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Derive The Townsend

Townsend's criteria for spark breakdown in gases involves an avalanche process where free electrons ionize gas molecules, producing more electrons. The number of electrons increases exponentially with distance according to Townsend's first ionization coefficient α. Breakdown occurs when the number of electrons reaching the anode causes a self-sustaining current. Townsend's second coefficient γ accounts for secondary electrons emitted from the cathode. Breakdown requires e(α-γ)d to exceed unity.

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Derive The Townsend

Townsend's criteria for spark breakdown in gases involves an avalanche process where free electrons ionize gas molecules, producing more electrons. The number of electrons increases exponentially with distance according to Townsend's first ionization coefficient α. Breakdown occurs when the number of electrons reaching the anode causes a self-sustaining current. Townsend's second coefficient γ accounts for secondary electrons emitted from the cathode. Breakdown requires e(α-γ)d to exceed unity.

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Derive the Townsends criteria for spark breakdown in a gaseous dielectric

The start of the Townsends breakdown process is the avalanche process in the breakdown of gaseous
dielectrics. If a free electron exists in the gas where an electric field exists, then if the field strength is
sufficiently high, then it is likely to ionize a gas molecule by simple collision resulting in 2 free
electrons and a positive ion. The process is cumulative, and the number of free electrons will go on
increasing as they continue to move under the action of the electric field. The swarm of electrons and
positive ions produced in this way is called an electron avalanche.

Let n0 = number of electrons/second emitted from the cathode,


nx = number of electrons/second moving at a distance x from the cathode
= number of ionising collisions, on average, made by one electron per unit drift in the
direction of the field. [Townsend's first ionisation coefficient]

Consider a laminar of thickness dx at a distance x from the cathode.


The nx electrons entering the laminar will traverse it in the presence of the applied field E.
The ionising collisions generated in the gas gap will be proportional to both dx and to nx.
Thus dnx nx .dx

Therefore dnx = . nx . dx (from definition of )

Rearranging and integrating gives

If the anode is at a distance x = d from the cathode,


then the number of electrons nd striking the anode per second is given by

nd = n0 . ed

on average, each electron leaving cathode produces (nd - n0)/n0 new electrons (and corresponding
positive ions) in the gap.
In the steady state, the number of positive ions arriving at the cathode/second must be exactly equal
to the number of newly formed electrons arriving at the anode. Thus the circuit current will be
I = I0 . ed , where I0 is the initial photo-electric current at the cathode

Consider now the current growth equations with the secondary mechanism also present.
Let = number of secondary electrons (on average) produced at the cathode per ionizing

collision in the gap. [Townsend's second ionisation coefficient]


n0 = number of primary photo-electrons/second emitted from the cathode
n0' = number of secondary electrons/second produced at the cathode
n0" = total number of electrons/second leaving the cathode

Then n0' = n0 + n0"

On the average, each electron leaving the cathode produces [ed - 1] collisions in the gap, giving
the number of ionising collisions/second in the gap as n0" (ed - 1).

Townsends breakdown criteria is


Impurities, which lead to the breakdown of commercial liquids below their intrinsic strength, can be
divided into the following 3 categories.
(i) Breakdown due to gaseous inclusions
Gas or vapour bubbles may exist in impure liquid dielectrics, either formed from dissolved gasses,
temperature and pressure variations, or other causes.
The electric field Eb in a gas bubble which is immersed in a liquid of permittivity 1 is given by

where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble.

The electrostatic forces on the bubble cause it to get elongated in the direction of the electric field. The
elongation continues, when sufficient electric field is applied, and at a critical length the gas inside the
bubble (which has a lower breakdown strength) breaks down. This discharge causes decomposition of
the liquid molecules and leads to total breakdown.

(ii) Breakdown due to liquid globules


If an insulating liquid contains in suspension a globule of another liquid, then breakdown can result
from instability of the globule in the electric field.
A spherical globule of liquid of permittivity 2 immersed in a liquid dielectric of permittivity 1, when
it is subjected to an electric field between parallel electrodes, the field inside the globule would be
given by

where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the globule.

The electrostatic forces cause the globule to elongate and take the shape of a prolate spheroid (i.e. an
elongated spheroid). As the field is increased, the globule elongates so that the ratio of the longer to
the shorter diameter of the spheroid increases. For the same field E, the ratio is a function of 2/1.
When 2 >> 1 (generally when 2/1 > 20), and the field exceeds a critical value, no stable shape
exists, and the globule keeps on elongating eventually causing bridging of the electrodes, and
breakdown of the gap. When 2/1 >> 20, the critical field at which the globule becomes unstable no
longer depends on the ratio, and is given by Ecrit.

Where
= surface tension of the globule (N/m)
1 = relative permittivity of the insulating liquid
R = initial radius of globule (m).
Even a droplet of water even as small as 1 m in radius (quite unobservable) can greatly reduce the
breakdown strength of the liquid dielectric. Thus even submicroscopic sources of water, such as
condensed breakdown products, or hygroscopic solid impurities, may greatly influence breakdown
conditions. A globule which is unstable at an applied value of field elongates rapidly, and then
electrode gap breakdown channels develop at the end of the globule. Propagation of the channels
results in total breakdown.
(iii) Breakdown due to solid particles

In commercial liquids, solid impurities cannot be avoided and will be present as fibres or as dispersed
solid particles. If the impurity is considered to be a spherical particle of permittivity 2 and is present
in a liquid dielectric of permittivity 1, it will experience a force

Where E = applied field, r = radius of particle.

Generally 2 > 1, so that the force would move the particle towards the regions of stronger field.
Particles will continue to move in this way and will line up in the direction of the field. A stable chain
of particles would be produced, which at a critical length may cause breakdown. Because of the
tendency to become contaminated, liquids are seldom used alone above 100 kV/cm in continuously
energized equipment. However they may be used up to 1 MV/cm in conjunction with solids which can
be made to act as barriers, preventing the line-up of solid impurities and localizing bubbles which may
form.

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