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Atomic Structure
DALTONS THEORY OF ATOM SECTION - 1A

John Dalton developed his famous theory of atom in 1803. The main postulates of his theory were :
Atom was considered as a hard, dense and smallest indivisible particle of matter.
Each element consists of a particular kind of atoms.
The properties of elements differ because of differences in the kinds of atoms contained in them.
This theory provides a satisfactory basis for the law of chemical combination.
Atom is indestructible, i.e., it cannot be destroyed or created.

Drawbacks
It fails to explain why atoms of different kinds should differ in mass and valency etc.
The discovery of isotopes and isobars showed that atoms of same elements may have different
atomic masses (isotopes) and atoms of different kinds may have same atomic masses (isobars).
The discovery of various sub-atomic particles like X-rays, electrons, protons etc. during late 19th
century lead to the idea that the atom was no longer an indivisible and smallest particle of the matter.

DISCOVERY OF CATHODE RAYS & POSITIVE RAYS SECTION - 1B

Cathode Rays
Sir William Crooks studied various gases in a gas discharge tube (a glass tube with a very high potential
applied to its ends) at low pressures. If the pressure in the tube is lowered to about 104 atm, glass begins to
fluoresce (glow) faintly. It was established that the glow was due to bombardment of the glass by a certain
kind of rays emerging from cathode (negative electrode) which travel in a straight line until they strike the
anode (positive electrode). These rays were called as cathode rays.
Sir J. J. Thomson demonstrated that when cathode rays were deflected on to an electrometer, it acquired
negative charge. He also showed that the rays were deflected on application of an electric field. The
cathode ray beam was deflected away from the negatively charged plate. These results were found to be
identical, irrespective of the gas taken in the discharge tube. He concluded that the cathode rays were a
stream of fast moving negatively charged particles called electrons (named by Stoney). He also calculated
the velocity and specific charge for an electron. The specific charge is the ratio of charge to the mass of
an electron, denoted as e/m ratio. The e/m ratio was found to be same for all gases. This led to the
conclusion that the electron must be a fundamental or universal particle common to all kinds of the atoms.
The e/m ratio (for an electron) = 1.758 x 1011 C/Kg.

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Note : (i) J. Millikan determined the value of the charge on an electron with the help of famous Oil drop
experiment. The magnitude of the charge on an electron = 1.60206 1019 C and the mass of an
electron = 9.1 1031 kg.
(ii) You will be studying the details of Thomsons calculations of e/m ratio and Millikans oil drop experiment
for the determination of electronic charge later in Modern Physics in the Module of Physics.

Positive Rays
Since the atom as a whole is neutral, it means that an equal amount of positive charged particle should also
be there in the atom. Goldstein, by carefully experimenting with the discharge tube consisting of perforated
cathode, showed the presence of another type of rays. These rays emanating from anode passed through
the perforations in the cathode. These carried positive charge and were called as positive or anode rays.
It was established that these rays consist of positively charged particles called as protons. The magnitude
of charge on a proton is same as that on an electron, but its mass was found to be 1837 times the mass of
an electron. The mass of a proton = 1.6735 1027 kg.
Since the electron has negligible mass (as compared to the proton), so it was assumed that whole mass of
an atom is associated with the protons. Later in 1932, with the discovery of neutron as IIIrd fundamental
particle (Ist and IInd being electron and proton), it was established that the mass of an atom is the total
mass of protons and neutrons taken together.

MODELS OF ATOM SECTION - 2A

Thomsons Model
Putting together all the facts known at that time, Thomson assumed that an atom is a sphere of positive
charges uniformly distributed, with the electrons scattered as points throughout the sphere. This was
known as plum-pudding model at that time. However this idea was dropped due to the success of
scattering experiments studied by Rutherford and Mardson.

Rutherfords Model
Rutherford studied the scattering of particles (doubly ionised Helium atom) by the thin metallic foils (of
gold, platinum etc.). A narrow pencil beam of fast moving - particles were struck on a thin metal foil
( 104 atoms thick). The angular deflections of scattered particles were studied with the help of a moving
microscope.

Observations of the Rutherfords experiment :

Most of the particles passed through the foil undeflected, i.e., went straight through the foil.
Some of them were deflected, but only at small angles.
A very few (1 in 20,000) were deflected at large angles (180 ).

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Conclusions :
As most of the -particles passed undeflected, it was concluded by Rutherford that the atom must be
predominantly empty.
-Particles are positively charged with appreciable mass (4 amu) and were moving high kinetic
energy. In order to produce deflections, there must be some enormous positively charged body inside
the atom.
Only a few received large deflections. This led to the conclusion that enormous charge must be con-
fined to a very small region. This small region was given the name nucleus.
Rutherford then proposed that an atom is composed of a dense positive nucleus, thinly surrounded by
the electrons. The mass and the positive charge of the nucleus are confined in a very small region of
space. The electrons are outside the nucleus, so that an atom is almost entirely empty space.
From stability point of view, the electrons cannot be stationary otherwise they would be drawn into
the nucleus. So Rutherford assumed that electrons were moving in circles around the nucleus; the
necessary centripetal force being provided by the electrostatic attraction between nucleus and the
electrons. He gave no further justification for this assumption.
Note : From experiments, it was confirmed that with in the nucleus, the distribution of positive charge is
uniform and atomic nuclei are spherical in shape.
Later with the discovery of the neutrons (In 1932 by Chadwick), it was established that these also
occupy the place in the nucleus bonded along with the protons by a very complex type of forces
called as Nuclear Forces.
Now the constituents of the nucleus, i.e., Protons and Neutrons are called as Nucleons and the
number of nucleons in a particular atom is called as Mass Number denoted by A. The number of
protons is known as Atomic Number denoted by Z.
The order of the diameter of an atom is 1010 m or 1 (1 = 1010 m) and the order of the diameter
of the nucleus is 1015 m or 1 fm (fm is called as Fermi and 1 fm = 1015 m).
Radius of the nucleus of an atom is proportional to the cube root of the mass number of an atom (i.e.,
the number of nucleons in the atom). If r0 denotes the radius of the nucleus then,
r0 = (1.2 1015) A1/3 m. (A = mass number)

Failure of Rutherfords Model

According to Classical Theory of Electromagnetism, whenever a charge is subjected to acceleration
around an opposite charge, it emits radiation continuously. Hence the electron in Rutherfords atom will
loose energy and will not be able to stay in a circular path around the nucleus and should ultimately go into
a spiral motion. Such an electron will fall into the nucleus. This, of course, does not happen for electrons in
an atom and the discrepancy could not be explained at that time.
Note : Later Niel Bohr, a student of Rutherford analysed atomic spectra of Hydrogen atom in terms of Quantum
Theory of Radiation and applied the results of Photoelectric Effect to it and developed a model of atom
which was widely accepted at that time.

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NATURE OF CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIANT ENERGY SECTION - 2B

Newton was first person to comment on the nature of light in terms of Corpuscular Theory of Light.
According to this theory, light is a stream of particles commonly known as corpuscles of light. He was able
to explain reflection and refraction, the most common phenomenon of light. But the other phenomenon
like diffraction and interference could not be explained on the basis of this theory.
Maxwell, in 1870 proposed that radiant energy (light) has wave characteristics. Light according to him is
Electromagnetic Wave arising due to the disturbance created by electric and magnetic fields oscillating
perpendicular to each other in space. Like all other mechanical waves, it is characterised by velocity, c ;
frequency, and wavelength, which are related as :
c= [value of c is constant and equal to 3 108 m/s]

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic wave or radiation is not a single wavelength radiation, but a mixture of various wave
length or frequencies. All the frequencies have same speed (= c).
If all the components of Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) are arranged in order of decreasing or
increasing wavelengths or frequencies, the pattern obtained is known as Electromagnetic Spectrum.
The following table shows all the components of light.

Continuous Spectrum :
When sunlight (white light) is passed through a prism, it is dispersed or resolved into continuous spectra of
colours. It extends from Red (7600 ) at one end to the Violet (3800 ) at other end. In this region, all the
intermediate frequencies between red and violet are present. This type of spectrum is known as Continuous
Spectrum. Hence continuous spectrum is one, which contains radiation of all the frequencies.
Note : A similar spectrum is produced when a rainbow forms in the sky.

Discontinuous Spectrum :
Light emitted from atoms heated in a flame or excited electrically in gas discharge tube, does not contain a
continuous spread of wavelengths (or frequencies). It contains only certain well-defined wavelengths (or
frequencies). The spectrum pattern appears as a series of bright lines (separated by gaps of darkness) and
hence called as Line Spectrum.
One notable feature observed is, that each element emits a characteristic spectrum, suggesting that there is
direct relation between the spectrum characteristics and the internal atomic structure of an atom.

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The Quantum Theory of Radiation

In 1901, Max Planck studied the distribution of the frequencies of radiations emitted from the hot bodies.
He proposed a bold hypothesis that the radiant energy such as heat or light, is not emitted continuously but
discontinuously in the form of small packets called as quanta. According to him, the energy of the
electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. The proportionality
constant is called as Plancks constant (h). If energy of the radiation is E, and the frequency of the radiation
is , then we have :
E=h (The value of h is 6.626 1034 Js)
If n is the number of quanta of a particular frequency and TE be the total energy, then :
TE = n (h)

Illustration - 1 Find the ratio of frequencies of violet light (1 = 4.10 105cm) to that of red light
(2 = 6.56 105 cm). Also determine the ratio of energies carried by them.
SOLUTION :
Using c =
where c: speed of light; : frequency; Now the energy associated with electromagnetic
: wavelength radiation is given by E = h
E1 v1 2
1 2 E v 1.6 :1
[1 : violet and 2 : red] 2 2 1
2 1
Hence the ratio of energies is same as that of frequencies.
1 6.56 105
1.6 : 1
2 4.10 105

Illustration - 2 A 100 W power source emits green light at a wavelength = 5000 . How many photons
per minute are emitted by the source ?
SOLUTION :
Energy given out by the source per sec
Using P = 100 J/s, = 5000 1010 m and t = 60 s
= Power (P)
Energy given by source in t sec = P t Number of photons (n) :
As = 5000 , the energy per photon of green
hc

100 60 5000 10 10 1.5 1022
light is given by : h


Number of photons (n) emitted in time
6.626 10 3 10
34 8

Pt Pt
t sec is given by : n
hc / hc
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Photoelectric Effect
It was observed by Hertz and Lenard around 1880 that when a clean metallic surface is irradiated by
monochromatic light of proper frequency, electrons are emitted from it. This phenomenon of ejection of the
electrons from metal surface was called as Photoelectric Effect.
It was observed that if the frequency of incident radiation is below a certain minimum value (threshold
frequency), no emission takes place however high the intensity of light may be.
Another important feature observed was that the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted was indepen-
dent of the intensity of the light. The kinetic energy of the electrons increase linearly with the frequency
of incident light radiation. This was highly contrary to the laws of Physics at that time i.e. the energy of
the electrons should have been proportional to the intensity of the light, not to the frequency.
These features could not be properly explained on the basis of Maxwells concept of light i.e.
light as electromagnetic wave.
In 1905, Einstein applied Plancks quantum theory of light to account for the extraordinary features of the
photoelectric effect. He introduced a new concept that light shows dual nature. In phenomenon like
reflection, refraction and diffraction, it shows wave nature and in phenomenon like photoelectric
effects, it shows particle nature. According to the particle nature, the energy of the light is carried in
discrete units whose magnitude is proportional to the frequency of the light wave. These units were called as
photons (or quanta).
According to Einstein, when a quantum of light (photon) strikes a metal surface, it imparts its energy to the
electrons in the metal. In order for an electron to escape from the surface of the metal, it must overcome the
attractive force of the positive ions in the metal. So a part of the photons energy is absorbed by the metal
surface to release the electron, this is known as work function of the surface and is denoted by W0. The
remaining part of the energy of the photon goes into the kinetic energy of the electron emitted. If Ei is the
energy of the photon, KE is the kinetic energy of the electron and W0 be the work function of the metal then
we have ;
Ei = KE + W0 (This is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation)
For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency
known as the threshold frequency (0) below which the
photoelectric effect does not occur. Electrons are emitted only
after the frequency of light is equal to or above the threshold
frequency. The threshold frequency is proportional to the work
function of the metal. If 0 be the threshold frequency and the
frequency of incident light, E is energy of incident light, then we
have :
W0 = h 0 and Ei = h
KE = Ei W0 or KE = h h 0 = h ( 0)

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Also, if m be the mass and v be the velocity of the electron ejected then
1
KE mv 2 h 0
2
Note :
The Electromagnetic radiation (or wave) now emerges as an entity which
shows dual nature i.e. sometimes as Wave and sometimes as Particle
(quantum aspect).
The energy of an individual photon depends only on its frequency and
not on the intensity of the light beam. The intensity of a light beam is a
measure of the number of photons in the beam and not of the energies
of those photons. A low-intensity beam of high-energy photons might
easily knock out electrons from a metal but a high intensity beam of low
energy photons might not be able to knock out a single electron.

Sometimes, it is convenient to calcualte energy (in eV) of a photon in short form using:

hc 12400 1240
EP eV eV
in in nm

Illustration - 3
Illustration - 3 Calculate the velocity of electron ejected from platinum surface when radiation of 200 nm
19
falls on it. Work function of platinum is 5 eV. (1eV 1.6 10 J )
SOLUTION :
Using Einsteins photoelectric equation : KE = Ei W0 = (6.2 5) eV = 1.2 eV
Ei = KE + W0 = 1.2 1.6 1019 J = 1.94 1019
where Ei : energy of incident radiation ; 1 2 2KE
Now, KE = mv v =
KE : kinetic energy of ejected electron 2 m
W0 : work function of metal 2(1.94 1019 )
v= = 6.52 105 m/s
1240 (9.11031 )
Ei eV 6.2 eV; and W0 5 eV
200

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Illustration - -4 4
Illustration A photon of light with = 400 nm falls on a metal surface. As a result, photoelectrons are
ejected with a velocity of 6.4 105 m/s. Find :
(a) the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons, (b) the work function (in eV) of the metal surface.
SOLUTION :
1
(a) Kinetic energy of electron = mv 2 (b) From Einsteins photoelectric equation :
2
Ei = KE + W0 W0 = Ei KE
1
KE = (9.1 1031) (6.4 105)2 1240
2 W0 KE 3.1 1.16 1.94eV
= 1.86 1019 J = 1.16 eV 400
W0 1.94eV

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

ATOMIC SPECTRA OF HYDROGEN AND BOHRS MODEL SECTION - 3

It is observed that the atoms of hydrogen in gas discharge tube emit radiations whose spectrum shows line
characteristics (line spectra). The line spectra of hydrogen lies in three regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Infra-red, Visible and UV region. In all there are five sets of discrete lines.

The set of lines in the Visible region are known as Balmer Series, those in Ultra-Violet as Lyman series
and there are three sets of lines in Infra-red region : Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series. Balmer and
Rydberg gave an empirical relation to define the wavelength of the lines in each series in terms of a param-
eter called as Wave Number denoted by . The wave number is defined as reciprocal of the wavelength
1 2
1 1
i.e., ; RZ
n 2 m2

where n and m are whole numbers; : wavelength of spectral line ; : wave number of spectral line
R : Rydberg constant. The values of n and m for different spectral lines for each series are listed below.

Region Spectral line n m

UV Lyman Series 1 2, 3, 4, . . .
Visible Balmer Series 2 3, 4, 5, . . .
Infra-red Paschen Series 3 4, 5, 6, . . .
Infra-red Brackett Series 4 5, 6, . . . .
Infra-red Pfund Series 5 6, 7, . . . .
Humphry Series 6 8, 7, 8 . . .

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In Hydrogen atom spectra :

Intermediate frequencies were emitted i.e. only specific spectral lines are there in the spectrum
(Plancks quantum theory).
Lines observed were characteristic of Hydrogen atom only.
These observations led Bohr to conclude that electrons in an atom are not randomly distributed, but were
arranged in definite energy states. The energy of each state (or level) was fixed or quantised (from charac-
teristic nature of H-atom spectra). The complete theory developed by him is organised in his postulates.
Bohrs Postulates
Bohrs theory was based on the application of Plancks Quantum theory on the atomic spectra of Hydrogen
atom. The fundamental postulates of his theory are discussed below :
The electron in an atom has only certain definite stationary states of motion allowed to it, called as
energy levels. Each energy level has a definite energy associated with it. In each of these energy
levels, electrons move in circular orbit around the positive nucleus. The necessary centripetal force is
provided by the electrostatic attraction of the protons in the nucleus. As one moves away from the
nucleus, the energy of the states increases.
These states of allowed electronic motion are those in which the angular momentum of an electron
h
is an integral multiple of or one can say that the angular momentum of an electron is quantised.
2
h
Angular momentum = mvr n Angular momentum = moment of Inertia angular velocity
2
v
= mr 2 = mvr
r
where m is the mass of the electron, v is the velocity of the electron, r is the radius of the orbit, h is Plancks
constant and n is a positive integer.
When an atom is in one of these states, it does not radiate any energy but whenever there is a
transition from one state to other, energy is emitted or absorbed depending upon the nature of
transition.
When an electron jumps from higher energy state to the lower energy state, it emits radiations in form of
photons or quanta. However, when an electron moves from lower energy state to a higher state, energy is
absorbed, again in form of photons.
The energy of a photon emitted or absorbed is given by using Plancks relation (E = h ). If E1 be the energy
of any lower energy state and E2 be the energy of any higher energy state, then the energy of the photon
(emitted or absorbed) is given as E (i.e., the difference in the energies of two states) :
c
E = E2 E1 = h h

where h : Plancks constant and : frequency of radiation emitted or absorbed.

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Additional Information :
Coulombs Law of Electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion (F) between two charges q1 and q2
K | q1 | | q 2 |
separated by a distance r is given by : Force (F)
r2
1
where K = 9 109 Nm2 C2
4 0
Note that charge on any particle can only be an integral multiple of charge on an electron (e).
Electrostatic Potential energy (E.P.E.) of a system of two charges separated by a distance r is
given by :
Kq1q 2
E.P.E.
r
Note : E.P.E. is +ve when charges are like and ve when charges are opposite.
Electrostatic force (F) is repulsive when both q1 and q2 are of same sign (i.e. either both are positive or both
are negative) and is attractive when q1 and q2 are of different signs.

Bohr Model :
Consider a species of atomic number (Z) containing single electron
revolving around its nucleus at a distance of r as shown in the figure.

Note : Atomic number Number of protons on the nucleus = Z

Charge on the nucleus = + Ze
[As charge on each proton is +e and neutrons dont have any charge]
Electrostatic force of attraction (F) between the nucleus of charge + Ze and electron (e) is given by :
K Ze e K Ze2
F . . . (i)
r2 r2
me v2
The centrifugal forces acting on the electron is . . . (ii)
r
[Assuming uniform circular motion]
This centrifugal force must be provided by the electrostatic force of attraction (F).
From (i) and (ii), we have :

K Ze2 me v 2
. . . (iii)
r2 r

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Also, according to Bohrs postulate of quantization of angular momentum, we have :

nh
Angular momentum of electron about the nucleus = m e vr . . . (iv)
2
where n is a positive integer
(n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . )
Solve (iii) and (iv) to get :
2 K Ze 2 n 2h2
v and r
nh 4 2 K me e 2 Z
Put K = 9 109 Nm2C2, e = 1.6 1019 C and h = 6.626 1034 Js in the above expressions to get :
Z
Velocity of an electron in nth Bohr orbit vn 2.18 10
6
ms 1
n
and Radius of the nth Bohr orbit

n2 n2 n2
rn 0.529 1010 m 0.529 52.9 pm 1pm 1012 m
Z Z Z
Now, the Total Energy of the electron moving in nth orbit K.E.n + E.P.E.n

1 K Ze e Kq1q 2
T.E.n mv n2 E.P.E. r
2 r

1 KZe 2 K Ze e
T.E n [Using (iii)]
2 rn rn
KZe2
E n T.E. n
2rn
It can be shown from the above expressions that :
1 KZe2 KZe2 KZe2
K.E.n , P.E.n and En
2 rn rn 2rn
or K.E.n = En and E.P.E.n = 2En

Using the value of rn in the expression of En, we get :

2 2 K 2 m e e 4 Z2
En
n2h 2

Z2 Z2
E n 2.18 1018 J / atom 13.6 eV / atom 1eV 1.6 10 19 J
n 2
n 2

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Z2 Z2
2.18 1018 6.02 1023 J / mole 1312 kJ / mole
n2 n2
Note : Bohrs Model is applicable only to one-electron atoms like : He+, Li2+, Be3+ apart from H-atom.

Illustration - 5 Determine the frequency of revolution of the electron in 2nd Bohrs orbit in hydrogen
atom.
SOLUTION :
The frequency of revolution of electron is given by : Calculate velocity (v2) and radius (r2) for electron in 2nd
Bohr orbit in H-atom (Z = 1)
1 Z = 1 for H-atom.
Frequency = time period
n2
Using rn 0.529
Time period Z
Total distance covered in 1 revolution 10 22
r2 0.529 10 m 1.12 1010 m
velocity 1

vn = 2.18 106 (1/n) m/s

2 r

v
v2 = 2.18 106 (1/2) = 1.09 106 m/s
v
Hence frequency =
2 r
v2 1.09 106

Hence frequency 2 r
2 2( )(2.12 1010 )
= 8.18 1014 Hz.

2 r n3 n2 Z
Note : Frequency of revolution (f) = 1/T where T r and v
v Z2 Z n
Z2
f
n3

What does the negative electron energy (En) means ?

The energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom has a negative sign for all possible orbits. What do this
negative sign convey ? This negative sign means that the energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the
energy of a free electron at rest. An electron in an atom is because of attractive force due to protons in the
nucleus. A free electron at rest is an electron that is infinitely far away from the nucleus and is assigned the
energy value of zero. Mathematically, this corresponds to setting n equal to infinity in the equation so that
E= 0. As electron gets closer to the nucleus, En becomes larger in absolute value and more and more nega-
tive. The most negative energy value is given by n = 1 which corresponds to the most stable orbit.

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When an electron jumps from an outer orbit (higher energy) n2 to an inner orbit (lower energy) n1, then the
energy emitted in form of radiation is given by :

2 2 K 2 me 4 Z2 1 1 1 1
E = E n 2 E n E 2.18 1018 Z2
1 h2 n 2 n2 n2 n 2
1 2 1 2
1 1
Also, E 13.6 Z2 eV/atom
n2 n2
1 2

1 E 2 2 K 2 me4 Z2 1 1
As we know that : E h ;
hc c h3 n2 n 2
1 2
The above equation can be represented as :
1 1 2 2 4
RZ2 where R 2 K me
n2 n2
1 2 c h3
R is known as Rydberg constant. Its value to be used is = 109677 cm1 = 10967700 m1
1
Note : (i) The value of 911.5 is sometimes useful.
R
(ii) This relation exactly matches with the empirical relation given by Balmer and Rydberg to account
for the spectral lines in H-atom spectra. In fact the value of Rydberg constant in the empirical
relation is approximately the same as calculated from the above relation (Bohrs Theory). This
was the main success of Bohrs Theory i.e. to account for the experimental observations by postu-
lating a theory.
(iii) The maximum number of lines that can be emitted when an electron in an excited state n = n2
(n 2 n1 1)(n 2 n1 )
de-excites to a state n = n1 (n2 > n1) is given by :
2

Illustration - 6 Determine the maximum number of lines that can be emitted when an electron in H atom
in n = 6 state drops to the ground sate. Also find the transitions corresponding to the lines emitted.
SOLUTION :
The maximum number of lines can be calculated by using the above formula with n2 = 6 and n1 = 1 are 15.
The distinct transitions corresponding to these lines are:
6 1
6 2, 2 1
6 3, 3 2, 3 1
6 4, 4 3, 4 2, 4 1
6 5, 5 4, 5 3, 5 2, 5 1

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Note : Each line (in emission spectra) corresponds to a particular photon emitted. The photon with shortest
wavelength is corresponding to the largest energy difference (6 1) and with longest wave length is
corresponding to minimum energy difference (6 5).

ENERGY LEVELS OF HYDROGEN ATOM SECTION - 4

The spectrum of H-atom studied by Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund can now be explained
on the basis of Bohrs Model.
It is now clear that when an electron jumps from a higher energy state to a lower energy state, the radiation is
emitted in form of photons. The radiation emitted in such a transition corresponds to the spectral line in the
atomic spectra of H-atom.

Lyman Series
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the ground state or Ist state (n = 1), the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in ultra-violet region and are called as Lyman Series. The wavelength (or wave
number) of any line of the series can be given by using the relation :
1 1
R Z2 n2 = 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . .
12 n 2
2

Note : For H-atom, Z = 1 ; He+ ion, Z = 2 and Li2+, Z = 3

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Balmer Series
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 2 (IInd state), the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in visible region and are called as Balmer Series. The wave number of any
spectral line can be given by using the relation :

1 1
R Z2 n2 = 3, 4, 5, . . . .
22 n 2
2

Paschen Series
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 3 (IIIrd state), the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in near infra-red region and are called as Paschen Series. The wave number of
any spectral line can be given by using the relation :

1 1
R Z2 n2 = 4, 5, 6. . . . .
32 n 2
2

Brackett Series
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 4 (IVth state), the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in far infra-red region and called as Brackett Series. The wave number of any
spectral line can be given by using the relation :

1 1
R Z2 n2 = 5, 6, 7. . . .
42 n 2
2

Pfund Series
When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 5 (Vth state), the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in far infra-red region and are called as Pfund Series. The wave number of any
spectral line can be given by using the relation :

1 1
RZ2 n2 = 6, 7 . . . .
52 n 2
2
Note that Lyman series in UV region, Balmer series in visible region and Paschen, Brackett & Pfund series
in Infra-red region are only for H-atom (Z = 1).
Note : In a particular series, First [(n1 + 1) n1], second [(n1 + 2) n1], third [(n1 + 3) n1] . . . . lines are called
as, , , . . . .lines respectively. For example line in Balmer series corresponds to (2 + 2) 2 i.e.,
4 2. In Lyman series : line 2 1 ; line 3 1 ; line 4 1.
The energy required to remove the electron from the outermost orbit of the atom in gaseous phase is called
as Ionisation energy. Here, since we are considering only one electron species, Ionisation energy
(IE) = E1 = +13.6 Z2 eV.

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Illustration - 7 The Lyman series of Hydrogen spectrum can be represented by the equation :
1 1 1
v 3.28 1015 s . Calculate the maximum and minimum frequency in this series.
2
1 n2
SOLUTION :
Lyman frequency will be maximum corresponding to maximum energy transition. i.e. 1
1 1 1
max 3.28 1015 s = 3.28 10 s
15 1
2
1 2
Note that corresponding wavelength will be shortest wavelength.
And Lyman frequency will be minimum corresponding to minimum energy transition. i.e. 1 2

1 1 1
min 3.28 1015 s = 2.46 1015 s1
2 2
1 2
Note that corresponding wavelength will be longest wavelength.

Illustration - 8 The wavelength of second line (also called as line) in Balmer series of hydrogen atom
is :
(A) 656.28 (B) 4872 (C) 6562.8 (D) 486.2
SOLUTION :
The transition responsible for second Balmer (line) line is 4 2. In H-atom, n1 = 2 for Balmer series.
1 1
E = 13.6 (1)2 2 2 = 2.55 eV
2 4
hc 6.626 1034 3 108
Now
E 2.55 1.6 1019

= 4.872 107 m = 4872

Hence correct option is (B).

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Illustration - 9 A spectral line in the spectrum of H-atom has a wave number of 15222.22 cm1. The
transition responsible for this radiation is : (Rydberg constant R = 109677 cm1).
(A) 2 1 (B) 42 (C) 32 (D) 23
SOLUTION :

1 / v 1 /15222.22 6.569 10 5 cm 6569

Clearly, it lies in Visible region i.e, in Balmer series.
Hence n1 = 2
Using the relation for wave number for H-atom:
1 1
1 / RZ2
n2 n2
1 2

1 1
15222.22 109677
22 n 2
2
n2 = 3
the required transition is 3 2
Hence (C) is correct.+
Note : (D) is wrong, since 2 3 will absorb radiation.

Drawbacks of Bohr model :

Bohrs model was successful in explaining the spectra and hence the structure of Hydrogen atom; still many
questions were not answered.
His postulates combined two different concepts : one from classical physics and second from modern
theory of quantization.
It could not explain the spectrum of atoms or ions having two or more electrons. It accounted only for
the spectra of H-atom, He+ ion and Li++ ion.
There was no justification for the quantization of angular momentum of an electron, though this was a
correct assumption.
His model could not provide a satisfactory picture of Chemical Bond.
It also failed to account for the brightness of the spectral lines, splitting spectral lines in electric field
(Stark Effect) and in magnetic field (Zeeman Effect).

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Illustration - 10 Calculate the wavelength of light radiation that would be emitted, when an electron in the
fourth Bohrs orbit of He+ ion falls to the second Bohrs orbit. To what transition does this light radiation
correspond in the H-atom ?
SOLUTION :
First calculate the energy difference (E) between 4th and 2nd Bohr orbit using :
1 1
E 4 2 13.6 Z2 eV
n2 n 2
1 2
Substituting n1 = 2 and n2 = 4, Z = 2 we get ;
E = 10.2 eV
This energy difference (energy lost by the electron) will be equal to the energy of the emitted photon.
12400 12400
Using : = 1215.7
E Photon eV 10.2
Note : The emitted radiation is in UV region which implies that, in H-atom this transition would lie in Lyman
Series (n1 = 1). Hence our aim is now to find the transition : n2 1

1 1
Use : E(n 2 1) 13.6 12 eV
12 n 2
2

1
10.2 = 13.6 1 2 eV
n
2
n2 = 2
Hence the corresponding transition in H-atom is 2 1
Note : This concept can be applied only for H-atom.
Alternate Approach :
hc 1 1
As discussed above : E(4 2) (in He ) 13.6 22 eV . . . .(i)
Photon 22 42
hc 1 1
E (n 2 n1 ) (in H) 13.6 12 eV
Photon 2 2 . . . .(ii)
n
1 n 2
Try to convert equation (ii) in the form given in equation (i) and compare it with equation (i) as below :

hc 1 1
E(4 2) (in He ) 13.6 12 eV [22 shifted inside]
Photon 12 22
On comparing the above equation with equation (i), we get :
n1 = 1 and n2 = 2
Note : This concept can be applied for any H-like species.

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Illustration - 11 Find the wavelength of radiation required to excite the electron in ground level of Li ++
(Z = 3) to third energy level. Also find the ionisation energy of Li2+. (R = 109, 677 cm1)
SOLUTION :
Ground level : n = 1
1 1 1
Use : RZ2
2
n1 n 22
Putting the values : n1 = 1, n2 = 3, Z = 3
1 2 1 1
We get : 109677 3 2 2
1 3
1 1
877416cm1 = 113.97
v
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the electron from ground state to infinity i.e. corresponding
transition responsible is 1 .

1 1
i.e. E (1 ) 13.6 32 eV
12 2
Ionisation energy = E (1 ) 122.4 eV 1.95 10 17 J 1eV 1.6 10 19 J
Note : Ionisation Energy (IE) = E1 = + 13.6 Z2 eV

Illustration - 12 Find the energy released (in ergs) when 2.0 gm atom of Hydrogen atoms undergo transi-
tion giving spectral line of lowest energy in visible region of its atomic spectra.
SOLUTION :
For Hatom, the spectral lines in visible region correspond to Balmer Lines (n1 = 2). Now for lowest energy
photon, the required transition will be from 3 2.
Using the relation for E :
1 1
E 2.18 1018 (1) 2 J / atom
2
2 32
= 3.03 1019 J
Now for 2.0 gmatoms, the energy released will be

E (2 6.023 10 23 ) 3.03 10 19 J
= 3.65 105 J 3.65 1012 [1J 107 ergs]

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES SECTION - 5

We have studied that light shows dual nature i.e. wave nature (Electromagnetic Radiation) and particle
nature (photons). In the following article we will see that not only light but matter also shows dual nature.
In 1923, de Broglie suggested that, since light is dualistic in nature: behaving in some aspects as waves and in
others like particles, the same might be true of matter. According to him, every form of matter (electron or
proton or any other particle) behaves like waves in some circumstances. These were called as matter waves
or de Broglie waves. de Broglie postulated that a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v should have a
wavelength given by :
h h
(p = linear momentum = mv)
p mv
Now we can think of a model of atom where moving electrons (obviously around the nucleus) should behave
like waves. The wave hypothesis of de Broglie was later developed by Heisenberg, Schrdinger, Fermi and
many others in modern atomic theory and is known as wave mechanics or quantum mechanics.
In new theory, electrons in an atom are visualised as diffused clouds surrounding the nucleus. The idea that the
electrons in an atom move in definite orbits (Bohrs model) is now abandoned. The new theory assigns
definite energy states to an atom but discards a definite path for movement of an electron.
Due to wave nature of electron in an atom, it is now highly impossible to ascertain the exact whereabouts of an
electron. This idea is defined by Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle as :

It is impossible to specify at any given instant, both the momentum and the position of a sub-atomic
particle like electron.
Whenever there is an attempt to specify the position of electron precisely, an uncertainty is introduced in its
momentum and vice-versa. If x is the uncertainty in position and p be the uncertainty in its momentum, then
according to Heisenberg, these quantities are related as follows :
h
x . p
4
In other words, it can be defined as :
An expression of limits set by the wave nature of matter (electron) on finding the position and the state
of motion of moving body (momentum) such that the product of uncertainties in simultaneous mea-
surements of the position and momentum of a sub-atomic particle cannot be less than h/4 .
Hence, in new atomic theory, an electron can not be regarded as having a fixed (definite) path around the
nucleus, called orbits. It is a matter of probability that an electron is more likely to be found in one place or the
other. So we can now visualise a region in space (diffused cloud) surrounding the nucleus, where the probabil-
ity of finding the electron is maximum. Such a region is called as an orbital. It can be defined as :
The electron distribution described by a wave function and associated with a particular energy.

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The new theory still defines a definite energy to an orbital in an atom

(a remarkable and accepted feature of Bohrs model). The new theory
abandons the concept of sharply defined paths.
If we consider an electron moving in a circular orbit around the nucleus, then
the wave train associated with the electron is shown in the figure.
If the two ends of the electron wave meet to give a regular series of crests and
troughs, the electron wave is said to be in phase.
n 2 r
where n is the number of waves made by an electron in that Bohr orbit
The number of waves made by the electron

circumference of the orbit

=
wavelength
2 r 2 r h
Thus, n =
h / mv mv

2 2 nh nh
mvr n
mvr 2
h h 2
Hence the number of waves ( n ) made by an electron in an orbit is equal to principal quantum number (n)

Illustrating the concept :

Find out the number of waves made by a Bohr electron in one complete revolution in its 3rd orbit.
Using the above result, the number of waves made by the electron in 3rd Bohr orbit is 3 (i.e. n = 3).

Illustration - 13 An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of V volts. Find the de Broglie
wavelength associated with the electron.
SOLUTION :
When the electron is accelerated through a po- And de Broglie wavelength ()
tential difference of V volts, it acquires a kinetic h h
=
energy given by E = qV, where q is the charge on mv 2Em
the electron. Also, if m be its mass and v be the Note :The above result can be used directly, whenever
1 required.
velocity then, E mv 2 In the given case, E = qV
2
2E h
v
m 2 (q V) m

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Illustration - 14 Calculate the uncertainty in position assuming uncertainty in momentum within 0.1 %
for :
(a) a tennis ball weighing 0.2 kg and moving with a velocity of 10 m/s.
(b) a electron moving in an atom with a velocity of 2 106 m/s.
SOLUTION :
Using Uncertainty Principle,
h
x . p =
4
(a) p = mv = 0.2 10 = 2.0 Kg m/s
p = 0.1% of p = 2 103

h 6.626 1034
x =
4 p 4 3.14 2 103
= 2.63 1032 m.

(b) For an electron, p = m v

p = 9.1 1031 (2 106)
= 1.82 1024 Kg m/s

p = 0.1 % of p = 1.82 1027 Kg m/s

h 6.626 1034
x =
4 p 4 3.14 1.82 1027

x = 2.89 108 m
Note : This shows that for sub-atomic (microscopic) particles, Heisenbergs Principle is highly meaningful, as x is
greater than their atomic radius.

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CONCEPT OF QUANTUM NUMBERS SECTION - 6

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Macroscopic Objects :
Motion of these objects can be described/calculated using classical mechanics (based on Newtons law
of motion).

Microsopic Objects
Motion of these objects can not be described/calculated using classical mechanics (based on Newtons
law of motion).
(i) Dual nature of matter is not considered in classical mechanics, so there is a need for Quantum
Mechanics (takes into consideration the dual nature of matter).
(ii) Quatum mechanics can also be applied on macroscopic objects (we can ignore their wave like
properties) and still get the same results as Classical Mechanics.

Equation of Quantum Mechanics :

It defines the laws of motion that microscopic objects must obey.
Schrdinger equation is the governing equation of Quantum Mechanics. It is a complex equation and difficult
to understand and solve with the knowledge of mathematics in classes XI and XII.
Schrdinger equation is relatively easier to construct. For a H-atom, when this equation is solved, it gives
the energy levels for the electrons and corresponding wave function ( ) of the electron associated with
each energy level.

What is a wave function ( ) ?

It is a mathematical function whose value depends upon the coordinates of the electron in the atom.
It doesnt have any physical significance.
It is characterized (represented) by set of three quantum numbers (n : Principal quantum number,
: Azimuthal quantum number and m: Magnetic quantum number).
Basically, it contains all the information about the electron.

Note : Schrdinger equation can not be solved exactly for multi-electron atom (but can be solved
approximately).
In case of single electron atom, energy of the orbital depends only on the principal quantum number
(n) but in case of multi-electron atom, it depends on n as well as .

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Designation of An Electron in an Orbital

An orbital is basically designated by three quantum numbers n, and m as defined below :

(i) Principal Quantum Number (n) :

It is a positive integer with values of n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . . In other way, it can also be designated with
letters as K (n = 1), L (n = 2), M (n = 3), . . . . . . .

Significance :
(a) It determines the size and energy of the orbital.

Note : For H and H-like species, orbital size and energy depends only on n but for multi electron species, orbital
energy depends on both n and .
(b) It is also used to calculate the number of orbitals given by n2. Thus, the maximum number of elec-
trons in a shell (i.e. energy level as designated with letters as K, L, M etc.) are given by 2n2, since
one orbital can at the maximum contains two electrons.
As we have learnt in Bohr Model, increasing n increases the energy of the electron, thus, energy of
the orbital increases.
Also, we have learnt that size of the energy shells increases with increasing n. Thus, we can expect
the orbital size to increase with n.
(ii) Azimuthal Quantum Number () : It is an integer having all values between 0 and n 1. It is also
also known as orbital angular momentum quantum number or subsidiary quantum number.
Significance :
(a) It is used to define the shape of an orbital.
(b) It is used to represent a subshell (Each shell has subshells equal to shell number). A subshell can be
thought of as sub-energy level inside an energy level.

For example : n = 1 (K shell) has only one subshell ( = 0)

n = 2 (L shell) has two subshells (= 0, 1)
And so on . . . . .
Each value of can be designated with letters as s ( = 0), p ( = 1), d ( = 2), f ( = 3), g ( = 4)
and so on . . . . .

We can create the following notation :

n = 1, = 0 1s
n = 2, = 0, 1 2s, 2p
n = 3, = 0, 1, 2 3s, 3p, 3d and so on . . . . .
(iii) Magnetic Quantum Number (m) :
It is an integer having values between to + including zero.

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Significance :
(a) It gives information about the orientation of an orbital with respect to coordinate axis.
For example : s orbital is spherical in shape. So, it can be oriented only in one way in
space, hence only one orbital is possible.

Note : Number of orbitals in a sub-shell Number of possible orientations of an orbital.

p orbital has lobes above and below the plane as shown on page 27:
p subshell can be oriented in three ways (lobes can be along X, Y and Z axes).
Thus, three orbitals are possible in a p-subshell.
In general, number of orbitals in a sub-shell = 2 + 1
Thus, s subshell ( = 0) has 2 (0) + 1 = 1 orbital
p subshell ( = 1) has 2 (1) + 1 = 3 orbital

Subshell No. of orbitals Max. es per subshell Possible values of m

s 0 1 2 0
p 1 3 6 1, 0, 1
d 2 5 10 2, 1, 0, 2
f 3 7 14 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3

Note the conventions :

s subshell p subshell d subshell
m 0

Note : n, , m are the solutions of Schrdinger equation. There is another quantum number known as spin quantum
number (ms) which has been obtained experimentally.

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There is an orbital angular momentum associated with an electron in a subshell given by :

h h
L 1 1 (where = reduced Plancks constant)
2 2
Spin Quantum number (ms) : This quantum number accounts for the spin of electron about its axis
similar to earths motion about the sun as well as about its own axis.
An orbital can have a maximum of two electrons spinning in opposite directions leading to a spin angular
momentum (vector quantity).
Thus, for two electron in an orbital,
1
ms (spin anticlockwise)
2
1
ms (spin clockwise)
2
h
Magnitude of spin angular momentum is given by : s s 1
2
3 h 1
s for an electron
2 2 2

3 1
reduced planck's constant
2 2
1 1
Note : ms for any electron. In an orbital, ms has been taken so as to distinguish the two
2 2
electrons in it.
spin quantum number has no classical analogue.

Difference between Orbit and Orbital :

Orbit Orbital
1. It is circular path around the nucleus in which 1. It is a quantum mechanical concept and
an electron moves. refers to one electron wave.
2. It is characterized by n. 2. It is characterized by n, , m.
3. It has no real meaning. 3. It represents the probability of finding an
electron at any point (through 2 ).

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Hydrogen atom and the Schrodinger Equation:

When Schrodinger equation is solved for hydrogen atom, the solution gives the possible energy levels the
electrons can occupy function(s) of the electron associated with each energy level. These quantized
energy sates and corresponding wave functions which are characterized by a set of three quantum numbers
(principal quantum number n, azimuthal quantum number l and magnetic quantum number m1) arise as a
natural consequence in the solution of the Schrodinger equation. When an electron is in any energy state, the
wave function corresponding to that energy state contains all information about the electron. The wave
function is a mathematical function whose value depends upon the coordinates of the electron in the atom
and does not carry any physical meaning. Such wave functions of hydrogen or hydrogen like species with
one electron are called atomic orbitals. Such wave functions pertaining to one-electron species are called
one-electron system. The probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is proportional to the
2
at that point. The quantum mechanical results of the hydrogen atom successfully predict all aspects of
the hydrogen atom specturm including of the hydrogen atom spectrum including sum phenomena that could
not be explaoned by the Bohr model.
Application of Schrondinger equation of multi-electron atoms presents a difficulty: the Schrodinger equation
cannot be solved exactly for a multi-electron atom. This difficulty can be overcome by using approximate
methods. Such calculations with the aid of modern computers show that orbitals discussed above. The
principal difference lies in the consecuence of increased nuclear charge. Because of this all the orbitals are
somewhat contracted. Further, as you shall see later (in subsections 2.6.3 and 2.6.4), unlike orbitals of
hydrogen or hydrogen only on the quantum number n, the energies of the orbitals in multi-electron atoms
depends on quantum numbers n and l.

Shapes of Atomic Orbitals :

Graph of for various orbitals as a function of 2 at any point, gives the probability density of
electron at that point.
r (the distance from the nucleus is as shown :

As we see from the above graph, 2 decreases and approaches to zero as r increases. Region where 2
reduces to zero is called nodal surface (nodes). A node is a region of space where probability of finding the
electron is zero. There also angular nodes (nodal plane) which represents plane passing through nucleus and
having probability density function as zero.

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For a hydrogen like atom wave function, of principal quantum number n, there are
(i) (n 1) radial nodes (ii) angular nodes (iii) (n 1) total nodes.

Thus :
2s has one node. 3s has two nodes and so on.
1s (n = 1, = 0) subshell is without any node.
2s (n = 2, = 0) subshell will have only one radial node, while 2p (n = 2, = 1) subshell will have
only one angular node.
3s (n = 3, = 0) subshell will have two radial nodes, 3p (n = 3, = 1) subshell will have one radial
and one angular node while 3d (n = 3, = 2) will have two angular nodes.

Boundary surface diagram : It is surface (contour) which represents a constant ||2. In general, it is the
region where the probability of finding the electron is 90%.
As mentioned earlier, the s orbitals are spherical in shape which means that
the probability of finding the electron at a given distance is equal in all the
direction.
Also, the size of these orbitals increases as n increases.
Boundary Surface Diagrams of p-orbitals are not spherical as shown :

As we can see, there are two lobes on either side of the plane passing through the nucleus having
probability of finding the electron as zero on it.
All three orbital have same shapes and energy.
Here also, energy of these orbitals increases with increasing n.
No. of radial nodes (for p-orbitals) are given by n 2
Boundary Surface Diagrams of d-orbitals are shown below. For d-subshells, there are 5 values of m. Thus,
d has 5 orbitals.

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Energy of orbitals :
For H-atom, energy of an orbital can be solely calculated by using n
Thus, 1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f <
Orbitals having same energy are called degenerate orbitals.
For an atom containing multi electrons, energy of an electron depends on n as well as .
In this case, each e is attracted by the nucleus but is repelled by every other electron. The electrons in the
outer shell experiences less attractive force as there is a partial screening of positive change known as
shielding of the outer shell electrons from the nucleus.
s orbitals are more tightly bound to nucleus than p orbitals, p orbitals are more tightly bound to
nucleus than d orbitals and so no. Thus, energy of s orbitals is more negative than p-orbitals.

Illustration - 15 In all, how many nodal planes are there in the atomic orbitals for the principal quantum
number n = 3.
SOLUTION :
Shell with n = 3 has 1 s (3s), 3 p (px, py, pz) and 5
d (dxy, dxz, dyz, d 2 2 and dz2) orbitals.
(x y )
s has no nodal plane.
Each of px, py, pz has one nodal plane, which means a total of 3 nodal planes.
dz2 has no nodal plane.
Each of dxy, dxz, dyz, d 2 2 has 2 nodal planes, which means a total of 8 nodal planes.
(x y )
Hence for n = 3, a total of 11 nodal planes are there.

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ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS SECTION - 7

Quantum numbers can now characterise the electrons in an atom. To describe the arrangements and distribution
of electrons for different elements, following rules and selective principles are used. The distribution of electrons
in an atom is known as the electronic configuration of that element.

Aufbau Principle
An atom in its lowest state of energy is said to be in ground state. The ground state is the most stable state in
an atom. According to Aufbau principle:
electrons are added progressively to the various orbitals in their order of
increasing energy starting with the orbital of lowest energy.

The order of increasing energy may be summed up as follows:

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d,.....

As a working rule, a new electron enters an empty orbital

for which the value of (n + ) is minimum. If the value of
(n + ) is same for two or more orbitals, the new electron
enters an orbital having lower value of n.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

According to this principle :
no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of
all the quantum numbers. or one can say that no two
electrons can have the same quantised states.
Consider an electronic arrangement in Ist energy level
(n = 1). For n = 1, = 0, and m = 0. Now ms can have
two values corresponding to each value of m i.e.
ms = +1/2, 1/2. Hence the possible designation of an
electron in a state with n = 1 is (1, 0, 0, +1/2) and
(1, 0, 0, 1/2) (n, , m, ms) i.e., two quantised states.
This implies that an orbital can accommodate (for n = 1,
m = 0, i.e., one orbital) maximum of two electrons having
opposite spins.
The maximum number of electrons in the different sub-shells
are :
s sub-shell = 2, p sub-shell = 6, d sub-shell = 10 and f sub-shell = 14.

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Hunds Rule Of Maximum Multiplicity

According to this rule : electrons never pair until no available empty degenerate orbitals are left to
them.
This means an electron always occupies a vacant orbital in the same sub-shell (degenerate orbital) and pairing
starts only when all of the degenerate orbitals are filled up. This means that the pairing starts with 2nd electron
in s sub-shell, 4th electron in p sub-shell, 6th electron in d sub-shell and 8th electron in f sub-shell.
By doing this, the electrons stay as far away from each other as possible. This is highly reasonable if we
consider the electron-electron repulsion. Hence electrons obey Hunds rule as it results in lower energy state
and hence more stability.

Extra Stability of Half And Fully Filled Orbitals

A particularly stable system is obtained when a set of equivalent orbitals (degenerate orbitals) is either fully
filled or half filled, i.e., each containing one or a pair of electrons. This effect is more dominant in d and f sub-
shells.
This means three or six electrons in p sub-shell, five or ten electrons in d sub-shell, and seven or fourteen
electrons in f sub-shell forms a stable arrangement. Note this effect when filling of electrons takes place in d
sub-shells (for atomic numbers Z = 24, 25 and 29, 30).
Electronic configuration of an element is represented by the notation n x :
n : principal quantum number : denotes the sub-shell x : number of electrons present in an orbital

Illustration - 16 Write down the electronic configuration of following species. Also find the number of
unpaired electrons in each. (a) Fe, Fe2+, Fe3+ (Z of Fe = 26) , (b) Br, Br (Z of Br = 35) ,
(c) V, V3+ (Z of Fe = 23)
SOLUTION :
Follow the order of increasing energy (Aufbau Rule) :
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d..
(a) Fe(Z = 26): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Note that 3d orbital are not fully filled.
3d6
Orbitals filled as per Hunds Rule.
Clearly the number of unpaired electrons is 4.
Fe2+ : (Z = 26) [No. of electrons = 24]

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While writing electronic configuration (e.c.) of cations, first write e.c of neutral atom and then remove desired
number of electrons from outermost orbital.
In Fe2+, remove 2e from 4s2 since 4s orbital (through lower in energy then 3d) is the outermost. Hence e.c.
of Fe2+ is: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s0
Note that number of unpaired electrons remains same as that in Fe, i.e. 4.
Fe3+ (Z = 26) [No. of electrons = 23]
Now remove 2e from 4s2 and 1e from 3d6 to get e.c. as : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s0

Note that, now all d orbits have an odd electron (i.e. are half filled).

Hence number of unpaired electrons in Fe3+ = 5.

(b) Br (Z = 35) [No. of electrons = 35]
Following Aufbau rule, e.c. is : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5
Clearly one of 4p5 orbitals contains unpaired electrons: 4p5
Orbitals filled as per Hunds Rule.
Hence Br has only one unpaired electron.
Br Z 35 [No. of electrons = 36]
Since anion(s) is(are) formed by adding electron(s), so simply write e.c. as per total number of electrons
finally. For Z = 35, e.c. is : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Clearly there are no unpaired electrons.
(c) Following on pattern in (a), we can write e.c. for V as follows.
V(Z = 23) : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
3d3
Orbitals filled as per Hunds Rule.
3 unpaired electrons.
V3+ (Z = 23) [No. of electrons = 20]
Remove 3e from outermost orbitals successively i.e.,2e from 4s 2 and 1e from 3d 3 .
Hence e.c. of V3+ is :
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d2
3d 2

Orbitals filled as per Hunds Rule.

2 unpaired electrons.

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Illustration - 17 A compound of Vanadium has a magnetic moment of 1.73 B.M. Work out the electronic
configuration of vanadium in the compound.
SOLUTION :
The magnitude of magnetic moment () of a compound/species/ion is given by :

n n 2 B M
(n = number of unpaired electrons ; BM : unit of magnetic moment in Bohrs Magneton)
1.73 n n 2
On solving for n, we get n = 1. This means that vanadium ion (Z = 23) in the compound has one unpaired
electron.
3d :
So its electronic configuration (e.c.) must be :
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1
i.e., vanadium exists as V4+ ion in the compound since the ground state e.c. of 23V is :
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
3d : 4s :
Note : In these kind of questions, keep on removing e from the outermost orbitals till the required number of unpaired
e is achieved.

MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATINS

Illustration - 18 Find the threshold wavelength for a copper plate, a sodium plate and cesium plate. The
work functions of these plates are : 4.5 eV, 2.3 eV & 1.9 eV respectivley.
SOLUTION :
hc
Use 0= E stopping energy.
E

For copper 0 = 1242 ev nm = 276 nm

4.5eV
1242 ev nm
For Sodium 0 = = 540 nm
4.5 eV

For caesium 0 = 1242 ev nm = 654 nm

1.9 eV

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 Atomic Structure Vidyamandir Classes

Illustration - 19 A UV light of wavelength 280 nm is used an experiment on photoelectric effect with Li

(work function = 2.5 eV) as cathode. Find:
(a) the maximum KE of photoelectrons and (b) the stopping potential
SOLUTION :
(a) The maximum K.E is : (b) Stopping potential V is given by
hc
K max =
K max
V 1.9 V
1242 e
2.5 1.9 eV
280

Illustration - 20 (a) Find the wavelength of the radiation required to excite the electron in Li++ from
the first to the third Bohr orbit. (b) How many spectral lines are observed in the emission spectrum of the
above excite system ?
SOLUTION :

z2
(a) As we know E = 13.6 eV (b) There are three lines in the spectrum.
n2
So E = E 3 E1 = 813.6 eV = 108eV.
1242 eV nm
Use 108.8 eV
= 11.4 nm

Illustration - 21 A hydrogen sample is prepared in a particular excited state A. Photons of energy 2.55 eV
get absorbed into the sample to take some of the electrons to a further excited state B. Find the quantum
number of the states A and B.
SOLUTION :
Use the energy difference diagram and we can see that 2.55 eV can only be absorbed in transition
n = 2 to n = 4. Hence the quantum number are 2 and 4.

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 Vidyamandir Classes Atomic Structure

Illustration - 22 Find the wavelengths in a hydrogen spectrum between the range 500 nm to 700 nm.

SOLUTION :
First find energy of the photons having wave Thus the energy difference should be between
length 500 nm and 700 nm. 1.77 eV and 2.44 eV.
1242 eV nm The desired transition is 2 for
E 500 2.44 eV
500 nm E = 1.9 eV.

1242 eV nm hc 1242 eV nm
E 700 1.77 eV Hence E 1.9 eV
654 nm
700 nm

Illustration - 23 A beam of ultraviolet radiation having wavelength between 100 nm and 200 nm is inci-
dent on a sample of atomic hydrogen gas. Assuming that the atoms are in ground state, which wavelengths
will have low intensity in the transmitted beam ? If the energy of a photon is equal to the difference between
the energies of an excited state and the ground state, it has large probability of being absorbed by an tom in
the ground state.
SOLUTION :
1242 eV nm Thus 10.2 eV and 12.1 eV have larger
E =100 nm = = 12.42 eV probability.
100 nm
And that corresponding to 1 = 200 nm is 1242 eV nm
1 = = 122 nm
6.21 eV 10.2 eV
E 2 E1 = 10.2 eV and E 3 E1 = 12.1eV 1242 eV nm
and 2 = = 103nm
E 4 E1 = 12.75 eV 12.1eV

Illustration - 24 Light corresponding to the transition n = 4 to n = 2 in hydrogen atoms falls on cosium

metal (work function = 1.9 eV). Find the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectriosn emitted.
SOLUTION :
The energy of photons emitted in transition
n = 4 to n = 2 is
1 1
hv 13.6 eV 2 2 2.55 eV
2 4
K .Emax 2.55 1.9 0.65 eV

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Illustration - 25 Calculate the smallest wavelength of radiation that may be emitted by

(a) hydrogen (b) He+ and (c) Li++
SOLUTION :
Smallest wavelength will be from 1 . 1 1 1 1
For He+ ion Z = 2 = R .Z2 2 2 ; =
1 4R
For H-atom
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 For Li2+; 2 = 3 = R .32 2 2 ; =
= RZ2 2 2 = R 1 = 911.5 1 9R
1

Illustration - 26 Find the binding energy of a hydrogen atom in the state n = 2.

SOLUTION :

z2
Binding energy will be 13.6 2
n

12
For n = 2; B.E. = 13.6 = 3.4 eV
22

Illustration - 27 Find the radius and eenrgy of a He+ ion in the states
(a) n=1 (b) n = 4 and (c) n = 10
SOLUTION :

n2
Radius = 52.9 pm
z
z = 2, n = 1

12
r 52.9 26.45 pm
2

42 102
r4 52.9 423.2 pm rn 10 52.9 2645 pm
2 2
Illustration - 28 A positive ion having just one electron ejects it if a photon of wavelength 228 or
less is absorbed by it. Identify the ion.
SOLUTION :
First find E corresponding to this wavelength
1242
E = = 54.47 eV
22.8
54.47 = 13.6 z 2 z=2
Hence the ion is He+.

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Illustration - 29 A hydrogen atom in state n = 6 makes two successive transitions and reaches the ground
state. In the first transition a photon of 1.13 eV is emitted.
(a) Find the energy of the photon emitted in the second transition.
(b) What is the value of n in the intermediate state ?
SOLUTION :
Use the energy diagram 1 1 1
E6 = 0.378 = R12 2 2
1 5
E5 = 0.544
E4 = 0.85 1 8R
E3 = 1.51 =
9
By looking at the energy gap vale of 1.13 eV.
9 9
We can see that intumidiate state is 3rd . = = 911.5 = 1024.4
8R 8
Hence the second transition will be form 3 1.

Illustration - 30 A beam of light having wavelengths distributed uniformly between 450 nm to 550 nm
passes through a sample of hydrogen gas. Which wavelength will have the least intensity in the transmitted
beam ?
SOLUTION :
hc
E1 = = 2.76 eV;
450
1242
E2 = = 2.26 eV Observing from the energy diagram
550

Clearly, the intermediate wavelength absorbed will be corresponding to

energy = 2.55 eV
Hence corresponding wavelength will be 486 nm.

Illustration - 31 A hydrogen atom in ground state absorbs a photon of ultraviolet radiation of wavelength
50 nm. Assuming that the entire photon energy is taken up by the electron, with what kinetic energy will the
electron be ejected ?
SOLUTION :
Illustration - 31the given situation corresponding to a photoelectric effect.
Visualise
1242
Energy corresponding to 50 nm wavelength = = 24.84 eV
50
The ionization energy of hydrogen atom in ground state is 13.6 eV which is equivalent to work function of
hydrogen atom.
Hence, K.E. of electron ejected = 24.84 13.6 = 11.24 eV .

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Atomic Structure Vidyamandir Classes

Electronic Configurations of the Elements

Element Z 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s 6p 6d 7s
H 1 1
He 2 2
Li 3 2 1
Be 4 2 2
B 5 2 2 1
C 6 2 2 2
N 7 2 2 3
O 8 2 2 4
F 9 2 2 5
Ne 10 2 2 6
Na 11 2 2 6 1
Mg 12 2 2 6 2
Al 13 2 2 6 2 1
Si 14 2 2 6 2 2
P 15 2 2 6 2 3
S 16 2 2 6 2 4
Cl 17 2 2 6 2 5
Ar 18 2 2 6 2 6
K 19 2 2 6 2 6 1
Ca 20 2 2 6 2 6 2
Sc 21 2 2 6 2 6 1 2
Ti 22 2 2 6 2 6 2 2
V 23 2 2 6 2 6 3 2
Cr* 24 2 2 6 2 6 5 1
Mn 25 2 2 6 2 6 5 2
Fe 26 2 2 6 2 6 6 2
Co 27 2 2 6 2 6 7 2
Ni 28 2 2 6 2 6 8 2
Cu* 29 2 2 6 2 6 10 1
Zn 30 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
Ga 31 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
Ge 32 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
As 33 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
Se 34 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
Br 35 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
Kr 36 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
Rb 37 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1
Sr 38 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2
Y 39 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 1 2
Zr 40 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 2 2
Nb* 41 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 4 1
Mo* 42 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 1
Tc 43 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 5 2
Ru* 44 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 7 1
Rh* 45 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 8 1
Pd* 46 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10
Ag* 47 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 1
Cd 48 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2
In 49 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 1
Sn 50 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 2
Sb 51 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 3
Te 52 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 4
I 53 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 5
Xe 54 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 2 6
*Elements with exceptional electronic configurations

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 Calculate the wavelength and wave number of the spectral line when an electron in H-atom
falls from higher energy state n = 3 to a state n = 2. Also determine the energy of a photon to ionize this atom
by removing the electron from 2nd Bohrs orbit. Compare it with the energy of photon required to ionize the
atom by removing the electron from the ground state.
SOLUTION :

First calculate the energy (E) between the Bohr

orbits n = 3 and n = 2 using :
1 1
E = 13.6 Z 2 2
2 eV

n1 n2
To ionize the atom from n = 2, the responsible
1 1
transition will be
E(3 2) = 13.6 (1)2 2 eV = 1.89 eV
2 32 n = 2 n = .
1 1
Now this energy difference is the energy of the E(2 ) = 13.6 12 2 2 eV
photon emitted. 2
= 3.4 eV
12400 To ionize the atom from ground state (n = 1),
E Photon eV
in the transition is 1 .
12400 1 1
6560.3 E = 13.6 eV 12 2 2 = 13.6 eV
1.89 1
1
and 1.52 106 m 1

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 Atomic Structure Vidyamandir Classes

Example - 2 A hydrogen atom in the ground state is hit by a photon exciting the electron to 3rd excited
state. The electron then drops to 2nd Bohr orbit. What is the frequency of radiation emitted and absorbed in
the process ?
SOLUTION :
18 1 1
Energy is absorbed when electron moves from E(1 4) 2.18 10 12 J
22 42
ground state (n = 1) to 3rd excited state (n = 4).
4.08 1019 J
First calculate the energy difference between This is the energy of the photon absorbed.
n = 1 and n = 4. Use : E Photon h 4.08 10 19 J to get :
Use : 14
6.16 10 Hz
1 1 Similarly, when electron jumps from n = 4 to
E (1 4) 2.18 1018 Z2 ; n = 2, energy is emitted and is given by the
2 2 ;
n
1 n 2 same relation.
Put n1 = 2 and n2 = 4 in the expression of E,
to get
1 1
E(4 2) 2.18 1018 12 J
22 42
4.08 1019 J
This is the energy of the photon emitted.

Use : E Photon h 4.08 10 19 J

Here Z = 1, n1 = 1, n2 = 4
6.16 1014 Hz

Example - 3 A hydrogen like ion, He+ (Z = 2) is exposed to electromagnetic waves of 256.4 . The
excited electron gives out induced radiations. Find the wavelength of the induced radiations, when electron
de-excites back to the ground state. R = 109677 cm1.
SOLUTION :
He+ ion contains only one electron, so Bohrs Substitute for = 256.4 = 256.4 108 cm,
model is applicable here. It absorbs a photon of
R = 109677, Z = 2 for He+ ion, n1 = 1
wavelength = 256.4 . Assume the electron to
be in ground state initially. Let it jumps to an ex- Now, Find n2 .
cited state n2. Use the relation, to find n2.
1
1 1 1 256.4 108
R Z2
n2 n2 1
1 2 1
109677 107 (2) 2
12 n 2
1 2

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 Vidyamandir Classes Atomic Structure

n2 = 3 (3 1) = 256.4 , (3 2) = 1641.3 ,
From n = 3, the electron can fall back to the (2 1) = 303.9
ground state in three possible ways (transitions) :
3 1, 3 2, 21
Hence three possible radiations are emitted. Find
the wavelengths corresponding to these transi-
tions.
The wavelength () for transition, 3 1 will be
same i.e., 256.4 . Find for 3 2 and 2 1
using the same relation.

Example - 4 Hydrogen gas when subjected to photo-dissociation, yields one normal atom and one atom
possessing 1.97 eV more energy than normal atom. The bond dissociation energy of hydrogen molecule into
normal atoms is 103 kcals mol1. Compute the wave length of effective photon for photo dissociation of
hydrogen molecule in the given case.
SOLUTION :
H2 H + H* The extra energy possessed by excited atom is
*
where H is normal H-atom and H is excited 1.97 eV
H-atom. So the energy required to dissociate H2 in 1.97 1.6 1019 J = 3.15 1019 J
this manner will be greater than the usual bond E (absorbed) = 7.175 1019 + 3.15 1019 J
energy of H2 molecule. = 1.03 1018 J
E(absorbed) = dissociation energy of Now calculate the wavelength of photon
H2 + extra energy of excited atom corresponding to this energy.
hc
Energy required to dissociate in normal manner E photon 1.03 1018 J

= 103 103 cal per mol (given) = 1930

103 103 4.18

= = 7. 17 1019 J /molecule
23
6 10

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 Atomic Structure Vidyamandir Classes

Example - 5 An electron in the first excited state of H-atom absorbs a photon and is further excited.
The de Broglie wavelength of the electron in this state is found to 13.4 . Find the wavelength of photon
absorbed by the electron in . Also find the longest and shortest wavelength emitted when this electron de-
excites back to ground state.
SOLUTION :
Note : The energy state n = 1 is known as Ground State Using the relation :
The energy state n = 2 is known as First Excited 1 1
State. E 13.6 Z2 eV
(2 4) n2 n2
The energy state n = 3 is known as Second 1 2
excited State and so on. = 2.55 eV [n1 = 2, n2 = 4, Z = 1]
The electron from n = 2 absorbs a photon and is 12400
E eV
further excited to a higher energy level (2 4) in

(let us say n). 12400

= 4863.1
The electron in this energy level (n) has a de 2.55
Broglie wavelength () = 13.4 .
The longest wavelength emitted when this
electron (from n = 4) falls back to the ground
state will corresponds to the minimum energy
transition.
The transition corresponding to minimum energy
will be 4 3.
h Note : The transition corresponding to maximum
e
m e ve energy will be 4 1.
Z hc
and ve 2.18 106 ms 1 E (Energy diff .) E Photon h
n
[ve is the velocity of e in nth Bohr orbit] 1
E or E vPhoton
h Photon
1
ve 2.18 106
m n Using the same relation :
6.626 1034 1
E (4 3) 13.6 Z2
1
2 eV
13.4 1010 9.11031 n1 n 22
1
2.18 106 [ n1 = 3, n2 = 4, Z = 2]
n
n=4 E(4 3) 0.66 eV

Now find the wavelength of the photon respon- 12400

E E Photon eV
sible for the excitation from n = 2 to n = 4 in

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 Vidyamandir Classes Atomic Structure

= 18752.8 12400
E (4 1) E Photon eV
in
Shortest wavelength : 4 1
973.2
1
2 1
E(4 1) 13.6 1 eV
12 42
= 12.75 eV

Example - 6 A single electron orbits around a stationary nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z is a constant and
e is the magnitude of electronic charge. It requires 47.2 eV to excite the electron from second Bohr orbit to the
third Bohr. Find :
(a) the value of Z
(b) the energy required to excite the electron from n = 3 to n = 4
(c) the wavelength of radiation required to remove electron from 2nd Bohrs orbit to infinity
(d) the kinetic energy, potential energy and angular momentum of the electron in the first orbit.
(e) the ionisation energy of above one electron system in eV.
SOLUTION :
Since the nucleus has a charge +Ze, the atomic DE = 16.53 eV
number of the ion is Z.
(c) The required transition is n1 = 2 n2 = by
(a) The transition is n1 = 2 n2 = 3 by absorbing absorbing a photon of energy E.
a photon of energy 47.2 eV. Find E by using the relation :
E = 47.2 eV
1 1
Using the relation : E 13.6 (5) 2
2
2 2
1 1
E 13.6 Z2 E = 85 eV
n 2 n 2 eV
1 2
Find of radiation corresponding to energy
1 1 85 eV.
47.2 13.6 Z2 Z = 5
2
2 32 12400
= 146.16
(b) The required transition is n1 = 3 n2 = 4 by 85
absorbing a photon of energy E.
(d) If energy of electron be En, then KE = En and
Find E by using the relation : PE = 2En
1 1
E 13.6 Z2 13.6 Z 2 13.6 52
n 2 n 2 eV En = 340 eV
1 2 n2 12
1 1 KE = (340 ev) = 340 eV
E 13.6(5)2 eV
32 42 PE = 2 (340 eV) = 680 eV

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 Atomic Structure Vidyamandir Classes

h (e) The ionisation energy (IE) is the energy required

Angular momentum () = n
2 to remove the electron from ground state to infin-
6.626 1034 ity. So the required transition is 1 .
1
2 The ionisation energy
= 1.05 1034 J-s
(IE) = E1 = 13.6 (Z)2 eV
Note : Angular momentum of e is also equal to
1E = +13.6 52 = 340 eV.
me v e r .

Example - 7 The hydrogen-like species Li 2 is in a spherically symmetric state S 1 with one radial node.
Upon absorbing light the ion undergoes transition to a state S 2 . The state S 2 has one radial node and its
energy to the ground state energy of the hydrogen atom.
(i) The state S 1 is : (A) 0.75 (B) 1.50
(A) 1s (B) 2s (C) 2.25 (D) 4.50
(C) 2p (D) 3s (iii) The orbital angular momentum quantum

(ii) Energy of the state S 1 in units of the number of the state S 2 is :

hydrogen atom ground state energy is: (A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 3
SOLUTION : (i)-(B) (ii)-(C) (iii)-(B)
Radial node = n 1
Energy of electron in S1
S 1 2 s (As it is spherically symmetric and has
one radial node) Z2 32
= 13.6 eV = 13.6 eV
S2 3 p (As its energy is equal to ground state n2 22
energy of H-atom hence, its principal quantum Energy of hydrogen in ground state
number is 3 and it contains only 1 radial node) = 13.6 eV
Hence its Orbital angular momentum quantum Energy of electron in S1 is 2.55 times the
number is 1. (1 3 1 1) energy hydrogen atom in ground state.

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 Vidyamandir Classes Atomic Structure

Example - 8 Find the energy required to excite 1.10 litre of hydrogen atoms gas at 1.0 atm and 298 K to
the first excited state of atomic hydrogen. The energy required for the dissociation of HH bond is 436
kJ/mol. Also calculate the minimum frequency of a photon to break this bond.
SOLUTION :
Let us, first find the number of moles of hydrogen The energy required to excite the given number
atoms. of Hatoms = 6.02 1022 1.635 1018 J
= 98.43 kJ
PV 1 1.10
n H2 0.045 So the total energy required
RT 0.0821 298
= 19.62 + 98.43 = 118.05 kJ
Thus the energy required to break 0.045 moles
Now the energy required to break a single
of H2 (HH bond) = 0.045 436 = 19.62 kJ.
Now calculate the energy needed to excite the 436 103
H-H bond =
Hatoms to first excited state i.e., to n = 2 (First 6.023 1023
excited state is referred to n = 2).
1 7.238 1019 J / atm
18 2 1
E 2.18 10 (1) J / atom
12 2
2 = Energy supplied by the photon
= 1.635 1018 J/atom 7.238 1019 = h = 6.626 1034 ()
No. of H atoms = (No. of H2 molecules) 2 = 1.09 1015 Hz.
= (0.05 6.02 1023) 2 = 6.02 1022
Example - 9 Estimate the difference in energy between 1st and 2nd Bohrs orbit for a Hatom. At what
minimum atomic number (Z), a transition from n = 2 to n = 1 energy level would result in the emission of
radiation with wavelength = 3.0 108 m ? Which Hydrogen atom like species this atomic number corre-
sponds to ? How much ionisation potential is needed to ionise this species ? (R = 1.097 107 m1)
SOLUTION :
The difference in energy is given by E : Hence the Hlike atom is He+ ion.

18 2 1 1 To ionise, He+ ion, ionisation energy (IE)

E 2.18 10 (1) 2 2 J / atom = (E1)
1 2
IE = (13.6 22) = + 54.4 eV
= 1.65 1018 J 1.65 1011 ergs 10.2 eV
The ionisation potential (IP) is the voltage dif-
8
For a Hlike atom, = 3.0 10 m. ference required to generate this much energy.
IE = qV = e (IP) = 54.4 eV
18 2 1 1
E 2.18 10 Z 2 2J IP (required) = 54.4 Volts
(2 1) 1 2
hc
E Photon Z=2

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 Atomic Structure Vidyamandir Classes

Example - 10 Math the following :

List 1 List 2
(A) Orbital angular momentum of the electron in a hydrogen-like (p) principal quantum number
atomic orbital
(B) A hydrogen-like one-electron wave function obeying (q) Azimuthal quantum number
Pauli principle
(C) Shape, size and orientation of hydrogen-like atomic orbitals (r) Magnetic quantum number
(D) Probability density of electron at the nucleus in (s) Electron spin quantum number
hydrogen-like atom
SOLUTION : [A-q, r] [B-p, q, r, s] [C-p, q, r]
[D-p, q]
(A) Orbital angular momentum of the (C) Shape, size and orientation of hydrogen-like
electron in a hydrogen like atomic atomic orbital are indicated by , n, m .
orbital depends on type of atomic
(D) Probability density of electron at the nucleus in
orbital ( ) and its orientation (m ) . hydrogen-like atom is obtained by the square
(B) As per Paulis principle, every electron
of the wave functions. ( 2 ) and it depends on
is unique, hence all four quantum
numbers are required. n and

Example - 11 A stationary He+ ion emits a photon corresponding to the first line (H) of Lyman series.
The photon thus emitted, strikes a Hatom in the ground state. Find the velocity of the photoelectron ejected
out of the hydrogen atom. The value of R = 1.097 107 m1.
SOLUTION :
1 2
The difference in energy (E) will be equal to the KE = Ei Wo = m e ve [Ei = Incident energy]
2
energy of the photon emitted.
First line in Lyman series corresponds to the 2 (Ei Wo )
ve
transition 2 1. me
1 1
E 2.18 1018 (2) 2
12 22
J / atom
ve
2 6.54 1018 2.18 1018
= 6.54 1018 J 9.11031
The photon of this much energy strikes a Hatom in ve = 3.09 106 m/s
the ground state. Note that the ionisation energy of
We can also calculate the wavelength of electron
Hatom is +2.18 1018 J. This will be the work
function of Hatom. Using the Einsteins photoelectric ejected out 2.36 1010 m 2.36
equation :
h 6.626 1034
e m 2.36
me ve 9.1 1031 3.09 106

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Example - 12 An electron in a hydrogen like species, makes a transition from nth Bohr orbit to next
outer Bohr ( n 1) . Find an approximate relation between the dependence of the frequency of the photon
absorbed as a function of n. Assume n to be a large value (n >> 1).
SOLUTION :
1 1
E (energy difference) h 2.18 1018 Z2 J
2 2
(n n 1) n (n 1)

2n 1
h 2.18 1018 Z2
2 2 J
n (n 1)
Since n >> 1 (given)

n + 1 ~ n ; 2n + 1 2n
2n
h 2.18 1018 Z2 J
n4
n 3
NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK
THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Number of photons (n) emitted in time t sec from a source of radiation with power P is given by :
Pt Pt
n
hc / hc
2. Einsteins photoelectric equation : Ei = KE + W0 or KE = h h0 = h ( 0) or
1
KE mv2 h 0
2
3. Bohr model of Atom : Bohrs Model is applicable only to one-electron atoms like : He+, Li2+, Be3+ apart
from H-atom.
6 Z
Velocity of an electron in nth Bohr orbit vn 2.18 10 ms 1
n
Radius of the nth Bohr orbit
n2 n2 n2
rn 0.529 1010 m 0.529 52.9 pm 1pm 1012 m
Z Z 2
Energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit
Z2 18 Z
2
E n 13.6 eV / atom 2.18 10 J / atom 1eV 1.6 1019 J
n 2 2
n
K.E.n = En and E.P.E.n = 2En

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4. When an electron jumps from an outer orbit (higher energy) n2 to an inner orbit (lower energy) n1, then the
energy is emitted in form of photons, which is given by :
1 1 1 1
E E n 2 E n1 2.18 1018 Z2 J/atom 13.6 Z2
n2 n2 n 2 n 2 eV/atom
1 2 1 2
If an electron is to be moved from lower energy state (n1) to a higher energy state (n2), the same amount of
energy ( E) is needed to absorb in the form of photons

h h
5. de-Broglie wavelength is given as : (p = linear momentum = mv)
p mv

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