Now
AC 5
cos ∠C = = ,
BC 13
and
AB 12
tan ∠C = = .
AC 5

797 Example Given △ABC, right-angled at A, such that AB = 5, and BC = 10. Find AC, and the measures
of ∠B and ∠C.

Solution: Using the Pythagorean Theorem

BC2 = AB2 + AC2 =⇒ 102 = 52 + AC2 ,

√
from where AC = 5 3. Now √ √
AC 5 3 3
sin ∠B = = = ,
BC 10 2
√
3 π π π
and so ∠B = arcsin = . Since ∠B + ∠C = , we obtain ∠C = .
2 3 2 6
Right Angle Trigonometry 135

÷ measures
2π
798 Example In a given circle, arc AB and chord AB measures 30. Find the length of the
3
circumference.

Solution: Let R be the radius of the circle. Let M be the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the circle
to the chord AB. See figure 7.64.
π
Then M is the midpoint of AB and ∠AOM measures radians. △AOM is right-angled at M, and so
3
AM
sin ∠AOM = ,
OA
π 15
sin = ,
3 R
√
3 15
= ,
2 R
√ √
from where R = 10 3. The circumference sought is then 2πR = 20π 3.

A
M
O B

C B A

Figure 7.64: Example 798. Figure 7.65: Example 799

π
799 Example In figure 7.65, BC = 50, ∠A is a right angle, ∠ABT measures radians and ∠BCT measures
3
π
radians. Find the length AT .
6

π AT √ π AT
Solution: In △ABT , tan = , which gives AT = AB 3. In △ACT , tan = , which gives
√ √ 3 AB 6 50 + AB
AT = 50 3 + AB 3. Solving for AT from these two equations, we obtain
√
AT = 25 3.

π
800 Example Two tangents from a given point T to a circle measure 3 each and are at an angle of radians.
3
Find the circumference of the circle.

Solution: Let S be a point of tangency to the circle. See figure 7.66. Then OS is perpendicular to TS, whence
π
△OST is right-angled at S, with ST = 3, and the measure of ∠OTS = radians. Therefore
6
π R
tan = tan ∠OTS = ,
6 3
π √ √
whence R = 3 tan = 3. The circumference is thus 2πR = 2π 3.
6

801 Example Find the ratio of the radius of the inscribed circle to the radius circumscribed circle of any
given equilateral triangle.
136 Chapter 7

Solution: In figure 7.67, ∠OAB is a right angle, because line AB is tangent at A to the circle and OA is a
π π
radius. ∠B is bisected by OB and so ∠ABO = and ∠BOA = . Finally,
6 3
r OA π 1
= = cos ∠BOA = cos = .
R OB 3 2
B

S A
R
O T O

Figure 7.66: Example 800 Figure 7.67: Example 801

802 Example Three identical squares are in a row, as in figure 7.68. Compute the angle sum
∠ACH + ∠ADH.

A B C D A B C D

H G F E H G F E

Figure 7.68: Example 802. Figure 7.69: Example 802.

Solution: Consider figure 7.69, where we have made copies of the squares and and added one more square.
Then
1
tan ∠ACH + tan ∠ADH +1
tan(∠ACH + ∠ADH) = = 2 1 3 1 = 1,
1 − tan ∠ACH tan ∠ADH 1 − 2 · 3
π
whence ∠ACH + ∠ADH = arctan 1 = .
4
Aliter: Observe that ∠ADH = ∠ACT and that △THC is an isosceles right triangle. Hence
π
∠ADH + ∠ACH = .
4

803 Example A circle of radius 2 is inscribed in a square. A smaller circle of radius r, both tangent to the
larger circle and to two sides of the square, is shewn figure 7.70. Find the value of r.

Solution: Join the two centres A and C as in figure 7.70. Point B directly below point A, is the intersection of
π π
the parallel lines to the sides of the square that pass through A and C. Since ∠ABC = , and ∠ACB = ,
2 4
△ABC is isosceles. It is clear that AC = 2 + r, AB = 2 − r, BC = 2 − r. By the Pythagorean Theorem we have

(2 − r)2 + (2 − r)2 = (2 + r)2 .

Right Angle Trigonometry 137

Solving the resulting quadratic

r2 − 12r + 4 = 0
√
we obtain r = 6 − 4 2 (choosing the root which is smaller than 2). We could also get r by noticing that
√
2 π 2−r
= sin = .
2 4 2+r

4 A

2π/n
R R
A H B
B C
4

Figure 7.70: Example 803. Figure 7.71: Theorem 804 Figure 7.72: Corollary 805.

804 Theorem The area [ABC] of △ABC is given by half the product of any two sides and the sine of the
angle between these two sides. That is, if △ABC has sides of length a = BC, b = AC, and c = AB , then its
area [ABC] is given by
1 1 1
[ABC] = ab sin ∠C = bc sin ∠A = ca sin ∠B.
2 2 2

Proof: In figure 7.71, produce CH⊥AB. First observe that

CH CH
sin A = = ,
AC b
from where CH = b sin ∠A. Now,
1 c bc
[ABC] = ABCH = CH = sin ∠A,
2 2 2
giving one of the formulæ. The remaining formulæ are obtained mutatis mutandis. ❑

805 Corollary The area of a regular n-gon inscribed in a circle of radius R is given by
n 2π
R2 sin .
2 n

Proof: Place the n vertices of the polygon on a circumference, dividing it into n equal arcs. Each
2π
chord generated by joining each two consecutive vertices subtends a central angle of radians. If
n
we join the centre of the circle with the vertices of the polygon, n equal isosceles triangles are
1 2π
formed. See figure 7.72. By Theorem 804, each triangle has area sin and so the area of the
2 n
n 2π
n-gon is sin , as claimed. ❑
2 n

806 Example (Canadian Mathematical Olympiad, 1969) Let △ABC have sides AB = c, BC = a, and
CA = b. Let the bisector of ∠C cut AB in D. Prove that the length of CD is
2ab cos ∠ C
2
.
a+b
138 Chapter 7

Solution: Let x = CD. By Theorem 804,

1 C 1 C
[BCD] = ax sin , [ACD] = bx sin ,
2 2 2 2
and
1 1 C C
[ABC] = ab sin C = ab sin cos .
2 2 2 2
This gives
C C C C
ax sin + bx sin = ab sin cos ,
2 2 2 2
whence the result follows.

807 Example Inside square ABCD of side 1, four quarter-circles with centres at the vertices of the square
and radius 1 are drawn. Find the area of the curvilinear quadrilateral formed inside the square by the
intersection of these circles. See figure 7.73.

A B
b

b bO bE

F b
D C
Figure 7.73: Example 807.

√
2
Solution: Observe that AF = AE = 1, (being radii of the circles) that AO = (being halfway on the diagonal
2
π ÷ is trisected by AE and AF. The area of the sector AFE is
of square ABCD) and that ∠AOE = , since arc BD
6
thus
1 π π
(1) = .
2 6 12
r
1 − cos 2x
From the half-angle formulae | sin x| = , we obtain
2
Ê È √
π
π 1 − cos 6
2− 3
sin = = .
12 2 2
The area of △AEO is given by Theorem 804,
√ √ È √ √
1 2 π 2 2− 3 3−1
· · 1 · sin = = .
2 2 12 8 8
The area sought is finally ‚ √ Œ
π 3−1 π √
4 −2· = − 3 + 1.
12 8 3
Practice 139

Practice
808 Problem △ABC is right angled at A with 816 Problem △ABC is such that the height issued
AB = 12, and BC = 13. Find cos ∠B, sin ∠B, tan ∠B, from A has length equal to the sum of the heights
sin ∠C, cos ∠C and tan ∠C. issued from B and C. Shew that

1 1 1
809 Problem △ABC is right-angled at A, and = + .
3 sin ∠A sin ∠B sin ∠C
AB = 6 and cos ∠B = . Find BC, AC, sin ∠B and
5
tan ∠B. 817 Problem Shew that if in a triangle of area A the
3
product of the lengths of two medians is A, then
810 Problem △ABC is right angled at A and 2
π these two medians are perpendicular.
AC = 40 and the measure of ∠C = . Find AB.
6
818 Problem If α, β, γ are the internal angles of a
811 Problem Shew that the ratio of radius the
triangle, prove that
inscribed circle to the radius √
of the circumscribed
2
circle of any given square is . α β γ α β γ
2 cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot .
2 2 2 2 2 2
812 Problem Find the area of the shaded region in
figure 7.74. 819 Problem (Eőtvős Competition, Hungary 1897)
Shew that if α, β, γ are the angles of an arbitrary
triangle then
813 Problem Give a proof of the addition formulæ for
the sine by using Theorem 804. What are the
α β γ 1
restrictions on the arguments? (sin )(sin )(sin )≤ .
2 2 2 8
814 Problem Consider a regular n-gon of side 1 unit. When is equality achieved?
Shew that the distance from the centre of the n-gon
1 π
to a side is given by cot . 820 Problem Let α, β, γ, be the angles of a triangle.
2 n
Given that
815 Problem Prove that the circumradius of an
2 tan(α − β) + tan(β − γ) + tan(γ − α) = 0,
equilateral triangle of unit area is √
4
units of
27
length. prove that the triangle is isosceles.

4 B
A
1

Figure 7.74: Problem 812.

7.5 Rule of Al-Kashi

821 Theorem (Al-Kashi’s Theorem or Law of the Cosines) Let △ABC have sides of length a = BC, b = AC,
and c = AB. Then the following relations hold

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos ∠A,

140 Chapter 7

b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ca cos ∠B,

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos ∠C.

A A

c b

B H C H B C

Figure 7.75: Al-Kashi’s Theorem 821, with ∠B acute. Figure 7.76: Al-Kashi’s Theorem 821, with ∠B obtuse.

Proof: First observe that it is enough to shew one of these equalities, the other two can be obtained
mutatis mutandis. We divide the proof into three cases. Either ∠B is (i) an acute angle, (ii) a right
angle, or (iii) an obtuse angle.

Observe that case (ii) is the Pythagorean Theorem, which we will leave as an exercise.

Assume then that ∠B is acute as in the first diagram of figure 7.75. Observe that
a = BC = BH + HC,
HC = b cos ∠C,
BH − HC = (BH + HC) − 2HC = a − 2b cos ∠C.
Using the Pythagorean Theorem on both △ABH and △AHC, we obtain
c2 = BH2 + AH2 ,
b2 = HC2 + AH2 .
Subtracting these these two equalities in order to eliminate AH2 ,
c2 − b2 = BH2 − HC2 = (BH + HC)(BH − HC) = a(a − 2b cos ∠C),
which after rearranging yields
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos ∠C,
proving case (i).

Assume now that ∠B is obtuse, as in the second diagram of figure 7.75. Applying the Pythagorean
Theorem to both △AHB and △AHC, we obtain,
c2 = AH2 + HB2 ,
b2 = AH2 + (a + HB)2 .
Subtracting these two equalities to eliminate AH2 ,
c2 − b2 = HB2 − (HB + a)2 = −2HBa − a2 .
Now, from △AHC,
a + HB = b cos ∠C.
Thus
−2HBa − a2 = −2HBa − 2a2 + a2 = −2a(HB + a) + a2 = −2a(b cos ∠C) + a2 .
We deduce that
c2 − b2 = −2ab cos ∠C + a2 .
Rearranging gives the desired result. ❑
Law of Sines 141

822 Theorem (Heron’s Formula) Let △ABC have sides of length a = BC, b = AC, and c = AB. Let
a+b+c
s= be the semiperimeter of the triangle. Then the area [ABC] of the triangle is given by
2
È
[ABC] = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c).

Proof: The following proof, which uses the Al-Kashi’s Theorem, was not available in Heron’s time.
By Theorem 804,
1
[ABC] = ab sin ∠C,
2
2 2
and so 16[ABC] = 4a b sin ∠C. Now, sin ∠C = 1 − cos2 ∠C, and so
2 2 2

16[ABC]2 = 4a2 b2 (1 − cos2 ∠C).

By Al-Kashi’s formula,
(c2 − a2 − b2 )2
cos2 ∠C = .
4a2 b2
We thus obtain
16[ABC]2 = 4a2 b2 − (c2 − a2 − b2 )2
= (2ab − c2 + a2 + b2 )(2ab + c2 − a2 − b2 )
= ((a + b)2 − c2 )(c2 − (a − b)2 )
= (a + b + c)(a + b − c)(c + a − b)(c − a + b)
= (2s)(2s − 2c)(2s − 2b)(2s − 2a),
from where dividing through by 16 and taking square roots we obtain the result. ❑

7.6 Law of Sines

823 Theorem (Law of the Sines) Let △ABC have sides of length a = BC, b = AC, and c = AB and let R be
the radius of the circumscribed circle. Then the following relations hold
a b c
= = = 2R. (7.1)
sin ∠A sin ∠B sin ∠C

A A
B

D C D C
O O
B

Figure 7.77: Theorem 823.

Proof: We divide the proof into two cases, depending on whether ∠A is acute or obtuse.

π
Assume first that ∠A is acute (first diagram of figure 7.77). DC is a diameter. Hence, ∠CBD = ,
2
being inscribed in a semicircle. Thus
a a
sin ∠D = = .
DC 2R
142 Chapter 7

Now, ∠D = ∠A, because both are inscribed in the same arc of the circle (Corollary ). Thus we have,
a
sin ∠A = sin ∠D = .
2R
If the same reasoning is applied to the remaining angles of △ABC, we deduce

b c
sin ∠B = , and sin ∠C = ,
2R 2R
proving the Law of Sines for the case when A is an acute angle.

Assume now that ∠A is obtuse (second diagram of figure 7.77). Again we have
a
sin ∠D = .
2R
In this case, ∠D = π − ∠A, because opposite angles of an inscribed quadrilateral are supplementary.
By a reflexion about the origin identity, sin(π − ∠A) = sin(π + (−∠A)) = − sin(−∠A) = sin ∠A,
the last equality following because the sine is an odd function. Thus, we again deduce that
a
sin ∠A = sin(π − ∠A) = sin ∠D = ,
2R
and the Law of Sines is also proved in this case. ❑

824 Example Shew that the area [ABC] of △ABC is given by

abc
[ABC] = .
4R

Solution: By Theorem 804 and Theorem 823 the area is

1 abc sin ∠C abc

ab sin ∠C = · = .
2 2 c 4R

825 Example Shew that the area [ABC] of △ABC is given by

[ABC] = 2R2 sin ∠A sin ∠B sin ∠C,

where R is the radius of the circumscribed circle.

Solution: By Theorem 804 and Theorem 823 the area is

1 1
ab sin ∠C = (2R sin ∠A)(2R sin ∠B) sin ∠C,
2 2
from where the result follows.

Practice

826 Problem A triangle has sides of length 7, 8, 9. circumscribed circle.

Find its greatest angle.

828 Problem A circle passes through the vertices of a

15 25
827 Problem If one side of a triangle is 12 and the triangle with side-lengths , 10, . Find the radius
π 2 2
opposite angle is radians, find the diameter of the of the circle.
6
Practice 143

829 Problem The base of an isosceles triangle is 6 832 Problem Prove that △ABC satisfies
and one of the equal sides is 12. Find the radius of
the circle through the vertices. sin2 ∠A + sin2 ∠B = sin2 ∠C

830 Problem (AHSME 1991) Equilateral △ABC has if and only if it is a right triangle.
been creased and folded so that vertex A now rests at
A ′ on BC, as in figure 7.78. If BA ′ = 1 and A ′ C = 2,
833 Problem Let α, β be acute angles. Prove that
find the length of crease PQ.
sin2 α + sin2 β = sin2 (α + β),
831 Problem Let △ABC have circumradius R. Let
p, q be the radii of two circles through A, touching π
BC at B and C, respectively. Prove that pq = R2 . if and only if α + β = .
2

P
Q

B A′ C

Figure 7.78: Problem 830.

Appendix A
Answers, Hints, and Solutions

10 Since their product is 1 the integers must be ±1 and there must be an even number of −1’s, say k 139 we have
of them. To make the sum of the numbers 0 we must have the same number of 1’s. Thus we must have
k(1) + k(−1) = 0, and k + k = 34, which means that k = 17, which is not even. n ab a a b−1 a b−2 a 1
2 −1 = 2 − 1 = (2 − 1)((2 ) + (2 ) + · · · + (2 ) + 1).

11 Clearing denominators, there are 2000 summands on the sinistral side of the form a
Since a > 1, 2 − 1 > 1. Since b > 1,
a1 a2 · · · ai−1 ai+1 · · · a2000 , and the dextral side we simply have
a1 a2 · · · ai−1 ai+1 · · · a2000 . If all the ak were odd, the right hand side would be odd, a b−1 a b−2 a 1 a
and the left hand side would be even, being the sum of 2000 odd numbers, a contradiction. (2 ) + (2 ) + · · · (2 ) + 1) ≥ 2 + 1 > 1.

We have decomposed a prime number (the left hand side) into the product of two factors, each greater than
a a b 1, a contradiction. Thus n must be a prime.
12 If log2 3 = , with integral a, b 6= 0 then 2 = 3 . By uniqueness of factorisation this is
b
impossible unless a = b = 0, which is not an allowed alternative. 140 We have

13 If the palindrome were divisible by 10 then it would end in 0, and hence, by definition of being a n 2k m 2k 2k m−1 2k m−2 2k 1
2 +1 = 2 +1 = (2 +1)((2 ) −(2 ) +· · ·−(2 ) +1).
palindrome, it would start in 0, which is not allowed in the definition.

2k
Clearly, 2 + 1 > 1. Also if m ≥ 3
14 Assume AC ≥ BC and locate point D on the line segment AC such that AD = BD. Then
△ADB is isosceles at D and we must have ∠A = ∠B, a contradiction.
2k m−1 2k m−2 2k 1 2k 2 2k 1
(2 ) − (2 ) + · · · − (2 ) + 1 ≥ (2 ) − (2 ) + 1 > 1,
√ 2
15 If a ≤ α then α ≤ α , which implies that α(1 − α) ≤ 0, an impossible inequality if n
0 < α < 1. and so, we have produced two factors each greater than 1 for the prime 2 + 1, which is nonsense.

149 1
1
16 We have 1 − < α < 1. Squaring,
102000 2004 2 1002 1002
166 Observe that (1 + i) = ((1 + i) ) = (2i) , etc.

2 1 167 Group the summands in groups of four terms and observe that
2
1− + < α .
102000 104000
k+1 k+2
ki + (k + 1)i +
k+3 k+4
1 1 (k + 2)i + (k + 4)i
Since − + , we have k+1
= i (k + (k + 1)i − (k + 2) − (k + 3)i)
102000 104000 < 0
= −2 − 2i.

1 1 1 1 2
1− < 1− − + < α . k k+1 k+2 k+3 k 2 3
168 If k is an integer, i + i +i +i = i (1 + i + i + i ) = 0.
102000 102000 102000 104000
183 Argue by contradiction. Assume a = 3k ± 1 or b = 3m ± 1.
26 There are n possible different remainders when an integer is divided by n, so among n + 1 different
integers there must be two integers in the group leaving the same remainder, and their difference is 187 13
divisible by n.
195 Think of n − 6 if n is even and n − 9 if n is odd.
27 20
197 Try x = 36k + 14, y = (12k + 5)(18k + 7).

66 (i) −3.5, (ii) 45

322 Consider, separately, the cases when n is and is not a perfect square.

2 2 2
67 x = (x + 3 − 3) = (x + 3) − 6(x + 3) + 9 347 2400

p 348 9

89 Substitute t by t2 − u2 + v2 , in 2.5.
356 3030

√ 5973
2 √ 2 √ √ 2 358
98 Use the fact that (b − a) = ( b − a) ( b + a) .
1993

1 378 Shew first that csc 2x = cot x − cot 2x.

104 Suppose that all these products are > . Use the preceding problem to obtain a contradiction.
4
379 Observe that
y 1 1
= − .
117 52 1 − y2 1−y 1 − y2

131 Write 1
392 xn = + 2.
3n
5555 2222 5555 5555
2222 + 5555 = (2222 +4 ) n
2222 2222 393 xn = 5 + 5n.
+(5555 −4 )
5555 2222
−(4 −4 ). 2
394 xn = 6n + 6n + 1.

n n
136 Consider x = 2n − 1. 395 xn = 2 + 3(5 ).

144
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 145

2j
396 aj+1 = 6 − 1. 427 Let A be the set of students liking Mathematics, B the set of students liking theology, and C be the
set of students liking alchemy. We are given that

399 Let un = cos vn . card (A) = 14, card (B) = 16,

n
413 a0 = 0, an = an−1 + (n − 1)3 . card (C) = 11, card (A ∩ B) = 7, card (B ∩ C) = 8, card (A ∩ C) = 5,

and
card (A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4.
423 Let Ak ⊆ A be the set of those integers divisible by k.
By the Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion,
➊ Notice that the elements are 2 = 2(1), 4 = 2(2), . . . , 114 = 2(57). Thus
card (A) = 57. c c c


card A ∩B ∩C = 40 − card (A) − card (B) − card (C)
+card (A ∩ B) + card (A ∩ C) + card (B ∩ C)
57
➋ There are T U = 19 integers in A divisible by 3. They are −card (A ∩ B ∩ C) .
3
Substituting the numerical values of these cardinalities
{6, 12, 18, . . . , 114}.
40 − 14 − 16 − 11 + 7 + 5 + 8 − 4 = 15.


Notice that 114 = 6(19). Thus card A3 = 19.
428 We have

➊ 31
57
➌ There are T U = 11 integers in A divisible by 5. They are
5 ➋ 10

{10, 20, 30, . . . , 110}. ➌ 3

➍ 3
Notice that 110 = 10(11). Thus card A5 = 11
➎ 1

57 ➏ 1
➍ There are T U = 3 integers in A divisible by 15. They are {30, 60, 90}. Notice that
15
➐ 1
90 = 30(3). Thus card A15 = 3, and observe that by Theorem ?? we have


➑ 960
card A15 = card A3 ∩ A5 .

429 Let Y, F, S, M stand for young, female, single, male, respectively, and let H stand for married.
We have
1

➎ We want card A3 ∪ A5 = 19 + 11 = 30.

card (Y ∩ F ∩ S) = card (Y ∩ F) − card (Y ∩ F ∩ H)

➏ We want = card (Y ) − card (Y ∩ M)

=
−(card (Y ∩ H) − card (Y ∩ H ∩ M))
3000 − 1320 − (1400 − 600)
card A \ (A3 ∪ A5 ) = card (A) − card A3 ∪ A5
= 880.
= 57 − 30
= 27.
430 34

431 30; 7; 5; 18
➐ We want

432 4
(A3 ∪ A5 ) \ (A3 ∩ A5 ) (A3 ∪ A5 )
card = card

433 Let C denote the set of people who like candy, I the set of people who like ice cream, and K denote
−card A3 ∩ A5 the set of people who like cake. We are given that card (C) = 816, card (I) = 723,
card (K) = 645, card (C ∩ I) = 562, card (C ∩ K) = 463, card (I ∩ K) = 470, and
= 30 − 3
card (C ∩ I ∩ K) = 310. By Inclusion-Exclusion we have
= 27.

card (C ∪ I ∪ K) = card (C) + card (I) + card (K)

−card (C ∩ I) − card (C ∩ K) − card (I ∩ C)
424 We have
+card (C ∩ I ∩ K)
= 816 + 723 + 645 − 562 − 463 − 470 + 310
100
➊ T U = 50 = 999.
2
The investigator miscounted, or probably did not report one person who may not have liked any of the three
100 things.
➋ T U = 33
3
k
434 A set with k elements has 2 different subsets. We are given
100
➌ T U = 14
7 100 100 card(C) card(A∪B∪C)
2 +2 +2 = 2 .

100 card(C)−101
➍ T U = 16 This forces card (C) = 101, as 1 + 2 is larger than 1 and a power of 2. Hence
6 card (A ∪ B ∪ C) = 102. Using the Principle Inclusion-Exclusion, since
card (A) + card (B) + card (C) − card (A ∪ B ∪ C) = 199,
100
➎ T U = 7 card (A ∩ B ∩ C) = card (A ∩ B) + card (A ∩ C) + card (B ∩ C) − 199
14
= (card (A) + card (B) − card (A ∪ B))
+(card (A) + card (C)
100
➏ T U = 4 −card (A ∪ C)) + card (B) + card (C)
21 −card (B ∪ C) − 199
= 403 − card (A ∪ B) − card (A ∪ C) − card (B ∪ C) .
100
➐ T U = 2
42 As A ∪ B, A ∪ C, B ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ B ∪ C, the cardinalities of all these sets are ≤ 102. Thus

➑ 100 − 50 − 33 − 14 + 15 + 7 + 4 − 2 = 27 card (A ∩ B ∩ C) = 403 − card (A ∪ B) − card (A ∪ C)

−card (B ∪ C) ≥ 403 − 3 · 102
➒ 16 − 2 = 14 = 97.

➓ 52 By letting
A = {1, 2, . . . , 100}, B = {3, 4, . . . , 102},

425 52% and

C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . , 101, 102}

426 22 we see that the bound card (A ∩ B ∩ C) = card ({4, 5, 6, . . . , 100}) = 97 is achievable.

1
Or H for hanged, if you prefer.
146 Appendix A

435 Let A denote the set of those who lost an eye, B denote those who lost an ear, C denote those who 461 We have
lost an arm and D denote those losing a leg. Suppose there are n combatants. Then
6
➊ This is 5 · 8 = 1310720.
n ≥ card (A ∪ B)
= card (A) + card (B) − card (A ∩ B) ➋ This is 5 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 = 25200.
= .7n + .75n − card (A ∩ B) ,
5
➌ This is 5 · 8 · 4 = 655360.
n ≥ card (C ∪ D)
= card (C) + card (D) − card (C ∩ D) 5
➍ This is 5 · 8 · 4 = 655360.
= .8n + .85n − card (C ∩ D) .
➎ We condition on the last digit. If the last digit were 1 or 5 then we would have 5 choices for the
This gives
first digit, and so we would have
card (A ∩ B) ≥ .45n,

card (C ∩ D) ≥ .65n. 5 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 2 = 7200

This means that
phone numbers. If the last digit were either 3 or 7, then we would have 4 choices for the last
digit and so we would have
n ≥ card ((A ∩ B) ∪ (C ∩ D))
= card (A ∩ B) + card (C ∩ D) − card (A ∩ B ∩ C ∩ D)
≥ .45n + .65n − card (A ∩ B ∩ C ∩ D) , 4 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 2 = 5760

whence phone numbers. Thus the total number of phone numbers is

card (A ∩ B ∩ C ∩ D) ≥ .45 + .65n − n = .1n.

This means that at least 10% of the combatants lost all four members. 7200 + 5760 = 12960.

10
451 2 = 1024 4
462 26 · 25 = 10156250

452 I can choose a right shoe in any of nine ways, once this has been done, I can choose a non-matching
left shoe in eight ways, and thus I have 72 choices. 463 For the leftmost digit cannot be 0 and so we have only the nine choices
Aliter: I can choose any pair in 9 × 9 = 81 ways. Of these, 9 are matching pairs, so the number of
non-matching pairs is 81 − 9 = 72.
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

453 = (20)(19)(20)(19)(20)(20) = 57760000

for this digit. The other n − 1 digits can be filled out in 10 ways, and so there are

3 3 2 2
454 10 5 − 10 5 = 122500
n−1
9 · 10 · · · 10 = 9 · 10 .
| {z }
455 The number of different license plates is the number of different four-tuples (Letter 1 , Letter 2 ,
n−1 10 ′ s
Digit 1 , Digit 2 ). The first letter can be chosen in 26 ways, and so we have

464 The leftmost digit cannot be 0 and so we have only the nine choices
26 .

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
The second letter can be chosen in any of 26 ways:

for this digit. If the integer is going to be even, the last digit can be only one of the five {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}.
26 26 . The other n − 2 digits can be filled out in 10 ways, and so there are

The first digit can be chosen in 10 ways: n−2

9 · 10 · · · 10 ·5 = 45 · 10 .
| {z }
26 26 10 . n−2 10 ′ s

Finally, the last digit can be chosen in 10 ways: n−1

465 9 1-digit numbers and 8 · 9 n-digit numbers n ≥ 2.

26 26 10 10 . 466 One can choose the last digit in 9 ways, one can choose the penultimate digit in 9 ways, etc. and one
can choose the second digit in 9 ways, and finally one can choose the first digit in 9 ways. The total number
n
of ways is thus 9 .
By the multiplication principle, the number of different four-tuples is 26 · 26 · 10 · 10 = 67600.

456 (i) In this case we have a grid like 2

467 m , m(m − 1)

26 26 10 9 , 468 We will assume that the positive integers may be factorised in a unique manner as the product of
primes. Expanding the product
since after a digit has been used for the third position, it cannot be used again. Thus this can be done in
26 · 26 · 10 · 9 = 60840 ways. 2 8 2 9 2
(1 + 2 + 2 + · · · + 2 )(1 + 3 + 3 + · · · + 3 )(1 + 5 + 5 )
(ii) In this case we have a grid like

8 9 2
26 25 10 10 , each factor of 2 3 5 appears and only the factors of this number appear. There are then, as many
factors as terms in this product. This means that there are (1 + 8)(1 + 9)(1 + 3) = 320
factors.
since after a letter has been used for the first position, it cannot be used again. Thus this can be done in
26 · 25 · 10 · 10 = 65000 ways.
(iii) After a similar reasoning, we obtain a grid like The sum of the divisors of this number may be obtained by adding up each geometric series in parentheses.
The desired sum is then
26 25 10 9 .
29 − 1 310 − 1 53 − 1
· · = 467689684.
Thus this can be done in 26 · 25 · 10 · 9 = 58500 ways. 2−1 3−1 5−1

2 2 2 2
457 [1] 8, [2] 5 3 = 225, [3] 5 · 3 · 2 = 150, [4] 5 · 4 · 3 = 180, [5]
8 · 7 · 6 · 5 = 1680. ☞ A similar argument gives the following. Let p1 , p2 , . . . , pk be
different primes. Then the integer
458 432
a a a
n = p 1p 2 · · · p k
459 Solution: 1 2 k

➊ The first letter can be one of any 4. After choosing the first letter, we have 3 choices for the has
second letter, etc.. The total number of words is thus 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24. d(n) = (a1 + 1)(a2 + 1) · · · (ak + 1)

➋ The first letter can be one of any 4. Since we are allowed repetitions, the second letter can also positive divisors. Also, if σ(n) denotes the sum of all positive divisors of n, then
4
be one of any 4, etc.. The total number of words so formed is thus 4 = 256.
a +1 a +1 a +1
p 1 −1 p 2 −1 p k −1
460 The last digit must perforce be 5. The other five digits can be filled with any of the six digits on the 1 2 k
σ(n) = · ··· .
5 p1 − 1 p2 − 1 pk − 1
list: the total number is thus 6 .
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 147

95 2 95 10
469 The 96 factors of 2 are 1, 2, 2 , . . . , 2 . Observe that 2 = 1024 and so 497 8
20
2 = 1048576. Hence
498 4095
19 20
2 = 524288 < 1000000 < 1048576 = 2 .
499 144
20 21 95
The factors greater than 1, 000, 000 are thus 2 ,2 ,...2 . This makes for
96 − 20 = 76 factors. 500 First observe that 1 + 7 = 3 + 5 = 8. The numbers formed have either one, two, three or four
digits. The sum of the numbers of 1 digit is clearly 1 + 7 + 3 + 5 = 16.
470 (1 + 3)(1 + 2)(1 + 1) = 24; 18; 6; 4.
There are 4 × 3 = 12 numbers formed using 2 digits, and hence 6 pairs adding to 8 in the units and
471 16 the tens. The sum of the 2 digits formed is 6((8)(10) + 8) = 6 × 88 = 528.

472 A. [1] 10000, [2] 5040, B. [1] 12 , [2] 10 There are 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 numbers formed using 3 digits, and hence 12 pairs adding to 8 in the
units, the tens, and the hundreds. The sum of the 3 digits formed is
473 n = 1 + 1 + · · · + 1. One either erases or keeps a plus sign. 12(8(100) + (8)(10) + 8) = 12 × 888 = 10656.
| {z }
n−1 + ′ s There are 4 × 3 × 2 · 1 = 24 numbers formed using 4 digits, and hence 12 pairs adding to 8 in the
units, the tens the hundreds, and the thousands. The sum of the 4 digits formed is
474 There are 589 such values. The easiest way to see this is to observe that there is a bijection between 12(8(1000) + 8(100) + (8)(10) + 8) = 12 × 8888 = 106656.
2 2
the divisors of n which are > n and those < n. For if n = ab, with a > n, then b < n, because
2 2
otherwise n = ab > n · n = n , a contradiction. Also, there is exactly one decomposition The desired sum is finally
2
n = n · n. Thus the desired number is
16 + 528 + 10656 + 106656 = 117856.
d(n2 ) (63)(39)
T U + 1 − d(n) = T U + 1 − (32)(20) = 589.
501 Observe that
2 2

n n ➊ We find the pairs

475 The total number of sequences is 3 . There are 2 sequences that contain no 0, 1 or 2. There is {1, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 8}, . . . , {45, 50},
only one sequence that contains only 1’s, one that contains only 2’s, and one that contains only 0’s.
Obviously, there is no ternary sequence that contains no 0’s or 1’s or 2’s. By the Principle of so there are 45 in total. (Note: the pair {a, b} is indistinguishable from the pair {b, a}.
Inclusion-Exclusion, the number required is
➋ If |a − b| = 1, then we have
n n n n n n
3 − (2 + 2 + 2 ) + (1 + 1 + 1) = 3 − 3 · 2 + 3.
{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, . . . , {49, 50},
476 The conditions of the problem stipulate that both the region outside the circles in diagram 5.3 and
R3 will be empty. We are thus left with 6 regions to distribute 100 numbers. To each of the 100
or 49 pairs. If |a − b| = 2, then we have
100
numbers we may thus assign one of 6 labels. The number of sets thus required is 6 .
{1, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 5}, . . . , {48, 50},
485 21
or 48 pairs. If |a − b| = 3, then we have
486 56
{1, 4}, {2, 5}, {3, 6}, . . . , {47, 50},
2 2 3 3
487 (26 − 25 ) + (26 − 25 ) = 2002
or 47 pairs. If |a − b| = 4, then we have
488
9+9·9
{1, 5}, {2, 6}, {3, 7}, . . . , {46, 50},
+9 · 9 · 8 + 9 · 9 · 8 · 7
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 + 9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5
or 46 pairs. If |a − b| = 5, then we have
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 + 9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 {1, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 8}, . . . , {45, 50},
= 8877690
or 45 pairs.

489 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 30. The total required is thus

2 3 49 + 48 + 47 + 46 + 45 = 235.
490 8; 12(n − 2); 6(n − 2) ; (n − 2)
3 3 2
Comment: This proves that n = (n − 2) + 6(n − 2) + 12(n − 2) + 8.
502 If x = 0, put m(x) = 1, otherwise put m(x) = x. We use three digits to label all the
491 We condition on the first digit, which can be 4, 5, or 6. If the number starts with 4, in order to integers, from 000 to 999 If a, b, c are digits, then clearly
satisfy the conditions of the problem, we must choose the last digit from the set {0, 2, 6, 8}. Thus we p(100a + 10b + c) = m(a)m(b)m(c). Thus
have four choices for the last digit. Once this last digit is chosen, we have 8 choices for the penultimate
digit and 7 choices for the antepenultimate digit. There are thus 4 × 8 × 7 = 224 even numbers
p(000) + · · · + p(999) = m(0)m(0)m(0) + · · · + m(9)m(9)m(9),
which have their digits distinct and start with a 4. Similarly, there are 224 even numbers will all digits
distinct and starting with a 6. When they start with a 5, we have 5 choices for the last digit, 8 for the
penultimate and 7 for the antepenultimate. This gives 5 × 8 × 7 = 280 ways. The total number is which in turn
thus 224 + 224 + 280 = 728. 3
= (m(0) + m(1) + · · · + m(9))
3
= (1 + 1 + 2 + · · · + 9)
492 When the number 99 is written down, we have used 3
= 46
= 97336.
1 · 9 + 2 · 90 = 189
Hence
digits. If we were able to write 999, we would have used S = p(001) + p(002) + · · · + p(999)
= 97336 − p(000)
= 97336 − m(0)m(0)m(0)
1 · 9 + 2 · 90 + 3 · 900 = 2889
= 97335.

digits, which is more than 1002 digits. The 1002nd digit must be among the three-digit positive integers.
813 511 120
We have 1002 − 189 = 813 digits at our disposal, from which we can make T U = 271
3
three-digit integers, from 100 to 270. When the 0 in 270 is written, we have used 512 479001600; 4838400; 33868800
189 + 3 · 271 = 1002 digits. The 1002nd digit is the 0 in 270.
513 720; 24; 120; 144
493 4
514 1440
494 There is 1 such number with 1 digit, 10 such numbers with 2 digits, 100 with three digits,
1000 with four digits, etc. Starting with 2 and finishing with 299 we have used
1 · 1 + 2 · 10 + 3 · 100 = 321 digits. We need 1978 − 321 = 1657 more digits from 515 128
1657
among the 4-digit integers starting with 2. Now T U = 414, so we look at the 414th 4-digit
4 516 81729648000
integer starting with 2, namely, at 2413. Since the 3 in 2413 constitutes the
321 + 4 · 414 = 1977-th digit used, the 1978-th digit must be the 2 starting 2414.
517 249

495 19990
518 We have

496 [1] 125, [2] 25, [3] 25, [4] 5 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 6 = 29. ➊ This is 8!.
148 Appendix A

F+I+1

➋ Permute XY in 2! and put them in any of the 7 spaces created by the remaining 6 people. ➎ 2! S!E!(F + I)!
Permute the remaining 6 people. This is 2! · 7 · 6!. 2

➌ In this case, we alternate between sexes. Either we start with a man or a woman (giving 2 20

ways), and then we permute the men and the women. This is 2 · 4!4!. 558 We can choose the seven people in ways. Of the seven, the chairman can be chosen in seven
7

➍ Glue the couples into 4 separate blocks. Permute the blocks in 4! ways. Then permute each of
ways. The answer is thus
20

4 7 = 542640.
the 4 blocks in 2!. This is 4!(2!) . 7

➎ Sit the women first, creating 5 spaces in between. Glue the men together and put them in any
of the 5 spaces. Permute the men in 4! ways and the women in 4!. This is 5 · 4!4!.
19

Aliter: Choose the chairman first. This can be done in twenty ways. Out of the nineteen remaining people,

we just have to choose six, this can be done in ways. The total number of ways is hence
19
6
526 1816214400 20 = 542640.
6
527 548
20

559 We can choose the seven people in ways. Of these seven people chosen, we can choose the
528 18 7
20

chairman in seven ways and the secretary in six ways. The answer is thus 7 · 6 = 3255840.
529 We have 7


Aliter: If one chooses the chairman first, then the secretary and finally the remaining five people of the
18
➊ This is committee, this can be done in 20 · 19 · = 3255840 ways.
10! 5
4!3!2!


560 For a string of three-digit numbers to be decreasing, the digits must come from {0, 1, . . . , 9}
10
➋ This is and so there are = 120 three-digit numbers with all its digits in decreasing order. If the string of
9! 3
4!3!2!
9

three-digit numbers is increasing, the digits have to come from {1, 2, . . . , 9}, thus there are

= 84 three-digit numbers with all the digits increasing. The total asked is hence
➌ This is 3
8! 120 + 84 = 204.

2!3!2!
20

561 We can choose the four students who are going to take the first test in ways. From the
530 36
16
4
remaining ones, we can choose students in ways to take the second test. The third test can be
531 25 12
8
4
4

taken in ways. The fourth in ways and the fifth in ways. The total number is thus
4 4 4
532 126126; 756756

20
16
12
8
4

10 .
546 = 45 4 4 4 4 4
2

7
5
562 We align the thirty-nine cards which are not hearts first. There are thirty-eight spaces between them
547
1 3
= (7)(10) = 70
40

and one at the beginning and one at the end making a total of forty spaces where the hearts can go. Thus

there are ways of choosing the places where the hearts can go. Now, since we are interested in

N
13


arrangements, there are 39! different configurations of the non-hearts and 13! different configurations
548 40
2 of the hearts. The total number of arrangements is thus 39!13!.
13
8

549 4! = 1680 563 The equality signs cause us trouble, since allowing them would entail allowing repetitions in our
4 choices. To overcome that we establish a one-to-one correspondence between the vectors
(a, b, c, d), 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ c ≤ d ≤ n and the vectors
25
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
(a , b , c , d ), 0 ≤ a < b < c < d ≤ n + 3. Let
′ ′
550 = 300 ′ ′ ′ ′
2 (a , b , c , d ) = (a, b + 1, c + 2, d + 3). Now we just have to pick four different

numbers from the set {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3}. This can be done in
n+4
4

551 Let the subsets be A and B. We have either card (A) = 1 or card (A) = 2. If
3
4
ways.
card (A) = 1 then there are = 4 ways of choosing its elements and = 1 ways of choosing
1
4
3
564 We have
the elements of B. If card (A) = 2 then there are = 6 ways of choosing its elements and
2
2
➊ (T + L + W)!
= 1 ways of choosing the elements of B. Altogether there are 4 + 6 = 10 ways.
2
➋ 3!T !L!W! = 6T !L!W!

6
T +L+1

552 = 20 ➌ (T + L)!W!
3 W

553 We count those numbers that have exactly once, twice and three times. There is only one number that T +L+1

➍


has it thrice (namely 333). Suppose the number xyz is to have the digit 3 exactly twice. We can choose (T + L)!W!
3 1
these two positions in ways. The third position can be filled with any of the remaining nine digits
2
3
565 The required number is
(the digit 3 has already been used). Thus there are 9 numbers that the digit 3 exactly twice.

2
20
20
20
20

2 3 + + ··· + = 2
20
− = 1048576 − 1 = 1048575.
Similarly, there are 9 numbers that have 3 exactly once. The total required is hence
3
2

2 3

1 2 20 0

3·1+2·9· +9 = 300.
2 1 566 The required number is

5
20
20
20
19 20 20


554 = 10 + +· · ·+ = 2 − − = 524288−1−190 = 524097.
3 4 6 20 0 2

5
5
5
567 We have
555 + + = 5 + 10 + 1 = 16.
1 3 5 13!
➊ = 86486400
556 10 × 3! = 60 2!3!3!

11!
557 We have ➋ = 3326400
2!3!
➊ (E + F + S + I)!
11!
➌ = 4989600
➋ 4! · E!F!S!I! 2!2!2!

E+F+I+1
12
11!
➌ S!(E + F + I)! ➍ = 13305600
1 1 3!3!

E+F+I+1
12
11!
➍ S!(E + F + I)! ➎ = 73180800
S 2 3!3!
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 149

10
9!
➏ = 50400 587 We have
1 3!3!2!
n−1
n−1
(n − 1)! (n − 1)!
+ = +
568 We have k−1 k (k − 1)!(n − k)!
(n − 1)!
k!(n − k − 1)!
1 1
€ Š
M+W
=
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! n−k
+
k
➊ (n − 1)! n
C =
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! (n − k)k
M
W
=
n!
.
➋
C−T T n

(n − k)!k!
= .
k
M+W−2

➌ A combinatorial interpretation can be given as follows. Suppose we have a bag with n red balls. The
C−2 number of ways of choosing k balls is n. If we now paint one of these balls blue, the number of ways of

M+W−2
n−1

choosing k balls is the number of ways of choosing balls if we always include the blue ball (and this can be

done in ) ways, plus the number of ways of choosing k balls if we always exclude the blue ball
➍
C
k−1
n−1

(and this can be done in ways).
k
569
588 The sinistral side counts the number of ways of selecting r elements from a set of n, then selecting k
M+W
M+W−2
M+W−2
M+W−2
elements from those r. The dextral side counts how many ways to select the k elements first, then select
the remaining r − k elements to be chosen from the remaining n − k elements.
− = 2 + .
C C−2 C−1 C
589 The dextral side sums

570 2030 n
n
n
n
n
n


n n

+ + + ··· + .
0 0 1 1 2 2 n n
50

571 2 By the symmetry identity, this is equivalent to summing
2
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

+ ··· +


+ + .
n+k−1 0 n 1 n−1 2 n−2 n 0
572
k Now consider a bag with 2n balls, n of them red and n of them blue. The above sum is counting the
number of ways of choosing 0 red balls and n blue balls, 1 red ball and n − 1 blue balls, 2 red balls and
573 [1] For the first column one can put any of 4 checkers, for the second one, any of 3, etc. hence there 2n

n − 2 blue balls, etc.. This is clearly the number of ways of choosing n balls of either colour from the bag,
are 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24. [2] If there is a column without a checker then there must be a column with 2
4
which is
n
.
checkers. There are 3 choices for this column. In this column we can put the two checkers in = 6
4
2 590 11754
ways. Thus there are 4 · 3 4 · 4 = 1152 ways of putting the checkers. [3] The number of ways of
2
16
591 2844
filling the board with no restrictions is . The number of ways of of of filling the board so that there is
4
16
592 432
4
one checker per column is 4 . Hence the total is
4
4
− 4 = 1564. 15

593 ; 15!/6!
9

574 7560. 594 29.

8
6
4

4
1 596 2
575
4! 2 2 2
.
8

597 5!

8

5
15
576 . 598 175308642
7 4
k+1

599 Hint: There are k occupied boxes and n − k empty boxes. Align the balls first! .
576 There are 6513215600 of former and 3486784400 of the latter. n−k

17
12
7
3
17
14
10
600 There are n − k empty seats. Sit the people in between those seats.
n−k+1
.
577 ; 2 . k
5 5 4 3 3 4
609 36

X 7
7
610 36 − 9 = 25
578
k
= 99
14

k=3 611
4

10
50

578 2
10
−1−1− = 1024 − 2 − 252 = 770 613 = 19600
5 3

17
12
7
3
17
14

n
n
n−1
634
5 5 4 3
;
3 4
2
10

578 ; n − 1; ;
2 3 2
642 Write k = m − (m − k). Use the absorption identity to evaluate

12
11
6
4
n
X

579 m−k−1
1 5 2 4 (m − k) .)
n−k−1
k=0
6 20

580 = 104857600000000000000000000 644 11
3
645 a = 1990
9
5

581 = 840 646 True.
3 3
647 True.

b
g
20

582 c! 8 12
648 (2 )(3 )
c c 8

15

3 4 2 649
583 (2 − 1)(2 − 1)(2 − 1) = 315
8

10
8
650 840
586 2
2 652 The 166-th
150 Appendix A

1000

656 741 Consider △ACδ, △BEγ and quadrilateral Dǫαβ.)
6

15
15
15


15
742
π
657 0, as = , = , etc.
1 14 2 13 5

658 0 5π
743
200
200
9
659 False. Sinistral side = , dextral side =
5 17
2π
744
660 The 62-nd. 3

12
774 First shew, using the Pythagorean Theorem, that the area of an equilateral triangle of side s is
664 √
2 3 2 s2 √
s . The required area will then be (π − 3).
10
4 10
4 2
665 6 +3 .
1, 1, 8 0, 4, 6
777 7
10

666 12 5 5 12 5
2, 3, 5 808 cos ∠B = , sin ∠B = , tan ∠B = , sin ∠C = , cos ∠C = ,
13 13 12 13 13
2 2 12
682 cos x = 1 − sin x tan ∠C =
5

684 loge x > 1 if x > e

4 4
809 BC = 10, AC = 8, sin ∠B = and tan ∠B = .
698 Let y = mx and divide the equations obtained and solve for m. 5 3

6.2 Put u = x + 2, v = y + 3. Divide one equation by the other. √

40 3
810 AB =
700 Let u = x + y, v = x − y. 3

π 1 1
739 812 2 − arctan
12 2 4

2π
740 7 √
3 830 21
20