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Volterra-series-based nonlinear system

modeling and its engineering
applications: A state-of-the-art review

Article in Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing November 2016

DOI: 10.1016/j.ymssp.2016.10.029

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymssp

Review

Volterra-series-based nonlinear system modeling and its

engineering applications: A state-of-the-art review

C.M. Cheng, Z.K. Peng , W.M. Zhang, G. Meng
State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O ABSTRACT

Keywords: Nonlinear problems have drawn great interest and extensive attention from engineers, physicists
Volterra series and mathematicians and many other scientists because most real systems are inherently
General frequency response function nonlinear in nature. To model and analyze nonlinear systems, many mathematical theories
Nonlinear output frequency response function and methods have been developed, including Volterra series. In this paper, the basic denition of
Nonlinear model
the Volterra series is recapitulated, together with some frequency domain concepts which are
Kernel identication
derived from the Volterra series, including the general frequency response function (GFRF), the
Convergence
nonlinear output frequency response function (NOFRF), output frequency response function
(OFRF) and associated frequency response function (AFRF). The relationship between the
Volterra series and other nonlinear system models and nonlinear problem solving methods are
discussed, including the Taylor series, Wiener series, NARMAX model, Hammerstein model,
Wiener model, Wiener-Hammerstein model, harmonic balance method, perturbation method
and Adomian decomposition. The challenging problems and their state of arts in the series
convergence study and the kernel identication study are comprehensively introduced. In
addition, a detailed review is then given on the applications of Volterra series in mechanical
engineering, aeroelasticity problem, control engineering, electronic and electrical engineering.

1. Introduction

Nonlinear problems are very common, and have been researched by engineers, physicists, mathematicians and many other
scientists. To model and analyze nonlinear systems and solve related problems, people have carried out extensive studies, and
developed a variety of mathematical theories and methods, among which the Volterra series is one of the most widely used and well-
established methods. It can be traced back to the work of the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra about theory of analytic functional
in 1887 [1]. Then, Norbert Wiener applied his theory of Brownian motion to investigate the integration of Volterra analytic
functional and rstly used it for system analysis in 1942 [2,3]. As a general method for the design and analysis of nonlinear systems,
it came into use after about 1957. Using Volterra series, many nonlinear phenomena could be explained, but it was very complicated,
and could only be applied to the analysis of some relatively simple nonlinear systems. This problem restricted its application in
practical engineering and the progress of the application research was very slow. This situation continued until the 1990s, then,
because of the development and popularization of computer technology, the application of Volterra series has been widely ranged
from aeroelastic systems, biomedical engineering, uid dynamics, electrical engineering, to mechanical engineering, etc. Especially
during the last ten years, the global scholars have published nearly one thousand SCI papers about the theory and application of
Volterra series, and the number of citations is over ten thousand, which shows the powerful vigor and broad application prospects in

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z.K. Peng).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2016.10.029
Received 15 March 2016; Received in revised form 13 October 2016; Accepted 29 October 2016
Available online xxxx
0888-3270/ 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article as: Cheng, C., Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2016.10.029
C.M. Cheng et al. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing xx (xxxx) xxxxxxxx

Nomenclature hn(1,,n) the nth Volterra kernel function

Hn(1, , n ) the nth orderGFRF
FRF frequency response function Gn() the nth order NOFRF
GFRF general frequency response function Un() the Fourier transform of the system input u(t)
NOFRF nonlinear output frequency response function raised to nth power
OFRF output frequency response function Gn[x(t)] the nth Wiener G functional
j
AFRF associated frequency response function 1 1 snjsn monomials in OFRF
ALE associated linear equation (n : j js ) j
11 s n (1, , n ) coecients of monomials 1 1 snjsn in
NARMAXnonlinear autoregressive moving average model n
OFRF
with exogenous inputs
Kn the nth nonlinear gain constant in AFRF
HBM harmonic balance method

this research eld. Unfortunately, although the number of research papers is very large, hitherto the related research books are only
two or three copies [46], and there is still no one review paper which summarizes the related research achievements and status of
Volterra series. These problems restrict the further promotion of Volterra series. In order to let the beginners master Volterra series
faster and better, this paper tries to concisely and comprehensively introduce it, summarize the related research achievements, and
discuss its application prospects.

2. Volterra series

Volterra series is one of the earliest approaches to achieve a systematic characterization of a nonlinear system. It is a powerful
mathematical tool for nonlinear system analysis. Essentially, it is an extension of the standard convolution description of linear
systems to nonlinear systems. Therefore, in order to help people understand the theory better, the convolution integral and its
related concepts in linear systems are taken as references.

2.1. The denition in time domain

If a system is linear and time-invariant, then the linear input-output relation of the system can be represented by the convolution
integral, which is shown as follows,
+
y (t ) = h(t )u( )d
(1)
where, u(t) is the input, y(t) is the output, Eq. (1) can be interpreted as Duhamel integral, and the system is determined uniquely by
the impulse response function h(t).
Implementing the Fourier transform at both the left and right sides of Eq. (1), the linear frequency domain relational expression
between the system input and output can be obtained,
Y ( ) = H ( )U ( ) (2)
where U(), Y(), H() are the Fourier transform of u(t), y(t), h(t), respectively, H() is also known as the frequency response
function (FRF). For a linear system, H() or h(t) includes all the information in the system.
In contrast, for nonlinear continuous time-invariant systems with fading memory, under zero initial conditions, if the energy of
input signal u(t) is limited, the system response can be represented by Volterra series [5,79]. It is an extension of Eq. (1) for linear
systems to nonlinear systems, which can be represented as,
y(t ) = y + y (t )
0 n =1 n
+ +
yn (t ) = hn(1, , n ) in=1 u(t i )d1dn
(3)
where, h1()h2(1,2), , hn(1,,n) are each order Volterra kernel functions, which are the extensions of the impulse response
function for the linear system to the nonlinear system. In addition, generally, the equilibrium position of the system is set to be zero.
This means that the DC term y0 equals zero [10] Eq. (3) reveals that, if all the Volterra kernel functions except the rst order are
zero, the system degenerates into a linear system.
For the discrete nonlinear time invariant system, using Volterra series, it can be represented as [1114],

y(k ) = y0 + hn(m1, mn )u(k m1)u(k mn )
n =1 m1=1 mn =1 (4)
where, u(k), y(k)R, are the system input and output, respectively, hn(m1,,mn) is the nth discrete Volterra kernel function.
A signicant characteristic of the Volterra kernel function is the symmetry, which can be represented as,
hn(1, 2, n ) = hn(2, 1, n ) = = hn(i1, i2, in ) ij ik
i1, i2, , in (1, 2, , n ), j , k (1, 2, , n ) (5)

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At present, Volterra series is widely applied to the analysis and design of the nonlinear system, including polynomial nonlinear
system [15,16], piecewise linear system [17,18], bilinear system [19,20], saturation system [21,22], spatio-temporal nonlinear
system [2325], hysteresis nonlinear system [26,27], fractional order nonlinear system [28,29]. In addition, although the traditional
Volterra series can only describe nonlinear time invariant systems, by replacing the time invariant kernel function with the time-
varying kernel function, the Volterra series is expanded to describe nonlinear time-varying systems in recent years [3035]. It can be
represented as,
+ + n
y (t ) = hn(t , 1, , n ) u(t i )d1dn
n =1

i =1 (6)
where, hn(t, 1,, n) is the nth time-varying Volterra kernel function.

2.2. The frequency domain

It is well known that the relationship between the input and output of the linear system can be represented by the frequency
response function (FRF) in frequency domain, which has greatly facilitated the analysis and design of the linear system.
Unfortunately, FRF of the linear system cannot be used to analyze the nonlinear system in frequency domain. In order to overcome
this problem, based on Volterra series, some concepts have been developed to carry out the analysis of nonlinear systems in
frequency domain, including generalized frequency response function (GFRF), nonlinear output frequency response function
(NOFRF), output frequency response function (OFRF) and associated frequency response function (AFRF).

2.2.1. Generalized frequency response function (GFRF)

The rst concept is the generalized frequency response function (GFRF) proposed by George [36] from the MIT in 1959, named
as nonlinear frequency response function at that time. Afterwards, Bussgang [37] extended this concept for the study of the
nonlinear system subjected to multiple inputs; in mathematics, Victor and Knight [38] put forward a more rigorous formulation to
the Volterra kernel function in frequency domain. GFRF is dened as the multi-dimensional Fourier transform of Volterra kernel
function hn(1,,n), which can be represented as [39],

Hn(1, ... , n ) = ... hn(1, ... , n)ej( +,...,+ )d1... dn
11 n n
(7)
The multi-dimensional inverse Fourier transform of GFRF is the Volterra kernel function, which can be represented as,
1 + +
hn(1, , n ) =
(2 )n
Hn(1, , n )e+j(11++ nn)d1dn
(8)
The Volterra kernel function is symmetrical, so its multi-dimensional Fourier transform also is symmetrical, and the GFRF is
symmetrical, for example, H2(1, 2)= H2(2, 1).
Using GFRF, the output frequency response of the Volterra nonlinear system to a general input can be expressed as the following
form [40,41],
Y () = Y ()
n =1 n
1/ n n
Yn() = Hn(1, ... , n ) i =1 U (i )dn
(2 )n 1 1++ n = (9)
where, Y() is the spectra of the system output, U() is the spectra of the system input, Yn() represents the nth order output
frequency response of the system, n represents the whole integral eld satisfying the constraint 1++n= and dn denotes
an innitely small element within this integral eld.
For linear systems, using Laplace transform, the frequency response function can be directly deduced from the dierential
dynamic equation. In order to derive the GFRF of nonlinear systems, Bedrosian and Rice [42] proposed the harmonic probing
method, but this method is only suitable for continuous nonlinear systems subjected to a single input. Worden [10] extended this
method for the analysis of nonlinear systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs, and the GFRF can be used to describe the
coupling between frequencies of multiple inputs. Billings and Tsang [43,44] extended this method for the analysis of nonlinear
discrete systems. Peyton Jones and Billings [45] further developed the harmonic probing method and put forward an eective
method which could recursively determine the GFRFs from low to high orders. Later, Billings and his colleagues [46] extended this
recursive method to the case of multiple inputs. The algorithm can be easily implemented by a computer using the symbolic
operation method. To a certain extent, this algorithm can facilitate the application of the GFRFs. Moreover, Billings and his
colleagues developed special software packages [47].

2.2.2. Nonlinear output frequency response function (NOFRF)

A signicant property of the GFRF is that it is multidimensional. The dimension of each order GFRF equals its order. GFRF is
much more complicated than the linear FRF and is often dicult to measure, display, and interpret in practice. In order to overcome
this problem, Lang and Billings [41,48] proposed another concept named as nonlinear output frequency response function
(NOFRF). The concept can be considered to be an alternative extension of the classical FRF for the linear system to the nonlinear
case. NOFRF is a one-dimensional function of frequency, which allows the analysis of nonlinear systems to be implemented in a

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manner similar to the analysis of linear systems, and provides a great insight into the mechanisms which dominate many nonlinear
behaviors. NOFRF is dened as,

++ = Hn(1, , n ) in=1 U (i )dn

1 n
Gn() =
++ = in=1 U (i )dn (10)
1 n

under the condition

n
Un() = ++ = i=1 U (i)dn 0
1 n (11)
by introducing the NOFRF concept, the output frequency response of nonlinear systems can be written as,
N N
Y ( ) = Yn() = Gn()Un()
n =1 n =1 (12)
where, Un() is dened as Eq. (11). Eq. (12) is similar to the description of the output frequency response for the linear system.
Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate how the NOFRF concept can be used to describe the output spectra of the linear and nonlinear systems,
respectively, which clearly show the advantage of the NOFRF one-dimensional nature in describing the system output frequency
responses.
According to the denition of NOFRF, it can be seen that the NOFRF is not only related to the nonlinear characteristics of the
system, but also related to the system input. It reects a combined contribution of the system and the input to the system output
frequency response behavior. The most important property of the NOFRF is that it is a one-dimensional function, and thus allows
the analysis of nonlinear systems to be implemented in a convenient manner similar to the analysis of linear systems. Peng and Lang
[16] derived the analytical expression between NOFRF and GFRF of the nonlinear system subjected to the harmonic input, and
further analyzed and explained the appearance of super-harmonics and sub-resonance for a wide class of nonlinear systems, and the
eects of linear damping on the resonances and resonant frequencies are analyzed; they further extended this concept to the
nonlinear system with multiple inputs and multiple outputs [49]. In addition, in order to estimate each order NOFRF, Lang and his
colleagues [41] proposed a multilevel excitation method required to excite the system under study many times by inputs with the
same form but dierent intensities. By using this method, the estimation of the NOFRF can be implemented directly using the
system input-output data.

2.2.3. Output frequency response function (OFRF)

Although GFRF and NOFRF can be used to analyze the nonlinear system in frequency domain, neither the GFRF nor the NOFRF
can provide a clear explicit relationship for the system output spectrum and the nonlinear characteristics parameters. If the explicit
relationship between them can be established, it is no doubt that it will facilitate the analysis of the eect of nonlinear parameters on
the system output frequency response. To overcome this problem, Lang and his colleagues [50] recently had developed another new
concept- output frequency response function (OFRF). Using OFRF, the system output spectrum and GFRF can be expressed as a
polynomial function of the nonlinear characteristics parameters for polynomial nonlinear systems.
Denote C as the set of the nonlinear parameters of the nonlinear system, Lang and his colleagues [50] found that any order GFRF
can be expressed as a polynomial function of the elements in the set C. For example, the nth GFRF can be represented as,
(n : j js ) j
Hn(1, , n ) = 11 s n (1, , n )1 1 snjsn
n
(j1,, js ) Jn
n (13)
where, 1, , sn are the elements in C, Jn is a set of sn dimensional nonnegative integer vectors which contains the exponents of
j j (n : j js )
those monomials 1 1 snsn , as presented in the polynomial representation(13). 11 s n(1, , n ) are the coecients of those
n
j j
monomials 1 1 snsn , among which n represents the order of GFRF, and the superscripts and subscriptis are corresponding to those
(n : j1 js )
parameters and the frequency 1,, n, and not related
monomials. 1 s n (1, , n ) are only related to the linear characteristics
n
to the nonlinear characteristics parameters. Eq.(13) gives the explicit relationship between GFRF and the nonlinear characteristics
parameters, which provides an important basis for the analytical study and design of a wide class of nonlinear systems in the
frequency domain.
Moreover, substituting Eq. (13) into Eq. (9), output frequency response Y() can be represented as,
N
(n : j js ) j
Y () = H1()U () + 11 s n (1, , n )1 1 snjsn
n
n =2 (j1,, js ) Jn
n (14)
where,

Fig. 1. The NOFRF based representation for the output frequency response of linear systems.

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C.M. Cheng et al. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing xx (xxxx) xxxxxxxx

Fig. 2. The NOFRF based representation for the output frequency response of nonlinear systems.

n
(n : j js ) 1/ n (n : j1 js )
11 s
n
n (1, , n ) =
(2 )n 1
++ = 1 sn
n (1, , n ) U (i )dn
1 n i =1 (15)
Eq. (14) reveals that, the output frequency response can be expressed as a polynomial function of nonlinear characteristics
(n : j j )
parameters, among which the coecient 11 s sn (1, , n ) is only related to the linear characteristics parameters and the
n
frequency 1,, n, and not related to the nonlinear characteristics parameters. Lang named it as output frequency response
function (OFRF).
By introducing OFRF, the relationship between system output frequency response and nonlinear characteristics parameters can
be explicitly expressed. But to clearly know how the nonlinear characteristics parameters aect system output frequency response
j (n : j j )
using Eq. (14), the priori information of the monomials 1 1 snjsn and their coecients 11 s sn (1, , n ) are required, thus they
n
have to be rstly determined. To solve this problem and ensure that the new expression of the output frequency response can be used
practically to conduct the nonlinear system analysis and design, Jing [15] proposed a monomial extraction operator which can
extract the concerned parameters involved in a separable parameterized function series; Peng and Lang [51] also proposed a
recursive algorithm to determine the form and number of monomials. The algorithm can be easily implemented by a computer using
the simple symbolic operation. Assuming that all the form and number of monomials are available in the polynomial form
OFRF(14), Lang [50] proposed an algorithm to evaluate the values of OFRF by the least square method.

2.2.4. Associated frequency response function (AFRF)

The multidimensional property of GFRF makes it dicult to measure, display, and interpret in practice. In order to overcome
this problem, besides NOFRF proposed by Lang, Feijoo and Worden [52,53] proposed the concept-associated frequency response
function (AFRF) which is derived from the associated linear equation (ALE) of the nonlinear system. For systems with a nonlinearity
in the output (the generalized Dung oscillator) and/ or systems with a nonlinearity in the input (Hammerstein systems), their
research results revealed that the nth Volterra output could be derived by taking the combination function of the lower order
Volterra outputs as the inputs of the associated linear system. This relationship can be represented as,
Lyn = anf (y1, , yn 1)(n = 1, , ) (16)
Eq. (16) denes the associated linear equation(ALE), and the response of each order ALE can be presented as,

yn (t ) = an h1(t )f (y1( ), , yn1( ))d (17)
where, L is a linear dierential operator, and it is independent of n, h1 is the Green's function of operator L, and an is the coecient
of the nth ALE.
For the second order dierential operator,

d2 d
L=m +c +k
dt 2 dt (18)
based on each order ALE, their associated AFRF can be obtained,
an
H1n(n ) = (n = 1, , )
mn2 + icn + k (19)
From Eq. (19), it can be seen that each order AFRF own the same functional form, but the amplitudes of each order AFRF are
associated with the coecient an of each order ALE. Therefore, Feijoo and Worden [52,53] dened a nonlinear gain constant Kn,
an
Kn =
a1 (20)
According to Eqs. (19) and (20), any order AFRF can be determined by the rst order AFRF and the nth nonlinear gain constant
Kn, and the response also can be derived through them. Comparing with GFRF, each order AFRF are linear frequency response
functions, and based on AFRF, nonlinear systems can be analyzed in a convenient manner similar to the analysis of linear systems.
The property of AFRF greatly facilitates the analysis and design of nonlinear systems in frequency domain. In addition, the AFRF

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contains the same information as the GFRF, and through the AFRF, the corresponding GFRF of the original system can be obtained
straightforwardly. Based on AFRF, Feijoo and Worden [54] proposed a novel method to identify the linear and nonlinear coecients
of a single-degree-of-freedom nonlinear system. Furthermore, Feijoo and Worden [55] extended this method for the analysis,
identication and control of the multi- degree-of-freedom nonlinear system.

2.3. The relationships between Volterra series and other nonlinear models

To describe the nonlinear system, a variety of nonlinear models have been put forward, including Taylor series [56], Wiener
series [57], Volterra series [5], NARMAX model [58], Wiener model [59,60], Hammerstein model [61] and Wiener-Hammerstein
model [6264], etc. Research results revealed that there are close relationships between Volterra series and many other nonlinear
models.

2.3.1. Taylor series

Taylor series [56] is the most typical model which is used to approximately describe the nonlinear relationship between two
variables. Assume that the function relationship between variable y and u can be described as function y= f(u), if the function f at
point u0 is innitely dierentiable, then in the vicinity of u0, variable y can be expressed as the power series of the variable u.
Specically, when u0=0, the series is also called a Maclaurin series which can be represented as,
f (0) 2 f (n) (0) n
y = f (0) + f (0)u + 2!
u ++ n!
u +
f (i ) (0)
= i =0 i ! ui (21)
According to the denition of Volterra series, it can be seen that if the Volterra kernel function is multidimensional Dirac function
which can be expressed as,
hn(1, 2, , n ) = an (1) (2 ) (n ) (22)
where, (.) is delta function, then Eq. (3) can be written as,
+ + n
y (t ) = a (1) (n ) i =1 u(t i )d1dn
n

= n =1 anu n(t ) (23)
In this case, the Volterra series degenerates into the ordinary series which is similar to Taylor series. The delay i among Volterra
kernel function describe the eect of the past and current input on the current response. If Volterra kernel function is chosen as Eq.
(22), it means that only when all the time delay i equal zero, Volterra kernel function hi(.) may not be equal to zero; otherwise, all
Volterra kernel functions are equal to zero. It implies that the past input cant aect the current response. Therefore, Volterra series
is the extension of Taylor series, which can be regarded accordingly as a Taylor series with memory [7]. It takes the dynamic
characteristic of the system into account, thus it can describe the nonlinear dynamic system, whereas Taylor series can only
represent the nonlinear static system that instantaneously map the input to the output, so the application eld of Volterra series is
wider than Taylor series.

2.3.2. Wiener series

Although Volterra series are widely used in the analysis and design of nonlinear systems, in some cases it also has some
disadvantages. For example, the convergence region of Volterra series is very strict, and the identication of Volterra kernel function
is dicult. It is well-known that, to avoid the convergence problem of power series, the orthogonal functions are used to describe
nonlinear systems; similarly, in order to avoid the convergence problem of Volterra series, Wiener [57] proposed Wiener series or
Wiener G functional in 1958. In mathematics, Wiener series essentially is the orthogonal expansion of functional series for nonlinear
time-invariant systems, and it has a close relationship with Volterra series. Both of them are the functional series expansions for
nonlinear systems, and the truncation forms of them can be represented by each other. Given that the Wiener series representation is
known, then each order Volterra series can be derived by adding each order Wiener series; otherwise, given that the Volterra series
representation is known, then each order Wiener series can be obtained by applying a Gram-Schmid orthogonalization procedure. In
addition, if the system input is Gaussian white noise with mean zero, then the Volterra system can be represented by the equivalent
inhomogeneous Wiener series [6567],
y(t ) = G + G [x (t )]

0 n =1 n
Gn[x (t )] = G0, n + G1, n[x (t )] + + Gn, n[x (t )]

(24)
where, x(t) is the input, G0 is the zero order G functional, Gn[x(t)] is the nth G functional which is constituted by the nth order
inhomogeneous Volterra series, and Gr,n(1,, r)(r n) can be represented as,

Gr , n[x (t )] = 0 0 Gr , n(1, , r )x (t 1)x (t r )d1dr
(25)
where, Gr,n(1,, r)(r n) is the Wiener kernel function.

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Each order G functional Gn[x(t)] are mutually orthogonal, which can be expressed as,
E (Gn[x (t )]Gm[x (t )]) = 0 nm (26)
In addition, the research results of Rugh [5] indicated that the nth order G functional can be expressed by the rst n order
Volterra series,
i 2i
[n /2] (1) n ! x
Gn[x (t )] = i =0
2i(n 2i ) ! i !
0 0 0 0 Gn, n(1, , n 2i, 1, 1, , i, i )
x (t 1)x (t n 2i )d1dn 2id1di (27)
The key issue involved in modeling nonlinear systems using the Wiener series is the identication of its kernel functions. To
address this problem, based on the cross-correlation method, Lee and Schetzen [68] proposed a method which can be used to
directly estimate Wiener kernel functions. The expression can be written as,

1
n 1
Gn, n(1, , n ) = y ( t ) Gi[x(t )]x(t 1)x(t n )
n ! x2n i =1 (28)
where, the bar indicates the average over time, x2
is the variance of input. Moreover, Palm and Ppel [69] derived the mathematical
validity of the method of Lee and Schetzen for identifying a nonlinear system. Later, they reviewed the nonlinear system
identication method based on Volterra series and Wiener series, and presented the limitations of identication based on Wiener
series [70]. Franz and Schlkopf [65] reviewed the relationship between Volterra series and Wiener series, and identied the Wiener
kernel function of nonlinear systems based on the theory of reproducing kernel Hilbert space. Ogunfunmi and Chang [71] proposed
a nonlinear LMS adaptive lter by using the nonlinear discrete Wiener series.

2.3.3. NARMAX model

Nonlinear autoregressive moving average model with exogenous inputs (NARMAX) was rstly proposed by Leontaritis and
Billings [58] in 1985. There are a wide range of nonlinear systems that can be described by this model, which is dened as,
y(k ) = F (y(k 1), , y(k n y ), u(k 1), , u(k nu ), e(k 1), , e(k ne )) + e(k ) (29)
where u(k), y(k) and e(k) are the sampled input, output and prediction error sequences respectively; ny, nu and ne are the maximal
time delay of output, input and prediction error at sampled point k; F(.) is an arbitrary nonlinear function, and generally is assumed
to be a polynomial function.
Comparing with the discrete Volterra series dened in Eq.(4), it can be seen that Volterra series can be represented by NARMAX
model when y(k-i) ( i=1,, ny) and e(k-i) ( i=0,, ne) equal zero. Therefore, NARMAX model can be regarded as an extension of the
discrete Volterra series, which introduces the past output into the discrete Volterra series. By introducing the past output, NARMAX
representation of nonlinear systems is more concise than Volterra series representation, namely, the number of terms among
NARMAX model is less than Volterra series, that is similar to the dierence between innite impulse response lter (IIR) and nite
impulse response lter (FIR).
The NARX model, which is obtained by removing all the terms associated with the noise e(t) in an identied NARMAX model, is
normally used for the system analysis. According to the research results of Leontaritis and Billings [72], when the system input is not
equal zero and the state-space model of NARX system takes a special form that actually corresponds to the structure of a cascade of
linear multivariable systems with polynomial interconnections, the NARX system can be exactly represented by a Volterra series. In
this case, Billings [43,44] proposed a recursive algorithm to determine the GFRF of NARX model from the low to high order. Then,
through implementing multi-dimensional inverse Fourier transform at each order GFRF, the temporal Volterra kernel function can
be obtained. Therefore, the NARX model and the discrete Volterra series can be mutually represented. There is a variety of nonlinear
system identication methods, among which an eective method is to rstly identify the NARX model of nonlinear systems under
identication through the input/output signal, and then calculate the GFRF of nonlinear systems based on the identied NARX
model.
In addition, researchers have developed a lot of methods for the identication of NARMAX model. For example, Chen and
Billings [73] developed a practical algorithm for identifying NARMAX models based on radial basis functions from noise-corrupted
data. Kukreja [74] developed a bootstrap structure detection (BSD) algorithm to determine the structure of NARMAX model. Pawlus
[75] proposed a method to reproduce car kinematics during a collision using NARX model, among which parameters are estimated
by the use of a feedforward neural network. Based on reversible jump Markov chain Monte Carlo (RJMCMC), Baldacchino [76]
proposed a computational bayesian approach to estimate the parameters of polynomial NARMAX models. This new method can
numerically obtain posterior distributions for both model structures and parameters via sampling methods. Worden [77] proposed a
novel identication method for the NARX model based on Gaussian Process regression. Pillonetto [78] proposed a new kernel-based
approach to identify the NARX model. Li [79] proposed a new approach to identify a new class of NARX models based on kernel
machine and space projection.

u (t ) x(t ) y (t )
h(t ) F (t )

Fig. 3. Wiener model.

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2.3.4. Wiener model

The Wiener model has a linear dynamic subsystem followed by a static nonlinear one, as shown in Fig. 3. The Wiener model
[80,81] can be modeled by,

x (t ) = h( )u(t )d (30)

y(t ) = F (x (t )) (31)

where, u(t) is the input to the system, and x(t) is the unmeasured output of the linear dynamic subsystem, and y(t) is the
measured output of the static nonlinear subsystem. h(t) is the impulse response function of the linear system. F(t) is the static
nonlinear function. According to the Weierstrass approximation theorem [82], any continuous function on a closed and bounded
interval can be uniformly approximated on that interval by a polynomial function to any degree of accuracy, so the nonlinear
function F(t) usually is assumed to be a polynomial nonlinear function, which can be modeled by,
N
F (u(t )) = an[u(t )]n
n =1 (32)

where, an (n=1,,N) are the coecients of polynomial nonlinear function F(t), and N is the maximal truncation order of polynomial
nonlinear function.
For the Wiener model, according to Eqs. (30)(32), the relationship between the input u(t) and output y(t) can be expressed as,

N N n
y(t ) = F (x (t )) = n =1 an[x (t )]n = n =1 an h( )u(t )d

N
= n =1 yn (t ) (33)

where,
+ + n
yn (t ) = anh(1)h(n ) u(t i )d1dn
i =1 (34)

According to the denition of Volterra series, it can be seen that the Wiener model can be equalized to a truncated Volterra series
whose kernel functions are,
hn(1, , n ) = anh(1)h(n ) (35)

Therefore, Wiener model can be represented as Volterra series. Le Caillec [83] blindly identied the second order Volterra model
by using Wiener model. Based on the theory of reproducing kernel Hilbert space, Chen [84] identied the Volterra kernel function of
Wiener model. Kibangou and Favier [85] presented the relationship between a parallel-cascade Wiener system and its associated
Volterra model, then the coecients of the linear and nonlinear subsystems can be obtained using third-order Volterra kernel slices.

2.3.5. Hammerstein model

The Hammerstein model has a static nonlinear subsystem followed by a linear dynamic one, which is represented in Fig. 4. The
Hammerstein model [86,87] can be modeled by,

y (t ) = h( )x(t )d (36)

x (t ) = F (u(t )) (37)

where, the nonlinear function F(t) is usually be chosen as a polynomial nonlinear function. For Hammerstein model, according to
Eqs. (36), (37) and Eq. (32), the relationship between the input u(t) and output y(t) can be derived as,
N N
y(t ) = h( ) n =1 an[u(t )]n d = n =1 anh( )[u(t )]n d

N
= n =1 yn (t ) (38)

where,
+ +
yn (t ) = anh(1) (1 2 ) (1 n )/[ ]n 1u(t 1)u(t n )d1dn
(39)

According to the denition of Volterra series, it can be seen that the Hammerstein model can be equalized to a truncated Volterra
series whose kernel functions are,

u (t ) x (t ) y (t )
F (t ) h(t )

Fig. 4. Hammerstein model.

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hn(1, 2, , n ) = anh(1) (1 2 ) (1 n )/[ ]n 1

=anh( )/[ ]n 1 (40)
or
0 1 2 n
hn(1, 2, , n ) = n 1
anh( )/[ ]

1 = 2 = = n (41)
Therefore, Hammerstein model can also be represented as Volterra series, and only the diagonal elements of the kernel function
dont equal zero.
Westwick and Kearney [88] presented the relationship between Hammerstein model and Volterra series for nonlinear time-
invariant systems. Ralston and Zoubir [89] derived the relationship between them for nonlinear time-variant systems. Kibangou and
Favier [90] derived the Volterra series representation of Hammerstein model, and identied the coecients of Hammerstein model
using Volterra series.

2.3.6. Wiener-Hammerstein model

Wiener-Hammerstein model [9193] has the structure shown in Fig. 5. In such a system, a static nonlinear subsystem is
preceded and followed by a linear dynamic one. Wiener-Hammerstein model can be used to describe a wider range of nonlinear
systems than Wiener and Hammerstein models. Both of Wiener and Hammerstein models are the specic cases of Wiener-
Hammerstein model.
The Wiener-Hammerstein can be modeled by,

z (t ) = h( )u(t )d (42)

x (t ) = F (z(t )) (43)

y (t ) = g( )x(t )d (44)
According to Eqs. (32), (42)(44), the relationship between the input u(t) and output y(t) can be derived as,
N + + n
y (t ) = g( ) anh(1)h(n ) u(t i )d1dnd
n =1 i =1 (45)
Dene +i=i, then Eq. (45) can be rewritten as,
N + + n
y (t ) = a n

g( )h(1 )h(n )d u(t i)d1dn
n =1

i =1 (46)
According to the denition of Volterra series, it can be seen that the Wiener-Hammerstein model can also be equalized to a
truncated Volterra series whose kernel functions are,

hn(1, , n ) = an g( )h(1 )h(n )d (47)
Kibangou and Favier [91,92] presented the explicit relationship between Wiener- Hammerstein model and Volterra series, and
showed that the estimation of the diagonal coecients of the Volterra kernels associated with Wiener-Hammerstein model is
sucient to recover the overall model. Tan and Godfrey [94] proposed a new method to identify the linear subsystems of a Wiener-
Hammerstein model through the measurement of the second-order Volterra kernel function; based on this method, Tan [95] further
estimated the linear subsystems of Wiener-Hammerstein model for the bilinear system. Westwick and Kearney [96] discussed the
link between some block-oriented models and their associated Volterra kernels. Westwick and Schoukens [97] developed a novel
method for the initial estimates of the linear subsystems of Wiener-Hammerstein model. They proposed a new scanning technique
that can eciently evaluate each of the proposed initializations using estimates of some carefully constructed nonlinear
characteristics of the system. This method resulted in a much smaller number, often only one, of potential starting points for the
optimization. Paduart, Pintelon and Schoukens [98] presented a new identication method for Wiener-Hammerstein model using
the polynomial nonlinear state space approach.

2.4. The relationships between Volterra series and other nonlinear solving methods

Except for some simple nonlinear equations, people have not yet developed a mature nonlinear solving algorithm to precisely
solve general nonlinear dierential equations as the solving algorithms for linear systems. In order to circumvent this problem,

u (t ) z (t ) x(t ) y (t )
h(t ) F (t ) g (t )

Fig. 5. Wiener-Hammerstein model.

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researchers have developed a variety of nonlinear approximate solution methods, including the average method [99], KBM method
[100], perturbation method [101], multiscale method [100], harmonic balance method [100] and the Adomian decomposition
method [102], etc.
On the other hand, theoretically given that the dynamic dierential equation of the nonlinear system is known, using Volterra
series or its frequency concepts, such as GFRF and NOFRF, the system output response can be obtained. In recent years, the
relationships between Volterra series and some approximate solution methods are studied.
Peng and Lang [103] investigated the relationship between NOFRF and harmonic balance method (HBM), the results showed
that the harmonic components in the nonlinear system response to a sinusoidal input calculated using the nonlinear output
frequency response functions (NOFRFs) are one of the solutions obtained using the harmonic balance method. In addition, studies
had shown that both of these two methods had advantages and disadvantages. For example, the HBM can capture the well-known
jump phenomenon, but is restricted by computational limits for some strongly nonlinear systems, and can fail to provide accurate
predictions for some harmonic components. Although the NOFRFs cant capture the jump phenomenon, the method has few
computational restrictions, and can accurately calculate the value of the harmonic components. Fig. 6(A) and (B) show the forced
response result of the second order harmonic for a nonlinear damping oscillator using HBM and NOFRF, respectively. From Fig. 6, it
can be seen that the HBM method has successfully captured the jump phenomenon, but the NOFRF expansion fails to capture the
jump phenomenon. From Fig. 6(A), it can be seen that the estimated amplitudes of frequencies over 0.80 using HB3 method cannot
match the result by the Runge-Kutta method well, and the dierence between the results is mainly introduced by ignoring the
higher-order harmonics. Unfortunately, when more harmonics are taken into account in the application of the HBM, the software
often fails to nd a solution representing the harmonic components of the responses at this frequency range. Clearly, from Fig. 6(B),
the result by the NOFRF expansions matches the result by the Runge-Kutta method very well for the second order harmonic except
for a few points around the maximal peak, and the reason may be that the representation of Volterra series is divergent at this
frequency range.
The perturbation method is one of the classical methods for solving weak nonlinear equations, and the Volterra series is a
classical mathematical tool for modeling systems with weak nonlinearity. Following dierent lines, both the perturbation method
and Volterra series can nd an approximate solution for a wide class of weakly nonlinear systems, among which the former belongs
to numerical computation methods and the latter belongs to functional expansion methods. Is there any connection or similarity
between the two methods? This problem has already been partly answered by a few researchers. In the study of the nonlinear
Schrdinger equation, Vannucci, Serena and Bononi [104] had shown that the solutions obtained by the perturbation method and
the Volterra series respectively coincide with each other. The study about the nonlinear distortion in analog integrated circuit by
Buonomo and Schiavo [105] had also shown that the perturbation solution coincides with the Volterra series solution. Peng and his
colleagues [106] investigated the connection between the Volterra series and the regular perturbation method in polynomial
nonlinear systems analysis. It is revealed for the rst time that, for a forced polynomial nonlinear system, if its associated linear
system is a damped dissipative system, the steady response obtained through the regular perturbation method is exactly identical to
the response given by the Volterra series. On the other hand, if the associated linear system is an undamped conservative system,
then the Volterra series is incapable of modeling the forced polynomial nonlinear system. The results indicate that the Volterra series
is only valid for modeling the polynomial nonlinear systems whose associated linear systems are damped dissipative systems, and is
incapable of modeling nonlinear systems whose associated linear systems are undamped conservative systems. Fig. 7(A) and (B)
show the steady part of the responses obtained by using the perturbation method, the Volterra series and the Runge-Kutta method
for the damped and undamped associated linear system, respectively. Fig. 7(C) and (D) show the errors of responses obtained by
using the perturbation method and the Runge-Kutta method, the Volterra series and the Runge-Kutta method for the damped and
undamped associated linear system, respectively. It can be seen that the responses calculated by the three dierent methods are
almost identical and no visible dierence can be observed from the time waveforms of the responses for the damped dissipative

Fig. 6. Comparison between the HBM(A), NOFRF(B) and the Runge-Kutta method (star-HBM or NOFRF, solid-Runge-Kutta): the second harmonic.

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Fig. 7. (A) the steady response for the damped dissipative associated linear system; (B) the steady response for the undamped conservative associated linear system;
(C) the error for the damped dissipative associated linear system; (D) the error for undamped conservative associated linear system [ perturbation method;
Volterra Series; + Runge-Kutta method].

associated linear system, and for the undamped conservative associated linear system, both of Volterra series and perturbation
method cant calculate the accurate response of the nonlinear system.
Adomian decomposition [107] is a powerful tool for solving nonlinear equations, including algebraic, dierential, and integral
equations, and provides a bridge between the analytical and numerical solutions. The Adomian decomposition method can be used
to solve/approximate a wide class of nonlinear problems with only a few limitations, and provides an innite series approximation in
an analytical form. Guo and his colleagues [108] investigated the relationship between the Adomian decomposition and Volterra
series, and it is shown that the Volterra series can be considered as a specialization of the Adomian decomposition. Based on the
relationship, the Volterra series can be calculated using the Adomian decomposition method whenever a convergent Volterra series
representation exists. The simulated output and the predicted one using the obtained Volterra series for a Dung oscillator are

Fig. 8. The simulated output and the predicted output using the obtained Volterra series.

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shown in Fig. 8. It can be seen that the predicted output using the truncated Volterra series matches the simulated output very well,
even only using the rst few order Volterra series.

2.5. The convergence of Volterra series

The Volterra system representation is an innite series, and there must be associated convergence conditions to guarantee that
the representation is meaningful, which is similar as Taylor series. The convergence research of Volterra series representation is
important, which mainly includes two aspects, the rst one is whether the Volterra series is convergence, the other is that if the
Volterra series representation is convergence, how is the rule of convergence? The solution of the rst problem can be used to
determine whether a given nonlinear system can be expressed as Volterra series. Depending on the selected convergence criterion, a
wider or a smaller class of systems can be approximated by the Volterra series [109]. If the mean square convergence of the system
and model output is selected, the most general class of systems is retrieved. In this case, the discontinuities and saturation
nonlinearity can be modeled by Volterra series. If choose the uniform convergence, saturation nonlinearity can be modeled, but the
discontinuities nonlinearity cannot be modeled. The systems having a Volterra series expression that converge uniformly around a
given working point are mainly considered in this paper. The solution of the second problem can be used to analyze the
approximation accuracy. Based on the rule of convergence, the truncation order of Volterra series can be chosen in accordance with
the requirement of approximation accuracy. The convergence of Volterra series is a challenging problem, and many researchers have
carried out a lot of researches, but so far there is no a general method which can be used to determine the interval of convergence of
Volterra series representation. The existing criterions are quite restrictive, which only can roughly determine the convergence region.
The early research for convergence problem of Volterra series was done by American scholars Boyd, Chua [7,8] and Sandberg [110].
Their basic idea is to seek a convergence region of power series which is more restrictive than the convergence region of Volterra
series. Suppose that for all time,
u (t ) < K (48)
and

hn(1, ... , n) d1dn an (49)
then, according to the denition of Volterra series, it can be seen that the system output meets the following equation,

y (t ) an K n
n =1 (50)
Obviously, if the power series on the right side of Eq. (50) is convergent, then the Volterra series is convergent. The convergence
condition is quite restrictive. It is the unnecessary and sucient condition for the convergence of Volterra series representation. This
method needs to know the upper bound of each order kernel functions, and the criterion is conservative. Drawing lessons from the
method, people further studied the convergence of Volterra series. For example, Sandberg [111] derived a Volterra series
representation theorem which provides a bound on the error in approximating the series with its rst p+1 terms, and the theorem
provides a good foundation for the study of convergence of Volterra series. Czarniak and Kudrewicz [112] derived the sucient
conditions for the existence of the convergent Volterra series representation of nonlinear time-invariant networks, and proposed the
calculation expression for the radius of convergence of Volterra series representation. Billings and Lang [113] derived a bound
expression for the magnitude frequency domain characteristics associated with the outputs for a wide class of nonlinear systems
which is a relatively simple function of the generalized frequency response functions and the system inputs, and analyzed the eect
of GFRF and input on the output magnitude bound. The research results provided a good foundation to determine the bound of
system input magnitude. Thouverez [114] determined the upper bound of sinusoidal input amplitude by using the harmonic balance
method and Volterra series. For the Dung's oscillator subjected to harmonic inputs, Tomlinson [115], Chatterjee [116] and Peng
[117] investigated the uniform convergence issue of the Volterra series representations respectively, and proposed dierent
criterions to determine the upper bounds of the magnitude of harmonic inputs. Tomlinson [115] and Chatterjee [116] used the
concept of GFRF, and Peng [117] used the concept of NOFRF, and Peng considered the sub-resonance of each order NOFRFs, so the
new criterion proposed by Peng can provide a more accurate prediction about the convergence of the Volterra series representation
for the Dung's oscillator. Li and Billings [118] investigated the uniform convergence analysis of the Volterra series model for a
quadratic nonlinear system driven by harmonic inputs, and a simple criterion was proposed to provide an estimation of the upper
limit of the magnitude of the harmonic inputs to ensure convergence; moreover, to accommodate the analysis of nonlinear oscillators
subjected to a harmonic excitation [119], they extended the approach proposed by Barrett [120] who derived the convergence
condition using the innite norm boundary method in time domain to the frequency domain. Hlie and his colleagues [121]
proposed a novel approach to compute the bound of the convergence radius, and provided a guaranteed error bound for the
truncated series. Moreover, they extended the algorithm to the multi-input nonlinear system [122]. Glass and Franchek [123]
presented an algorithm for computing the convergence of Volterra series representation of the sinusoidal input describing function,
and the results revealed that the upper bound of the harmonic input is a function of frequency and the coecients of the dierential
equation. For the NARX model, Jing [124127] studied the bound characteristics of both GFRF and the output frequency response,
and the results showed that the magnitudes of the GFRF and the system output spectrum can all be bounded by a polynomial
function of the magnitude bound of the rst order GFRF, and the parameters of the NARX model. These new bound characteristics

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of the NARX model provide an important insight into the relationship between the model parameters and the magnitudes of the
system frequency response functions, revealing the eect of the model parameters on the stability of the NARX model to a certain
extent, and provide a useful technique for the magnitude based analysis for nonlinear systems in the frequency domain. Later, Xiao
and Jing [128,129] presented the analytical representation of the relationship between the upper bound of nonlinear output
spectrum and characteristic parameters including model parameters, magnitude bound of the rst order GFRF (related to linear
model parameters), input magnitude, and frequency variables, and estimated the parametric bound of convergence for the NARX
model by using this analytical representation.

2.6. The identication of Volterra kernel function

The key issue involved in modeling nonlinear systems using Volterra series is the identication of its kernel functions in time
domain and frequency domain. The kernel functions in time domain are often called Volterra kernel functions, and the kernel
functions in frequency domain are often called GFRF. For the identication of these two kinds of kernel functions, people have
developed dierent identication methods.

2.6.1. The identication of Volterra kernel function in time domain

The identication of Volterra kernel functions is dicult as the number of terms for modeling the kernels is usually quite large.
For example, we consider a system with a memory of N samples. A simple discrete Volterra model for such a system requires N p
coecients to represent the pth order kernel function. Therefore, to represent the nonlinear system, a Volterra model requires a
large number of coecients even only the rst few kernels are included. To address this problem, Schetzen [130] developed a
variation of the Volterra series that is orthogonal provided that the input signal is a Gaussian white noise. A number of statistical
approaches, such as the cross correlation technique, have been developed to identify Wiener kernels. A problem within the Wiener
kernels identication is that it is dicult to generate a Gaussian white noise input in experimental systems, if not impossible. Glentis
and Koukoulas [131] identied the Volterra kernels via input-output statistics or directly in terms of the input-output data. It is
shown that the normal equations for a nite support Volterra system excited by the Gaussian input with zero mean have a unique
solution if, and only if, the power spectral of the input signal is nonzero at least at m distinct frequencies, where m is the memory of
the system. According to this result, they designed a suitable excitation signal, and proposed an ecient algorithm for the
identication of Volterra kernel functions by introducing a multichannel embedding approach. Reed and Hawksford [132] rstly
identied the Wiener series by using a modied binary maximum sequence, then obtained the Volterra kernels from the Wiener
model by a change of basis. Nowak and Van Veen [133] studied input signals for the identication of nonlinear discrete-time systems
modeled via a truncated Volterra series representation. It is shown that i.i.d. sequences and deterministic pseudorandom multilevel
sequences (PRMLS) are the persistence of excitation conditions for a truncated Volterra series with nonlinearities of polynomial
degree N, if and only if the sequences take on N+1 or more distinct levels. However, short data records are used in which case it is
demonstrated that Volterra series identication is much more accurate using PRMLS inputs than Gaussian white noise inputs. Based
on some characteristics of i.i.d. circularly-symmetric zero-mean complex-valued Gaussian random variables, Cheng [134] proposed
a fth-order Volterra kernel estimation algorithm which is optimal in the least mean square error sense. The proposed algorithm can
be used to identify a nonlinear system under the uniformly i.i.d. rectangular M-QAM input and under the uniformly i.i.d. M-PSK
input with modest modication. Mathews [135] presented a novel method for orthogonalizing correlated Gaussian input signals for
the identication of truncated Volterra systems of arbitrary order of nonlinearity P and memory length N. Based on the constrained
optimization, Stathaki and Scohyers [136] proposed a novel approach to estimate the parameters of Volterra model. The equations
required for the determination of the Volterra kernels are formed entirely from the second and higher order statistical properties of
the output signal to be modeled, and can therefore be classed as blind in nature. Chang [137] investigated the identication problem
of nonlinear discrete-time systems using Volterra lter series model using improved particle swarm optimization. Toker and Emara-
Shabaik [138] studied the generation of pseudo-random multilevel sequences (PRMLS) which are suitable for the identication of
nonlinear systems. A closed form solution is provided for the optimal signal level selection, which is formulated as a nonlinear
optimization problem to maximize the similarity to a white Gaussian noise. Cho [139] proposed a digital spectral method for
evaluating the second-order distortion of a nonlinear system, which can be represented by Volterra kernels up to second order and
which is subjected to a random noise input. Wray and Green [140] showed how a certain class of articial neural networks are
equivalent to Volterra series and gave the equation for the nth order Volterra kernel in terms of the internal parameters of the
network. The technique was then illustrated using a specic nonlinear system. Based on an LMS variant or an errors-in-variables
method, Sigrist [141] estimated the second order Volterra series from the input and the output disturbed by additive white Gaussian
noise. Recently, Birpoutsoukis and Schoukens [142] extended the Bayesian- regularization based approach for the impulse response
identication of a linear time invariant (LTI) system to the identication of Volterra kernels. Numerical example illustrated the
enormous benet for the identication of Volterra kernels due to the regularization.
To reduce the required number of parameters to be identied, another common approach for kernel identication is to expand
the kernels in terms of a set of basis functions. In this way, the kernel function identication problem can be translated into the
estimation problem of a few expansion coecients. For example, Marmarelis [143] estimated the kernels for biological systems in
terms of discrete Laguerre functions. Moodi et al. [144] used Laguerre functions and wavelet packets as orthogonal basis functions to
represent Volterra kernel functions. da Rosa et al. [145] derived an analytical solution to expand the Volterra kernels with a set of
Kautz functions. Asyali and Juusola [146] expanded the Volterra kernels with a set of discrete time Meixner basis functions, and
identied the Volterra series representation of nonlinear systems with a slow initial onset or delay. Campello and Favier [147,148]

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extended the identication method of the linear system proposed by Fu and Dumont [149] who identied the linear system via the
optimal expansion of the impulse response function using Laguerre functions to the Volterra system. By expanding Volterra kernel
functions with optimal Laguerre functions, this identication method can minimize the number of Laguerre functions associated
with a given series truncation error, thus it reduced the complexity of the resulting nite-dimensional representation, and improved
the identication accuracy. Haciolu and Williamson [150] proposed a new identication method for Volterra series using a xed
pole expansion technique. This identication method reduced the required number of estimated parameters, thus improved the
identication eciency. Essentially, these methods seek to represent the kernels in terms of a relatively compact set of globally or
locally supported basis functions. The advantage of these methods is that they only require the input with sucient bandwidth for
accurate kernels identication, but they do not require any specic excitations.
There are a variety of basis functions which can be used for the expansion of Volterra kernel functions, among which wavelet
basis is one of the most widely used and well-established functions because of its several desirable properties such as orthogonality,
multiscale and relatively compact support. Nikolaou [151] used biorthogonal wavelets to express the rst and second order Volterra
kernels, and Chou [152] derived sparse representations of Green's function operators with the orthogonal wavelet basis. Coca and
Billings [153] identied NARMAX model from the data contaminated by noise based on semi-orthogonal wavelet multiresolution
approximation. When wavelet basis is used to represent the Volterra kernels, the coecients are non-varying. Therefore, the Volterra
kernel functions are linear equations with the non-varying coecients. Based on the advantages, Kurdila [154] considered the
reduced order Volterra kernel representations in terms of biorthogonal wavelets. This approach utilized a family of biorthogonal
wavelets proposed by Cohen et al. [155]. These wavelets possess several desirable properties such as biorthogonality, symmetry or
antisymmetry, and relatively compact support. In addition, this wavelet family can be extended to include functions of arbitrary
approximation order. However, these biorthogonal wavelets do not exist in closed form but are rather dened by a limiting
procedure. This is a disadvantage in that the functions can be more dicult to work with, particularly when computing quadrature.
In order to overcome this problem, Prazenica [156] constructed wavelets over the domain of the support of the triangular form of the
second order Volterra kernel. These triangular wavelets are orthogonal, compactly supported, and symmetric or antisymmetric.
However, these functions are piecewise constant, and consequently do not yield very smooth kernel estimation. In addition, the
triangular wavelet construction is specic to the second order kernel. It is not straightforward to extend this approach to higher order
kernels. Recently, to overcome the problem, Prazenica [157] further presented an approach in which the multiwavelets constructed
from the classical nite element basis functions using the technique of intertwining are used to obtain low order estimations of the
rst, second, and third order Volterra kernels. These results indicate the potential of the multiwavelet based algorithm in obtaining
the reduced order models for a large class of weakly nonlinear systems. As pointed by Prazenica [157], there was one problem in
applying the algorithm that the rst, second and third order Volterra kernel functions must be identied simultaneously. This
problem reduces the identication accuracy of Volterra kernel functions. To overcome this problem, Cheng and Peng [158] proposed
a wavelet basis expansion based Volterra kernel function identication through multilevel excitations. Moreover, recently, they
extend this method to identify the spatio-temporal Volterra kernel functions for nonlinear distributed parameter systems [159].

2.6.2. The identication of Volterra kernel function in frequency domain

The multi-dimensional Fourier transform of Volterra kernel function is named as Volterra frequency kernel function, or
generalized frequency response function (GFRF), which can be used to analyze nonlinear systems in frequency domain. The key
issue involved in analyzing nonlinear systems using Volterra series in the frequency domain is the identication of its frequency
kernel function. In order to identify the frequency kernel function, researchers have done extensive researches. For example,
Bedrosian and Rice [42] studied how to identify GFRF of nonlinear systems under the harmonic excitation and Gaussian noise
excitation. Worden [10] extended this concept for the analysis of nonlinear systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
Peyton Jones and Billings [45] further developed the harmonic probing method and put forward an eective method which could
recursively determine the GFRFs from low to high order if a dierential or dierence equation is available for the nonlinear system.
Later, Billings and his colleagues [46] extended this recursive method to the case of multiple inputs. The algorithm can be easily
implemented by a computer using the symbolic operation method. To a certain extent, this algorithm can facilitate the application of
the GFRFs. Unfortunately, the dierential or dierence equation of the nonlinear system must be rstly derived. In practical
engineering, especially for the complex nonlinear system, it is often dicult to rstly derive the nonlinear dynamic equation of
systems. In order to circumvent the diculty in the identication method of GFRF, the data based direct identication approach for
GFRF of nonlinear systems had been employed. The identication method is based on the principle of black box model, and doesn't
have to understand the internal mechanisms and the physical properties of systems, only identies the system from the input/output
data, thus it is more practical. For example, Evans and Rees [160] presented a review of the identication method of Volterra
frequency kernels for a nonlinear system using periodic multisine signals, after which a range of new periodic signals is dened by
minimizing the signal crest factors. By introducing periodic multisine signals, Boyd and Tang [9] identied the second Volterra
frequency kernel of an electro-acoustic transducer; later, Chua and Liao [161] extended this method for the identication of higher
order Volterra frequency kernels for weakly nonlinear systems by designing suitable periodic multisine signals; furthermore, they
[162] presented a practical algorithm for determining the highest signicant order of nonlinear systems. Powers and his colleagues
[163,164] identied each order Volterra frequency kernels using high order spectrum. Bicken et al. [165] identied second order
Volterra frequency kernel of nonlinear systems using random multi-tone (harmonic) excitation. Pavlenko et al. [166] identied
Volterra frequency kernel functions of nonlinear dynamical systems using the interpolation of excitation amplitude. Based on the
assumption that frequency-domain kernels are locally smooth, Nmeth and Schoukens [167] presented a new method for the
identication of frequency domain Volterra kernels. The kernel surface can be approximated by the interpolation technique, thus

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reduces the complexity of the model. Li et al. [168] proposed a new method for estimating the Volterra frequency kernels, which
used the time domain measurements directly to estimate the frequency response functions. However, this method can only identify
the values of GFRFs in the frequencies or the combination frequencies of excitations. Tseng [169] presented a new mixed-domain
method for identifying the second order Volterra frequency kernel functions of quadratic nonlinear systems.
In addition, people also have tried to identify the nonlinear dynamic equation for continuous time nonlinear systems using
GFRF. For example, Billings and Li [170,171] presented a new algorithm for identifying the nonlinear dierential equation of
continuous time nonlinear systems based on kernel invariance method [172,173]. The algorithm avoided the computation of
derivatives by using the generalized frequency response functions to reconstruct the model. It was shown that the model could be
constructed sequentially by building the linear terms rstly, then the quadratic terms and so on, and provided unbiased estimates in
the presence of noise. Because the algorithm detects model structure from the lowest order to high order items, it can eectively
reduce the complexity of the model, and can derive parsimonious system description. Moreover, Li et al. [171] presented a new
instrumental- variable- based identication procedure to estimate linear and nonlinear continuous-time models using a shifted
Chebyshev basis in the presence of noise. In addition, Guo and Billings [23,174,175] proposed a novel approach to identify the
nonlinear partial dierential equation or CML model (Coupled Map Lattice) for continuous spatio-temporal dynamical systems from
discrete observations. The proposed approach is a combination of the implicit Adams integration and an orthogonal least-square
algorithm, in which the operators are expanded using polynomials as basis functions, and the spatial derivatives are estimated by the
nite dierence method.

3. The applications in engineering

Volterra series is a powerful mathematical tool for nonlinear system analysis. It has been successfully used in areas such as
mechanical engineering, aeroelasticityproblem, control engineering, electronic and electrical engineering etc.

3.1. Mechanical engineering

There are a lot of nonlinear factors in the practical engineering, such as the geometric nonlinearity caused by large deformation,
nonlinear inertial force, the nonlinear constitutive relation in material, all kinds of complex boundary conditions and nonlinear
resistances, etc. Especially in the complex electromechanical system, the nonlinear dynamic problems are outstanding, which usually
are caused by the internal nonlinearity in subsystems and the electro-mechanical, rigid-elastic, uid-solid coupling between
subsystems or the nonlinear control. The application of Volterra series in mechanical engineering can be generally divided into
system modeling and identication, system analysis and design, fault diagnosis etc.

3.1.1. Mechanical system modeling

Based on Volterra series theory and eld measurements, Liu et al. [176] proposed a hybrid method for modeling the time history
of structural vibrations resulting from the impact loading in the vicinity of a structure, and used it to predict nonlinear structural
vibrations induced by ground impact loading. Mirri and Luculano [177] described dierent solutions for the identication of
nonlinear dynamic systems, all based on a modied Volterra series, which are characterized by a reduced number of operators with
respect to the classical Volterra approach. The operator reduction does not aect the accuracy of the obtained models if a mild
assumption on the system memory time duration is satised. Based on Volterra series, Carassale and Wu [178] presented a
frequency domain approach for nonlinear bridge aerodynamics and aeroelasticity. Moreover, Wu and Kareem [179] used a truncated
Volterra series to model the vortex-induced vibration (VIV) of bridge decks. The results showed that the relative contribution of
nonlinear eects in VIV is around 50% of the total response for a range of bridge cross sections. Roze and Hlie [180] introduced a
Green-Volterra series formalism which extended the Green's function and the Volterra series. This series allows the representation of
the space-time solution of weakly nonlinear boundary problems excited by an input which depends on space and time. Burke and
Baumann [181] used parametric Volterra series to model dynamic diesel engine emissions; Nichols and Olson [182] derived the
expressions for the bispectrum and bicoherence functions for multi-degree-of-freedom spring-mass systems with quadratic
nonlinearities subject to inputs described by a wide class of random processes, and this expression was then used to determine
the optimal probability distribution of the input and the optimal bispectrum to compute for the goal of maximizing the probability of
detecting the nonlinearity; Furthermore, they [183] derived an expression for the trispectrum of a multi-degree-of-freedom system
subject to a Gaussian excitation applied at an arbitrary location, and the analytical result was compared to those obtained via
estimation using the direct method. Badji and Fenaux [184] presented a new approach based on the Volterra series theory to analyze
a nonlinear single track model, which was considered to describe the vehicle dynamics behavior in the nonlinear domain. Wan and
Dodd [185] presented a new data-based modeling approach named the generalized Fock space nonlinear autoregressive with
exogeneous inputs (GFSNARX) model. This model allows Volterra and polynomial NARX models of arbitrary degree to be estimated
using nite data. The results of modeling friction dynamics using the GFSNARX model are better than the DNLR Maxwell slip and
AVDNN models. Naess and Gaidai [186] presented a detailed study of the structure and asymptotic behavior of a second-order
stochastic Volterra series model of the slow drift response of large volume compliant oshore structures subjected to random seas.
Moan and Zheng [187] investigated the eects of second-order nonlinear random waves on the structural response of slender xed
oshore platforms based on frequency-domain Volterra-series approach and correlation function/ FFT-based cumulant spectral
method. Han [188] analyzed the orthotropic bearing nonlinearity in rotor system using GFRF, and used it to detect rotor failure. The
results of simulation showed that this damage detection method is theoretically feasible as that of non-rotating structures. Liaw and

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Zheng [189] presented the Volterra series representation of the nonlinear wave forces for the xed oshore structural system. Based
on GFRF, Petkovska and Do [190] analyzed and compared four dierent kinetic mechanisms of nonlinear adsorption systems. It was
shown that, contrary to the linear frequency response characteristic functions, the higher-order FRFs corresponding to dierent
mechanisms dier in shape. This result oers a great potential for the identication of adsorption-diusion mechanism governing
the process. Billings and Swain [191,192] identied the continuous time nonlinear dierential equation models of wave forces acting
on xed cylinders and responding cylinders. Using Volterra series, Worden and Manson [193] studied the random vibration of
Dung oscillator under a random excitation, moreover, they [194] extended the analysis to multiple-degree-of-freedom nonlinear
systems subjected to the random excitation.

3.1.2. Mechanical system identication

The identication of stiness and damping are two important elds for the application of Volterra series. Various methods have
been developed to estimate the stiness and damping parameters. Most of these are based on modal analysis techniques [195,196],
which were essentially derived from the frequency response function(FRF). For example, Arruda and Santos [195] estimated the
mechanical parameters via curve tting for measured FRFs using a nonlinear least squares method. Also based on the FRF, Hwang
[196] put forward an identication method for stiness and damping parameters of connections using test data for a structure
attached to another structure via connection. Unfortunately, modal analysis method can only be used for the analysis of linear
systems, and in practical engineering, most of the structures are nonlinear systems, and the linear model is just a simple
approximation under some suppositions, so the linear FRF are no longer suitable to investigate the nonlinear system dynamics. In
order to identify the parameters in the nonlinear system, some researchers have put forward nonlinear system parameter estimation
methods for nonlinear systems using the GFRF. For example, Lee [197] proposed a straightforward method to estimate the
nonlinear system parameters using the GFRFs. Khan and Vyas [198] employed the relationships between higher-order GFRF and
rst-order one to estimate the nonlinear parameters, and they further used this identication method to estimate nonlinear bearing
stiness parameter in exible rotor-bearing systems [199]. Later, Chatterjee and Vyas [200,201] further developed this method by
using a recursive iteration method; moreover, they used the recursive iteration method identied the nonlinear parameters in the
rotor-bearing system [202] and bilinear oscillator [19]; also based on this recursive method, they identied the linear and nonlinear
parameters in Dung oscillator through multi-tone excitations [203]. Recently, Peng et al. [204,205] derived a series of important
properties about the NOFRF of multiple-degree-of-freedom nonlinear system, and based on these properties they [206] presented a
novel algorithm to estimate the linear stiness and damping parameters of multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) nonlinear systems;
moreover, they [207] extended this identication method to estimate the nonlinear stiness and damping parameters for multi-
degree-of-freedom (MDOF) nonlinear systems. Thouverez and Jezequel [208] identied the Volterra kernel functions for structures
with local nonlinearity.

3.1.3. Design of mechanical systems

Volterra series is also applied to guide the design of mechanical systems, among which its application in the design of nonlinear
vibration isolators has been widely concerned. For example, based on OFRF, Lang [209] investigated the eects of nonlinear viscous
damping on vibration isolation of single degree of freedom systems. The theoretical analysis revealed that the cubic nonlinear
viscous damping can produce an ideal vibration isolation such that only the resonant region is modied by the damping and the non-
resonant regions remain unaected, regardless of the levels of damping applied to the system. Peng [210] theoretically investigated
the force transmissibility of single degree of freedom (SDOF) passive vibration isolators with a nonlinear antisymmetric damping
characteristic. The results also revealed that a nonlinear antisymmetric damping characteristic has almost no eect on the
transmissibility of SDOF vibration isolators over the range of frequencies, which are much lower or higher than the isolator's
resonance frequency. On the other hand, the introduction of a nonlinear antisymmetric damping can signicantly reduce the
transmissibility of the vibration isolator over the resonance frequency region. The results indicated that nonlinear vibration isolators
with an antisymmetric damping characteristic have great potential to overcome the dilemma encountered in the design of passive
linear vibration isolators; furthermore, they [211] studied the eects of cubic non-linear viscous damping and the strong linear
damping on the force transmissibility of MDOF structures, and the results also indicated that a strong linear damping may shift the
system resonances and compromise the benecial eects of cubic non-linear viscous damping on the force transmissibility of MDOF
structures. Therefore, Peng et al. suggested that a less signicant linear damping together with a strong cubic non-linear damping
can be used in MDOF structures to achieve a desired vibration isolation performance. Later, Peng and Lang [212] investigated the
force transmissibility of multiple degrees of freedom (MDOF) structures with nonlinear anti-symmetric viscous damping, and
derived some conclusions which are similar as single degree of freedom systems with nonlinear anti-symmetric viscous damping. In
addition, using OFRF, they [51] investigated the eects of system nonlinear parameters on the output frequency response of a
passive engine mount, and presented an eective algorithm to determine the monomials in the OFRF-based representation of the
output frequency response of nonlinear systems. Xiao and Jing [213] studied the force or displacement transmissibility of vibration
isolators with cubic nonlinear damping under both force and base excitations, and derived the explicit relationships between the
force or displacement transmissibility and the nonlinear damping coecient in the frequency domain for the isolator systems
subjected to both force and base excitations. The advantages of nonlinear damping provide a new idea for the analysis and design of
nonlinear vibration isolator. Ho and Lang [214] theoretically investigated the eects of the nonlinear stiness and nonlinear
damping on the output spectra as well as the output energy spectra over dierent frequency ranges, and the results reveal that the
nonlinear damping can be used in conjunction with the nonlinear stiness to achieve a better vibration isolation; moreover, they
[215] proposed a novel approach for the design of a new type of single degree of freedom nonlinear vibration isolation systems that

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can deal with harmonic excitations and take advantage of both spring and damping nonlinearities, and a detailed step-by-step
procedure is developed to systematically determine the nonlinear parameters from a small set of simulation or experimental data.
Based on the advantages of nonlinear damping in nonlinear vibration isolator performance, Ho and Lang [216] realized the ideal
nonlinear damping characteristic using a feedback-controlled MR damper; Laalej and Lang [217] presented an experimental
verication of previous theoretical nding and the selection of the cubic damping characteristic parameter required to achieve a
desired performance for a single degree of freedom vibration isolation system. These results provide an important basis for the
design and practical application of nonlinear damped vibration isolation systems in engineering practice.

3.1.4. Damage detection for mechanical systems

The mechanical or structural damage usually introduces nonlinearity into the mechanical or structural characteristics, as a result,
the relationship between the input and output of the structural systems become nonlinear, and the extent of resultant nonlinear
eects is often very sensitive to the damage. Therefore, the nonlinear characteristics of systems can be used for the structural
condition monitoring and fault diagnosis, among which many researchers have studied how to use Volterra series analysis method
for the damage detection and fault diagnosis. For example, Surace [218] used generalized frequency response function (GFRF) or
higher order frequency response function to detect cracks in beam-like structures. Chatterjee [219] used higher order frequency
response functions to assess the structural damage in a cantilever beam with a breathing crack, and investigated the eect of crack
severity on the response harmonic amplitudes. Using the prediction error between the values of an unknown structural condition
and the values of the reference structure in healthy condition, Shiki [220] proposed some new indexes, and these indexes are used to
show the importance of considering the nonlinear behavior of the structure and estimate whether there is any damage in structure or
not. The results of simulation revealed that these indexes are extremely sensitive to the appearance of damage, and therefore can be
used for damage detection. Bazargan-Sabet [221] used Volterra kernel functions and GFRF to detect the cracking threshold of the
geo-materials under loading. The occurrence of micro-crack was characterized by the changes in the linear and nonlinear parts of the
measured signal energy. Based on Volterra series, Tang [222] presented a novel identication method of Volterra kernel function
and a fault diagnosis method. This method rst identied the Volterra kernels using the genetic algorithm (GA), then implementing
multidimensional Fourier transformation at the Volterra kernels, derived the GFRF, nally, compared the GFRF with the results
obtained for a damage-free structure to conduct the fault diagnosis. The eectiveness of this fault diagnosis method was veried by
the computer simulations and engineering experiments. Cao [223] presented a novel fault detection and diagnosis approach for
nonlinear complex systems by combining nonlinear output frequency response function and evidence theory. Rbillat [224] used
nonlinear convolution method [225,226] to estimate the linear and each-order nonlinear parts of the outputs; then the ratio of the
energy contained in the nonlinear part of an output versus the energy contained in its linear part can be calculated to determine
whether there is damage in the structure or not. Peng [49] applied NOFRF to detect cracks in a beam using the frequency domain
information. However, this crack detection method needs to excite the structural system under inspection many times. In order to
overcome the disadvantage, Peng et al. [227] further proposed one novel damage detection approach which is based on NARMAX
modeling and NOFRF deduced from the Volterra series. This new method only needed to excite the structural system one time.
Cheng [228] proposed a Volterra kernel functions-based index, and the crack detection was conducted by comparing the values of
the Volterra kernel functions-based indexes of the inspected beam with the values of the indexes for a uncrack beam. The numerical
simulation results revealed that the indexes can be used as crack detection indicators to indicate the existence and the size of cracks.
In addition, Peng [229,230] derived a series of important properties about the NOFRFs of 1D periodic structures with local
nonlinearity. Furthermore, based on these important properties of the NOFRFs, they [229,231] developed a novel method to detect
the position of the nonlinear component in a 1D nonlinear periodic structure. Recently, Cheng et al. [232] presented a series of
important properties about the NOFRFs of 2D periodic structures with local nonlinearity, and based on these important properties, a
novel method was developed to detect the position of the nonlinear components in a 2D periodic structures with local nonlinearity.

3.2. Aeroelasticity problem

Aeroelasticity problem is a very complicated nonlinear problem, and it is almost impossible to derive the accurate solution. In
order to overcome this diculty, researchers have put forward various approximate methods for solution and simplied analysis
models, among which Volterra series is one of the most widely used and well-established methods. Based on Volterra series,
Marzocca [233] investigated the subcritical aeroelastic response to an arbitrary time-dependent external excitation, and the utter
instability of open/closed-loop two-dimensional nonlinear airfoils. Moreover, they [234] proposed an analysis method for the
supersonic utter and aeroelastic response to a blast loading of at panels in a supersonic oweld via a combined Galerkin-Volterra
series approach. In addition, they [235] addressed the problem of the determination of the subcritical aeroelastic response and
utter instability of nonlinear two-dimensional lifting surfaces in an incompressible ow-eld via Volterra series approach.
Balajewicz and Dowell [236] demonstrated that sparse Volterra reduced-order models are capable of eciently modeling the
aerodynamically induced limit-cycle oscillations. Balajewicz and Nitzsche [237] presented a reduced-order-modeling approach for
nonlinear aerodynamic systems utilizing a pruned Volterra series. Wu [238] conducted linear and nonlinear aeroelastic analysis
frameworks for cable-supported bridges using the articial neural network(ANN) and Volterra series. Kurdila [239] identied the
reduced-order Volterra models for aeroelastic systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs by utilizing multiwavelet basis
expansion method. Silva [240] presented a new method for the aeroservoelastic analysis and design of nonlinear aeroelasticity
systems, and this method relied on the identication of nonlinear kernels that can be used to predict the response of a nonlinear
system due to an arbitrary input. Brenner and Prazenica [241] proposed reasonable data processing procedures to reduce the

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uncertainty of the F/A-18 active aeroelastic wing aircraft data, and improve the estimation stability and identication accuracy of
nonlinear systems. Sincethe traditional approaches are able to identify the optimal models of the aeroelastic dynamics based on
ight data, but are not able to predict the responses at all airspeeds, in order to overcome this problem, Lind and Prazenica [242]
introduced parameter-varying Volterra series model, and based on the identied model, the onset of utter can be accurately
predicted by analyzing data obtained at lower air speeds. Prazenica and Reisenthel [243] investigated the modeling of parameter-
varying nonlinear aeroelastic systems using Volterra theory. Omran and Newman [244] presented a global piecewise Volterra kernel
approach, which uses submodel Volterra kernels to build global kernels, and a piecewise interpolation is employed to switch between
the submodels. In 2005, Silva [245] had written a review paper about the identication of nonlinear aeroelasticity systems by using
Volterra series.

3.3. Control engineering

Because the controlled object, the observer or the controller is nonlinear, in order to obtain an ideal control performance, it is
necessary to take nonlinear factors into consideration. Volterra series is one of the main methods for the nonlinear system modeling,
which is widely used for control problems within chemical process, communications electronics, machinery, and other elds. Based
on it, researchers have developed a variety of eective control methods for nonlinear systems. For example, using Volterra series,
Aliyev and Gatzke [246] proposed a nonsquare nonlinear model predictive control formulation that used prioritized soft output
constraints and hard input constraints, and the simulation results showed an improvement when compared with traditional linear
control methods. Gruber and Guzmn [247] investigated the design of a nonlinear model predictive control strategy for greenhouse
temperature control using natural ventilation based on a second-order Volterra series model identied from experimental input/
output data of a greenhouse. Gruber and Bordons [248] presented the design of a nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC)
strategy for the airow in a PEM fuel cell, which manipulated the air ow rate in order to maintain the oxygen excess ratio in a
desired value, both for safety and performance reasons. Yamanaka and Ohmori [249] investigated the design method of exact model
matching controls for nite Volterra series systems, and claried the condition under which the control system is stable for the
reference input magnitude within a certain range. Yoon and Sun [250] presented a nonlinear system identication method and a
robust tracking control method of a camless engine valve actuator based on a Volterra series representation. Maner and Doyle III
[251] presented two formulations of a nonlinear model predictive control scheme based on the second order Volterra series model,
and the simulation results showed that the predictive ability of the second order Volterra model controller is superior to the
traditional linear controller. Kumar and Budman [252] proposed a robust nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) based on
Volterra series and polynomial chaos expansions (PCEs), and PCEs were used to represent the uncertainty in the Volterra series
coecients. Gruber and Ramirez [253] presented a computationally ecient nonlinear Min-Max model predictive controller using
Volterra series model. Vazquez and Krstic [254,255] presented stabilizing boundary control designs for a broad class of nonlinear
parabolic PDEs in 1-D using spatial Volterra series. Li and Qi [256] presented a spatio-temporal Volterra model with a series of
spatio-temporal kernels for modeling unknown nonlinear distributed parameter systems (DPS), and used this model for the
prediction and control of nonlinear DPS. Based on the nonlinear Laguerre-Volterra observer, Zhang and Tischenko [257] proposed a
novel adaptive control algorithm, and by expanding each kernel using an orthonormal Laguerre series, the number of parameters to-
be-identied can be eectively reduced. Mastromauro and Liserre [258] investigated the eects of inductor nonlinear behavior on
the performance of current controllers for single-phase PV grid converters. Glass and Franchek [259] investigated the H
performance of nonlinear feedback systems modeled by a truncated Volterra series. Tan and Jiang [260] presented a Volterra
ltered-X least mean square (LMS) algorithm for the feed-forward active noise control, and the numerical simulation results showed
that the developed algorithm achieved performance improvement over the standard ltered-X LMS algorithm when the reference
noise is a nonlinear noise process, and at the same time, the secondary path estimate is of non-minimum phase or when the primary
path exhibits the nonlinear behavior.

3.4. Electronic and electrical engineering

The application of Volterra series in electronic and electrical engineering is also widespread, which is ranged from nonlinear
distortion compensation, echo cancellation in communication channel, channel equalization, speech modeling to image processing,
etc. For example, in the eld of distortion analysis, Ishikawa and Kimura [261] compensated the nonlinear distortion caused by the
self-heating eect in an InGaP/GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT). In addition, a compensation condition for the
distortion caused by the thermal inuence was also successfully derived based on distortion analysis. Wambacq and Gielen [262]
presented a method for the nonlinear high-frequency distortion analysis of analog integrated circuits using Volterra series. Huang
[263] analyzed QPSK-based digital modulation signal impairments in microwave MESFET ampliers using the Volterra series
method under weakly nonlinear conditions, and evaluated the signal quality expressions, including the error vector
magnitude(EVM), the adjacent channel power ratio (ACPR), and the eye diagram for a /4-DQPSK system. Cabral and Pedro
[264] theoretically investigated the eects of nonlinear memory on the AM/AM and AM/PM conversions and swept frequency-
separation two-tone intermodulation distortion (IMD) tests made on microwave power ampliers circuits; Huang and Pai [265,266]
conducted the analysis of microwave MESFET power ampliers for digital wireless communications by using the hybrid Volterra
series method. In the eld of echo cancellation in communication channel, Abd-Alhameed and Excell [267] designed a laser diode
predistorter over a frequency range, and used it to conduct the nonlinear equalization for the intermodulation distortion of mobile
communication systems; Based on an inverse modied Volterra series transfer function, Guiomar and Reis [268] proposed a

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noniterative digital backward propagation technique to postcompensate transmission linear and nonlinear impairments in the
presence of optical noise. In order to reduce the complexity in the parameter identication of Volterra series, Liu and Li [269]
proposed a new electronic nonlinearity compensation scheme for communication channel based on inverse Volterra series transfer
function. Based on a discrete frequency-domain, third-order Volterra lter with the multidimensional overlap-save ltering
technique, Sungbin [270] presented a new structure for an adaptive nonlinear equalizer for the digital transmission over a nonlinear
satellite channel with PSK modulation. In the eld of speech modeling, Patil [271] modeled the speech signal using Volterra series,
and predicted the speech signal using the identied Volterra model; Despotovic and Goertz [272] presented a long-term nonlinear
prediction based on second-order Volterra lters, and the results revealed that the presented predictor can outperform conventional
linear prediction techniques in terms of prediction gain and "whiter" residuals; Hari and Raj [273] presented a quadratic predictor
based dierential encoding and decoding of speech signals using Volterra series; Alipoor and Savoji [274] examined the adaptive
dierential pulse code modulation(ADPCM) coding technique with nonlinear prediction based on quadratic Volterra lters using
backward prediction schemes based on LMS and RLS algorithms; furthermore, they [275] wrote a review paper about the
exploitation of nonlinear Volterra lters in the context of the ADPCM-based speech coding technique. In the eld of image
processing, Kumar and Banerjee [276] presented a novel image classication system, and used it for face recognition, and the results
revealed that the Volterra kernel classiers consistently outperformed various state-of-the-art methods in the same category; Aysal
and Barner [277] proposed quadratic weighted median (QWM) lters by combining quadratic Volterra lters and weighted median
lters, and used it to enhance the edges of the image with noise, and compared with the quadratic Volterra sharpener, the QWM
lters exhibits superior qualitative and quantitative performance in noisy image sharpening; Hari and Jagathy [278] summarized the
design and implementation of a quadratic edge detection lter for enhancing calcications in mammograms using Volterra series; Le
Caillec and Garello [279] investigated how to model the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) process of the ocean surface mapping using a
decomposition based on a Volterra model.

4. Conclusion

This paper summarizes the research progress about Volterra series theory and its application in mechanical engineering,
aeroelasticity problem, control engineering, electronic and electrical engineering. In this paper, the basic denition of the Volterra
series is recapitulated, together with some frequency domain concepts that are derived from the Volterra series. The connection
between the Volterra series and other nonlinear system description models and nonlinear problem solving methods are discussed,
including the Taylor series, the Wiener series, the NARMAX model, the Hammerstein model, the Wiener model, the Wiener-
Hammerstein model, the harmonic balance method, the perturbation method and the Adomian decomposition. The challenging
problems and their state of arts in the series convergence study and the kernel identication study are comprehensively introduced.
In addition, a detailed review is then given on the applications of Volterra series in mechanical engineering, aeroelasticity problem,
control engineering, electronic and electrical engineering.
Although people have done extensive researches about Volterra series and made some progress in the past decades, there are still
many challenges. For example, the convergence of Volterra series is still a challenging problem. Hitherto, there isnt an uniform
method that can determine the interval of convergence of Volterra series representation. The convergence criterions for some
relatively simple systems can only be derived using the existing methods, and the criterions are more conservative, which can only
determine a rough convergence domain. The number of parameters for Volterra kernel functions representation is very large.
Although people have put forward some eective methods to reduce the number of parameters to be identied, the number of
Volterra kernel function identication is still large. The high number of parameters to be identied reduces the eciency of Volterra
kernel function identication, and brings diculties to the online identication. In addition, at present, Volterra series is mainly
used for the analysis and modeling of nonlinear systems in the simulation or laboratory stage, so if Volterra series is used for the
analysis and design of practical systems, more practical factors need to be considered.

Acknowledgments

The work reported in this paper was supported by the Chinese Natural Science Foundation projects with the reference number of
11472170, 11572189 and 51121063 and the STCSM fund (14140711100) and the Chinese Distinguished Young Scholars project
No. 11125209 and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation project 15005188.

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