CHAPTER FIVE

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Volume I
- Highway Design Guide
National Standards

December 2004
 5-i

December 2004 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Chapter Five

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

5-1 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................ 5-1

5-2 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS ............................. 5-2

5-2.01 Types of Horizontal Curves ........................................................................... 5-2

5-2.02 Maximum Degree of Curve ........................................................................... 5-2
5-2.03 Widening of Travelway ................................................................................. 5-6
5-2.04 Length of Curve ............................................................................................. 5-6
5-2.05 Superelevation Development ....................................................................... 5-10
5-2.06 Horizontal Sight Distance ............................................................................ 5-20

5-3 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS ................................................................................ 5-27

5-3.01 Horizontal Curves ........................................................................................ 5-27

5-3.02 Length of Curve ........................................................................................... 5-27
5-3.03 Superelevation Development ....................................................................... 5-28
5-3.04 Horizontal Sight Distance ............................................................................ 5-33
 5-1

December 2004 DEFINITIONS

Chapter Five
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Section 5-2 presents the Department's horizontal alignment criteria for all rural highways and
high-speed urban highways (V>45 mph). Section 5-3 presents the Department's criteria for
horizontal alignment on low-speed urban streets (V45 mph).

5-1 DEFINITIONS

1. Simple Curve. A simple curve is that portion of the arc of a circle which achieves the
desired deflection without using an entering or exiting transition.

2. Compound Curve. A compound curve (with deflections in the same direction) is a

combination of any number of individual simple curves (e.g., 2-centered or 3-centered)
and may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.

3. Point of Intersection (PI). The PI is the point of intersection of two tangents.

4. Point of Curvature (PC). The PC is the point of change from tangent to circular curve.

5. Point of Tangent (PT). The PT is the point of change from circular curve to tangent.

6. Deflection Angle (). The deflection angle is the intersection angle between the two
tangents forming the circular curve (also referred to as the central angle of curve).

7. Degree of Curve (D). The degree of curve is the central angle which subtends an arc
length of 100 feet (arc definition). The maximum degree of curve is a limiting value for a
given design speed based on the maximum rate of superelevation and maximum
allowable side friction factor.
 5-2

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

5-2 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

5-2.01 Types of Horizontal Curves

Deflectional changes in horizontal alignment may be accomplished by using a simple curve or a

compound curve. The following discusses each of the horizontal curvature types.

Simple Curves

Figure 5-1 illustrates a typical simple curve layout. Considering their simplicity and ease of
design, survey and construction, the simple curve is the type of curve used most often.

Compound Curves

Compound curves are used to establish alignment where a controlling obstruction cannot be
relocated. They may occasionally be used to transition into and out of a simple curve. Table 5-1
provides the suggested criteria for considering a compound curve for transitions where the
design speed is 50 mph or higher. Figure 5-2 illustrates the layout of a symmetrical 3-centered
compound curve.

When a compound curve is used on a highway main line, the radius of the flatter circular arc (R1)
should not be more than 50 percent greater than the radius of the sharper circular arc (R2). In
other words, R1 1.5 R2. For degree of curve, the equation becomes D1 0.67 D2.

5-2.02 Maximum Degree of Curve

Table 5-2 provides the maximum degree of curve for each design speed on all rural highways
and high-speed urban highways. The designer should provide flatter horizontal curves where
practical. The designer may also need to provide flatter curvature where the proposed degree of
curve will not provide the necessary stopping sight distance for horizontal curves. See Section 5-
2.06.
 5-3

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

5729.5780
R=
D

R
L = 100 =
D 57.2958

T = R tan
2

E = T tan
4

M = R 1 cos
2

LC = 2R sin
2

O = R R t

O = R (1 cos )

PI= Point of Intersection of tangents

PC= Point of Curvature
PT= Point of Tangency
= Central angle of curve (deflection angle)
D = Degree of curvature
L = Length of curve (ft); arc length from PC to PT
R = Radius of curve (ft)
T = Tangent length (ft) from PC to PI or from PT to PI
E = External distance (ft) from PI to midpoint of circular arc
M = Middle ordinate (ft) connecting midpoints of circular arc and long chord
LC= Long chord (ft) from PC to PT
= Deflection angle from PT to any point on curve
t = Tangent distance (ft) from PT to any point on curve along tangent
O = Tangent distance (ft) from tangent to any point on curve

TYPICAL SIMPLE CURVE LAYOUT

Figure 5-1
 5-4

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Design Consider
Speed Compound
(mph) Curve When

50 R < 1130 ft
55 R < 1455 ft
60 R < 1800 ft
65 R < 2175 ft
70 R < 2775 ft

Note: The limiting Radius (R) suggested for a compound curve is based on 75% of the
maximum radius for a given design speed.

SUGGESTED CRITERIA FOR CONSIDERING A COMPOUND CURVE

Table 5-1

Design Minimum Radius

Speed
(mph) (ft)

30 275
40 510
45 660
50 835
55 1065
60 1340
65 1660
70 2050

Note: emax = 6.0%

Minimum Radius
(Rural Highways and High-Speed Urban Highways)

Table 5-2
Equations for Any Two-Centered Compound Curves:

I = Total Deflection Angle = 1 + 2

X = R2 sin I + (R1 - R2) sin 1
Y = R1 - R2 cos I - (R1 - R2) cos 1
Tb = Y / sin I
December 2004

Ta = X - Tb cos I

Equations for Any Three-Centered Compound Curves:

I = Total Deflection Angle = 1 + 2 + 3

X = (R1 - R2) sin 1 + (R2 - R3) sin (1 + 2) + R3 sin I
Y = R1 - R3 cos I - (R1 - R2) cos 1 - (R2 - R3) cos (1 + 2)
Tb = Y / sin I
Ta = X - Tb cos I

Equations for Symmetrical Three-Centered Compound Curve (R1 = R3;

5-5

1 = 3, as shown in Figure):

I = Total Deflection Angle = 2 1 + 2

X = (R1 - R2) sin 1 + (R2 - R1) sin (1 + 2) + R1 sin I
Y = R1 - R2 cos I - (R1 - R2) cos 1 - (R2 - R1) cos (1 + 2)
Tb = Y / sin I
Ta = X - Tb cos I

Note: R1 1.5 R2

Note: This is only one example of how a compound curve

can be designed.
RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

SYMMETRICAL THREE-CENTERED COMPOUND CURVE

Figure 5-2
 5-6

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

5-2.03 Widening of Travelway

Widening of the traveled way may be desirable on the inside edge of horizontal curves to make
operating conditions on the curves comparable to those on tangent. This feature may be
especially applicable to 3R projects (See Chapter Eleven). The designer should evaluate the
need for widening on a case-by-case basis considering the functional class, type of shoulder,
traffic volumes, truck volumes and urban/rural location. In some cases, it may be warranted to
reduce the shoulder width for the purpose of widening the travel lanes.

Table 5-3 presents design values of travelway widening on highway curves for 2-lane highways.
This applies to either 1-way or 2-way operation. A recommended minimum widening of 2 feet
should be used. Widening may be warranted in known problem areas (e.g., where inside
shoulder has broken up because of traffic), even when not warranted by the criteria in the table.

Widening should be applied to the inside edge of pavement only. Desirably, the transition
distance for traveled way widening will equal the superelevation transition length, and it will be
applied coincident with the superelevation transition. Figure 5-3 illustrates the application of
travelway widening to a horizontal curve. Note also that the figure indicates the proper
pavement marking for the curve.

5-2.04 Length of Curve

Calculated vs. Minimum

The length of a horizontal curve is calculated by:

R
L = 100 =
D 57.2958

For small deflection angles, the calculated lengths may produce undesirably short curves. For
major roads, it is desirable that the length of curve be approximately 15V regardless of the
calculated length (V = design speed in mph). The designer should use a flatter degree of curve to
achieve the necessary deflection. Table 5-4 presents recommended criteria for the lengths of
horizontal curves, and these should be met if practical.
 5-7

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Radius 24-ft Travelway 22-ft Travelway 20-ft Travelway

of
Curve
(ft) Design Speed (mph) Design Speed (mph) Design Speed (mph)
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

7000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6500 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0
6000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.0
5500 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1
5000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.1
4500 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2
4000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3
3500 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4
3000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
2500 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1
1800 - - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2
1600 - - - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.4
1400 - - - - - - - - 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6
1200 - - - - - - - 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.8 3.9
1000 - - - - 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.2 4.4
900 - - 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.5
800 - 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8
700 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0
600 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.5
500 3.3 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.9 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.9
450 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.7 4.9 5.1 5.7 5.9 6.1
400 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.2 5.4 5.7 6.2 6.4 6.7
350 4.8 5.1 5.3 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.8 7.1 7.3
300 5.6 5.9 6.6 6.9 7.6 7.9
250 6.8 7.8 8.8
200 8.5 9.5 10.5

Notes: 1. Minimum widening should be 2 ft on all highways.

2. For 3-lane pavements, multiply table values by 1.5.
3. For 4-lane pavements, multiply table values by 2.

DESIGN VALUES FOR WIDENING THE TRAVELWAY ON HIGHWAY CURVES (FT)

(Two-Lane Pavements)

Table 5-3
 5-8

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

W = Travelway widening value (see Table 5-3)

WTL = Width of travel lane on tangent
WS = Width of shoulder on tangent

Notes: 1. Figure applies to both ends of the highway curve.

2. All widening occurs on inside of curve.

3. Solid lines in figure indicate pavement marking.

4. Desirably, the shoulder width will remain constant through the curve. When
the shoulder width is decreased for travelway widening, the pavement structure
should be increased accordingly in this area of the shoulder.

APPLICATION OF TRAVELWAY WIDENING ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

Figure 5-3
 5-9

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Functional Design
Speed Deflection Angle ()
Class
(mph)
< 0 30' 0 30' - 5 > 5

45 (2) 500 675

Arterials 50 (2) 500 750
and 55 (2) 500 825
Freeways 60 (2) 500 900
65 (2) 500 925
70 (2) 500 1050

Rural Collector
and Local Roads 30-60 (2) 300 500

Notes: 1. The length of the curve in feet, should be its calculated length (R/57.2958) or (100 /D) or the
recommended length in the table, whichever is longer.

2. For < 0 30, consider providing no horizontal curve. See discussion in Section 5-2.04

RECOMMENDED MINIMUM LENGTH OF CURVE (FT) (1)

(Rural Highways and High-Speed Urban Highways)

Table 5-4

Sharpest Deflection with No Curve

For a deflection angle less than about 30 minutes, the designer should evaluate the visual impact
of not providing a horizontal curve; i.e., allowing the angle point to remain. The top of a crest
vertical curve and a signal-controlled intersection are examples of where a small deflection angle
may not be visible and may not impact driver response. These types of locations should be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis. However, no angle points should be permitted on bridge
structures.
 5-10

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

5-2.05 Superelevation Development

Definitions

1. Superelevation. Superelevation is the amount of cross slope or "bank" provided on a

horizontal curve to help counterbalance the outward pull of a vehicle traversing the curve.
The maximum rate of superelevation (emax) depends on several factors including climatic
conditions, terrain conditions and type of area (rural or urban).

2. Superelevation Transition Length. The superelevation transition length is the distance

required to transition the roadway from a normal crown section to the full superelevation
needed. Superelevation transition length is the sum of the tangent runout and
superelevation runoff.

a. Tangent Runout. AASHTO defines tangent runout as the change from a normal
crown section to a point where the adverse cross slope of the outside lane or lanes
is removed (i.e., the outside lane(s) is level).

b. Superelevation Runoff. AASHTO defines superelevation runoff as the change in

cross slope from the end of tangent runout (adverse crown removed) to a section
that is fully superelevated.

3. Axis of Rotation. The superelevation axis of rotation is the line about which the
pavement is revolved to superelevate the roadway. This line will maintain the normal
highway profile throughout the curve, and it is known as the construction centerline or
control edge.

4. Superelevation Rollover. Superelevation "rollover" is the algebraic difference between

the travel lane cross slope and shoulder cross slope on the outside of a horizontal curve.

5. Normal Crown (NC). The typical cross section on a tangent section (i.e., no
superelevation).

6. Remove Crown (RC). A superelevated cross section which is sloped across the entire
traveled way in the same direction and at a rate equal to the typical cross slope on a
tangent section (e.g., 2.0%)
 5-11

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Superelevation Rate

The Department has adopted emax = 6.0% for the design of rural highways and high-speed urban
highways (V > 45 mph). Table 5-6 provides superelevation rates for various combinations of
curvature and design speed.

A horizontal curve with a very small degree of curve does not require superelevation. For a
given design speed, the normal crown section (NC) used on tangent sections (2.0%) can be
maintained throughout a very flat curve. On sharper curves for the same design speed, a point is
reached where a slope across the total pavement width is desirable (RC). Table 5-5 provides the
threshold (or maximum) degree of curve for a normal crown section and a remove crown section
at various design speeds. Examples 1 and 2 illustrate how to use Tables 5-5 and 5-6 to determine
the superelevation rate and cross slope bank for a given degree of curve.

Degree of Curve
Design
Speed Normal Remove See Table
(mph) Crown Crown 5-6

30 R > 3185 ft 3185 ft > R > 2150 ft R < 2150 ft

35 R > 4140 4140 > R > 2795 R < 2795
40 R > 5290 5290 > R > 3580 R < 3580
45 R > 6485 6485 > R > 4465 R < 4465
50 R > 7995 7995 > R > 5370 R < 5370
55 R > 9550 9550 > R > 6485 R < 6485
60 R > 11090 11090 > R > 7640 R < 7640
65 R > 12735 12735 > R > 8595 R < 8595
70 R > 14325 14325 > R > 9825 R < 9825

DEGREE OF CURVE FOR NORMAL CROWN SECTION

AND REMOVE CROWN SECTION
(Rural Highways and High-Speed Urban Highways)

Table 5-5
 R V=30 V=35 V=40 V=45 V=50 V=55 V=60 V=65 V=70
D (mph)
(ft) (mph) (mph) (mph) (mph) (mph) (mph) (mph) (mph)

0 15' 22,918 NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC
0 30' 11,459 NC NC NC NC NC NC NC RC RC
0 45' 7,639 NC NC NC NC RC 2.1 2.4 2.6
December 2004

RC
1 00' 5,730 NC NC NC RC RC 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3
1 30' 3,820 NC RC RC 2.5 2.8 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.6
2 00' 2,865 RC RC 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
2 30' 2,292 RC 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.6 5.1 5.6 5.9
3 00' 1,910 2.3 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 5.9 Rmax =
3 30' 1,637 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.3 4.8 5.4 5.8 6.0 2050
4 00' 1,432 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.7 6.0 Rmin =
5 00' 1,146 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.1 5.6 5.9 Rmin = 1660
6 00' 955 3.8 4.4 5.0 5.5 5.9 Rmin = 1340
7 00' 819 4.1 4.7 5.3 5.8 R minn = 1065
5-12

8 00' 716 4.3 5.0 5.6 6.0 835'

Table 5-6
9 00' 637 4.6 5.3 5.8 Rmin =
10 00' 573 4.8 5.5 5.9 660'
11 00' 521 5.0 5.7 6.0 Key:
12 00' 477 5.2 5.8 Rmin = R = Radius of Curve

SUPERELEVATION RATE
13 00' 441 5.4 5.9 510' V = Design Speed, mph
14 00' 409 5.5 6.0
16 00' 358 5.8 Rmin = e = Superelevation Rate (%)
18 00' 318 5.9 380' NC = Normal Crown (2.0% crown slope)

(Rural Highways and High-Speed Urban Highways)

20 00' 286 6.0
21 00' 273 6.0 RC = Remove Crown (superelevate at
normal crown slope)
Rmin =
275'
RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS
 5-13

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Example 1

Given: Design speed = 50 mph

Radius = 4045 feet
Tangent Cross Slope = 2.0%

Problem: Determine the superelevation rate.

Solution: For intermediate superelevation rates between the radius provided in Table 5-6,
use a straight-line interpolation.

From Table 5-5, when R < 5370 ft at v = 50 mph, use table 5-6

From Table 5-6, when R = 4045 ft, it is between;

5730 ft where e = RC (2% in this case) and 3820 ft where e = 2.8%

Therefore, when R = 4045 ft e = what?:

4045 5730
e= (2.8 - 2.0) + 2.0
3820 5730

e = (0.88)(0.8) + 2.0

e = 0.2704

Use e = 2.7%.

Example 2

Given: Design speed = 50 mph

Radius = 2292 ft
Two-lane roadway
12 ft travel lanes

Problem: Determine "B," the elevation differential between the edge of travel lanes.

Solution: From Table 5-6, the superelevation rate is 4.0% = 0.040 ft/ft.

The total horizontal distance from low side of bank to high side of bank is 24 ft.
 5-14

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

B Total = (0.040 ft/ft) (24 ft) = 0.96 ft = 11.52 in.

B/2 = 5.76 in.

This distance should be rounded to the nearest . Therefore, the elevation

differential will be 5 from the crown point to the high side edge of travel lane
and 5 from the crown point to the low side edge of travel lane.

**********

Superelevation Transition

Superelevation should be introduced and removed uniformly over a length adequate for a given
design speed. The superelevation transition length (LT) is the distance measured from the normal
crown section to the full superelevation section. It is a function of the pavement width of
rotation. Table 5-7 presents the minimum superelevation transition lengths for a 1 or 2 lane
width of rotation.

The following procedure should be used to determine the distribution of the superelevation
transition length between the tangent and curve:

Step 1: Determine the minimum superelevation transition length from Table 5-7 for a given
design speed and width of rotation.

Step 2: For a 1-lane width of rotation, all curves should have full superelevation from the first
50-foot station occurring a minimum distance of 25 feet after the PC to the last 50-
foot station occurring a minimum distance of 25 feet before the PT. For a 2-lane
width of rotation, all curves should have full superelevation from the first 100-foot
station occurring a minimum distance of 50 feet after the PC to the last 100-foot
station occurring a minimum distance of 50 feet before the PT.

Step 3: Locate the beginning of the entering transition. This will be a distance equal to the
superelevation transition length (Step 1) in advance of the station determined in Step
2. The end of the exiting transition will be a distance equal to the transition length
(Step 1) beyond the last fully superelevated station determined in Step 2.

Example 3 illustrates the distribution of transition length on a simple horizontal curve.

 5-15

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Design Width of Rotation

Speed
(mph) LT LT
(1 - lane each way) (2 - lanes each way)

V 55 200 ft 300 ft
V > 55 250 ft 400 ft

Notes: 1. A 1-lane width of rotation applies where 2 lanes are rotated about the centerline.

2. A 2-lane width of rotation applies where 4 lanes are rotated about the centerline or where 3
lanes are rotated about one of the edges of the interior lane or construction centerline.

3. For a 3-lane width of rotation: LT (3 lanes) = 2.0 x LT (1-lane).

4. For a 4-lane width of rotation: LT (4 lanes) = 2.5 x LT (1-lane).

MINIMUM SUPERELEVATION TRANSITION LENGTH (LT)

(Rural Highways and High-Speed Urban Highways)

Table 5-7

**********

Example 3

Given: Figure 5-4 illustrates the horizontal curve and stationing.

Design Speed = 50 mph.
2-lane roadway (rotated about the centerline).

Problem: Determine the superelevation transition length and the beginning and ending
stations.
 5-16

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Solution: From Table 5-7, the minimum superelevation transition length is 200 ft.

Entering transition: From Figure 5-4, the first full 50-ft station at least 25 ft
beyond the PC is station 6+50 (full superelevation).

Exiting transition: From Figure 5-4, the last fully superelevated section will be at
station 9+00.

Beginning and ending transitions: Measure 200 ft back from station 6+50 to
station 4+50 (begin superelevation transition) and measure 200 ft ahead from
station 9+00 to station 11+00 (end superelevation transition).

Data: V = 50 mph
LT = 200 ft
Rotate about centerline

DISTRIBUTION OF SUPERELEVATION TRANSITION LENGTH

(Example 3)

Figure 5-4

**********
 5-17

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Reverse Curves

For closely spaced reverse curves, it may not be practical to achieve a normal crown section
between the curves. A plane section continuously rotating about its axis (e.g., centerline) can be
maintained between the two curves, if they are close enough together. However, the designer
should adhere to the superelevation development criteria for each individual curve. The
following will apply to reverse curves:

1. The designer should not attempt to achieve a normal crown section between reverse
curves unless the normal section can be maintained for at least 150 feet (45 V 55) or
200 feet (V > 55 mph) and the superelevation transition requirements can be met for both
curves.

2. When a normal crown section is not provided and 1-lane is being rotated, the minimum
recommended distance between the PT (first curve) and PC (second curve) is 200 feet.
The pavement will remain in a plane throughout the tangent section continuously rotating
about its axis.

3. When a normal crown section is not provided and two lanes are being rotated, the
minimum recommended tangent distance is 300 feet. The pavement will remain in a
plane throughout the tangent section.

Axis of Rotation

1. Undivided Highways. On 2-lane highways and undivided multilane highways, the axis
of rotation will be the centerline of the roadway. Rotation about the centerline profile is
illustrated in Figure 5-5. On a 2-lane roadway with an auxiliary lane, such as a climbing
lane, the axis of rotation will be the centerline of the two through lanes.

2. Divided Highways. Divided highways with medians require special consideration. Table
5-8 presents the recommended axis of rotation for divided highways based on median
widths. The designer should select an axis based on the specific site conditions at the
curve.

Shoulder Superelevation

The algebraic difference between the travel lane slope and the shoulder slope ("rollover") should
not exceed 8.0%. Details of shoulder superelevation are illustrated for various points along the
superelevation transition length in Figures 5-5 and 5-6.
 5-18

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Notes: 1. For distribution of transition length, see Section 5-2.05.

2. Rollover between travel lane and shoulder should not exceed 8.0%.

ROTATION ABOUT CENTERLINE

(Undivided Highways)

Figure 5-5
 5-19

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Notes: 1. For distribution of transition length, see Section 5-2.05.

2. Rollover between travel lane and shoulder should not exceed 8.0%.
3. For paved medians less than 20 ft, the shoulder slope rates and median edge profiles may need to
be adjusted for drainage purposes. This adjustment should be achieved in the transition length.

ROTATION ABOUT MEDIAN EDGE OF INSIDE TRAVEL LANE

(Divided Highway M 40 ft)

Figure 5-6
 5-20

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Median Axis of
Width Rotation Figure
median edge of
M 40 ft 5-6
inside travel lane
separately
M > 40 ft about centerline 5-5
of each roadway

Note: For treatment of superelevated curves with median barriers, see Chapter
Ten "Roadside Safety."

RECOMMENDED AXIS OF ROTATION

(Divided Highways)

Table 5-8

5-2.06 Horizontal Sight Distance

The designer should evaluate the impact on sight distance of obstructions which are on the inside
of horizontal curves. These include walls, cut slopes, wooded areas, buildings and sometimes
guardrail.

Stopping Sight Distance

The designer should provide an adequate "middle ordinate" (M) between the center of the inside
travel lane and the sight obstruction. Figures 5-7a, 5-7b and 5-8 provide the criteria for various
combinations of curve radius and sight distance. The stopping sight distances (SSD) in both
figures are based on the level criteria. To determine the middle ordinate for the grade-adjusted
SSD, the equation in the figure may be used directly to calculate the value.

The M values from Figures 5-7a, 5-7b and 5-8 apply between the PC and PT. This area should
be free of all sight obstructions. In addition, some transition is needed on either side of the
curve. This is illustrated in Figure 5-9. The designer should use the following procedure:
 5-21

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Where: M = Middle Ordinate, distance from the line of

measure (center of inside lane) to the
obstruction, ft
D = Degree of Curve
S = Sight Distance, ft

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVES

(Range of Lower Values D > 5)
Figure 5-7a
 5-22

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Where: M = Middle Ordinate, distance from the line of

measure (center of inside lane) to the
obstruction, ft
D = Degree of Curve
S = Sight Distance, ft

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVES

(Range of Upper Values D < 5)
Figure 5-7b
 5-23

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

M=R ( 1-COS 28.65S )

R

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (RADIUS) ON HORIZONTAL CURVES

Figure 5-8
 5-24

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Example

Given: Urban Freeway

Design speed = 60 mph
Degree of curve = 2 15' Radius = 2546 ft
Grade = 3% downgrade
SSD = 570 (without grade adjustment)
SSD = 600 (with grade adjustment)

Problem: Determine the stopping sight distance clearance requirements for the horizontal
curve for both SSD values.

Solution: From Figure 5-7b, the middle ordinate distance applied between the PC and PT of
the curve is 18 ft for SSD = 600 and 16 ft for SSD = 570. The application of the
clearance requirements throughout the entire curve, including the entering and
exiting transition, is illustrated above.

OR

From Figure 5-8, using V=60 mph or SSD=570 ft yields an M value of 17 ft.

MINIMUM CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE

Figure 5-9

**********
 5-25

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

Step 1: Locate the point which is on the outside edge of shoulder and a distance of SSD/2
before the PC.

Step 2: Locate the point which is a distance M measured laterally from the center of the
inside travel lane at the PC.

Step 3: Connect the two points located in Steps 1 and 2. The area between this line and
the roadway should be clear of all obstructions.

Step 4: A symmetrical application of Steps 1-3 should be used beyond the PT.

For application, the height of eye is 3.5 feet and the height of object is 2 feet. The line-of-sight
intercept with the obstruction is at the midpoint of the sight line and 2.75 feet above the center of
the inside lane. The designer should consider the height advantage afforded by a superelevated
curve. As illustrated in Figure 5-10, this elevates the center of the inside travel lane by as much
as 1 foot when compared to the edge of the inside shoulder. This will greatly reduce the
probability that guardrail will present a sight obstruction on the inside of a horizontal curve.

Decision Sight Distance

Table 4-3 provides values for decision sight distance. At a horizontal curve, for example,
decision sight distance may be appropriate for a traffic signal located just beyond a curve on a
rural arterial. Where decision sight distance is used, the designer should use the equation in
Figure 5-7a to calculate the clearance requirements.

Passing Sight Distance

On high-volume, 2-lane roadways, it may occasionally be warranted to provide passing sight

distance around horizontal curves to achieve a higher PSD percentage on the highway. Table 4-4
provides values for passing sight distance. These values yield large numbers for the required
clearance, and their application should be limited to flat curves where the right-of-way impacts
will be a minimum. Where passing sight distance is used, the designer should use the equation
to calculate the clearance requirements.
 5-26

December 2004 RURAL HIGHWAYS AND HIGH-SPEED URBAN HIGHWAYS

ELEVATION DIFFERENTIAL ON SUPERELEVATED CURVES

Figure 5-10
 5-27

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

5-3 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

The operating conditions on low-speed urban streets (design speed of 45 mph or less) are
significantly different from those on rural highways and high-speed urban highways. In
addition, urban areas present different physical constraints which should be considered.

5-3.01 Horizontal Curves

Criteria and definitions presented in Sections 5-1 and 5-2 will apply to low-speed urban streets.
However, the following additional guidance is offered specifically for these facilities:

1. Types of Curvature. The simple curve is the most common type of horizontal curve used
on low-speed urban streets. Compound curves may be warranted where a physical
obstruction prevents the use of a simple curve. They will rarely be used for transition
purposes.

2. Maximum Degree of Curve. Table 5-9 provides the maximum degree of curve for each
design speed on low-speed urban streets. The designer should provide flatter horizontal
curves where possible.

3. Travelway Widening. Travelway widening on curves is rarely warranted on low-speed

urban streets.

5-3.02 Length of Curves

Calculated versus Minimum

The criteria for "Collector and Local Roads" in Table 5-4 will also apply to low-speed urban
streets. An exception to this is the criteria for sharpest deflection with no curve, which is
discussed in the following paragraph.

Sharpest Deflection with No Curve

On low-speed urban streets, a deflection angle of less than 1 degree without a horizontal curve
may not have a significant effect on driver response or aesthetics. Therefore, the designer should
consider leaving in the angle point when the deflection is less than about 1 degree.
 5-28

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

Design Speed
(mph) Minimum Radius

20 80 ft
25 145 ft
30 230 ft
35 350 ft
40 500 ft

Note: emax = 4.0%

MINIMUM RADIUS
(Low-Speed Urban Streets)

Table 5-9

5-3.03 Superelevation Development

Superelevation Rate

The Department has adopted emax = 4.0% for the design of low-speed urban streets. Figure 5-11
provides the criteria for superelevation rates for urban streets based on design speed and radius

The designer should exercise special care when the "theoretical" superelevation rate is between
-2.0% and +2.0% (typical cross slope). In this range, the curve should be superelevated at the
rate of the cross slope (2.0% typical) toward the inside of the curve. This is referred to as
remove crown (RC). This range is highlighted on Figure 5-11. Table 5-10 provides the
corresponding degree of curve for a normal crown section and a remove crown section for a
cross slope of 2.0%. Examples 4, 5 and 6 illustrate the use of Figure 5-11 and Table 5-10 to
determine the proper superelevation rate.
 5-29

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

Notes: 1. emax = 4.0%

2. For curves within the shaded area, superelevate the entire traveled way at the rate of cross slope
(2.0%) toward the inside of the curve.

3. D = Degree of Curve

RATE OF SUPERELEVATION
(Low-Speed Urban Streets)

Figure 5-11
 5-30

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

Design Speed Radius

(mph) Normal Remove See Figure
Crown Crown* 5-11

20 R > 95 ft 95 ft > R > 85 ft R < 85 ft

25 R > 180 180 > R > 155 R < 155
30 R > 300 300 > R > 250 R < 250
35 R > 465 465 > R > 375 R < 375
40 R > 680 680 > R > 535 R < 535

* The flatter curve is based on a theoretical superelevation rate of -2.0%. The

sharper curve is based on a theoretical superelevation rate of +2.0%.

DEGREE OF CURVE FOR NORMAL

CROWN SECTION AND REMOVE CROWN SECTION
(Low-Speed Urban Streets)

Table 5-10

**********

Example 4

Given: Design speed = 30 mph

Radius = 347 ft
Cross slope (on tangent) = 2.0%

Problem: Determine the superelevation rate.

Solution: Table 5-10 indicates that a normal crown section should be used.

Example 5

Given: Design speed = 35 mph

Radius = 425 ft

Problem: Determine the superelevation rate.

Solution: From Table 5-10, a remove crown section applies. The pavement should be
superelevated at a rate of 2.0% across the entire pavement.
 5-31

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

Example 6

Given: Design speed = 40 mph

Radius = 500 ft
Problem: Determine the superelevation rate.

Solution: Table 5-10 directs the designer to Figure 5-11 to determine the superelevation
rate. Figure 5-11 yields a required superelevation rate of +3.0%. Therefore, the
entire pavement should be transitioned to this rate.

**********

Superelevation Transition Length

For low-speed urban streets, the minimum superelevation transition length for a 1-lane width of
pavement rotation is 125 feet. For a 2-lane width of rotation, the transition length is 200 feet.
The distribution of transition length on low-speed urban streets should follow the same
procedure as discussed in Section 5-2.05.

Reverse Curves

Reverse curves may be used in urban areas. The designer should not attempt to achieve a normal
crown section between curves unless the normal crown section can be maintained for at least
100 feet. See Section 5-2.05 for more information on superelevation transition on reverse
curves.

Axis of Rotation

The criteria in Section 5-2.05 also apply to low-speed urban streets. However, on divided urban
streets with median widths less than 15 feet, the axis of rotation will be the centerline. This is
illustrated in Figure 5-12. Additionally, on a curbed street, it may occasionally be preferable to
rotate about the outside or inside edge of travel lane because of drainage, right-of-way or other
considerations.
 5-32

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

Notes: 1. For distribution of transition length, see Section 5-2.05.

2. Rollover between travel lane and shoulder should not exceed 8.0%.

ROTATION ABOUT CENTERLINE

(Divided Highway M < 15 ft)
Figure 5-12
 5-33

December 2004 LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS

Shoulder Superelevation

The criteria in Section 5-2.05 also apply to low-speed urban streets. The designer should note,
however, that 4 feet is the minimum shoulder width which should be sloped away from the travel
lane on the outside of a superelevated curve. For lesser shoulder widths, or "offsets", the outside
shoulder should be sloped in the same direction as the travel lane.

5-3.04 Horizontal Sight Distance

The criteria presented in Section 5-2.06 also apply to horizontal sight distance on low-speed
urban streets.