_.- :\ |- -~ sr ---- r.

.1
r-1;-.
P
q_~.
: \i.
2-!
<:
=;=.
F? .
. i. 1:3 '3
5:). l(In * ii
1|1;: ., 5}? 13%| lj-S: r |

Metric and English Units Compared

Units Masses and Weights
l kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters (m) When you want
1 meter (m) : 100 eemimeteye to convert: multiply by: to find
1 centimeter (cm) 0.39 inch (in.) ounces 28.35 grams
1 mile (mi) 5,230 feet (ft) grams 0.035 ounces
1 foot (ft) - 12 inehee (jn_) pounds 0.45 kilograms
1 inch (in.) = 2.54 centimeters (cm) kilograms 2-205 Pounds
L square mile (miz) : 640 acres (a)
1 kilogram (kg) : 1,000 grams (g) Temperature
1 pound (lb) 7 16 Ounces (OZ) When you want to convert degrees Fahrenhe1t( F) to degrees Cel-
1 fathom = 6 feet (ft) sius (C), subtract 32 degrees and divide by 1 8
_ When you want to convert degrees Celsius ( C) to degrees Fahren-
Converslons heit (F), multiply by 1.8 and add 32 degrees
Length When you want to convert degrees Celsius ( C) to kelvins (K) delete
when you want the degree symbol and add 273.1/Vhen you want to convert kelvms (K)
to degrees Celsius (C), add the degree symbol and subtract 273
to convert: multiply by: to nd:
inches 2.54 centimeters
centimeters 0.39 inches F |c K
feet 0.30 meters 100 373
210
meters 3.28 feet
yards 0.91 meters 20

meters 1.09 yards 90 363

190
miles 1.61 kilometers
kilometers 0.62 miles 180
Q 80 353
170
Area
160
When you want 70 343

to convert: multiply by: to find: 150

square inches 6.45 square centimeters
140 60 333
square centimeters 0.15 square inches
square feet 0.09 square meters 130

square meters 10.76 square feet 50 323

120
square miles 2.59 square kilometers
square kilometers 0.39 square miles 110
40 313

Volume
100
a4a:++i4+4
90
When you want _ 30 303
to convert: multiply by: to find: 80
F
cubic inches 16.38 cubic centimeters
70
293
cubic centimeters 0.06 cubic inches 20

cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters 60

cubic meters 35.3 cubic feet 233

50 10
cubic miles 4.17 cubic kilometers
cubic kilometers 0.24 cubic miles 40

liters 1.06 quarts 0 273

30
liters 0.26 gallons
gallons 3.78 liters 20
-10 263
10

_r__20 253
Temperature _1 oi _
scales.
 r\ 1;, Q :~__- r- 3
5 \: >5 :1 Q 1 - :,r . \:R ;,.i
1 :.~-.1 =
-. 1 r-a Lit
;- -. /if

Earth's Grid System

A glance at any globe reveals a series of northsouth and east-west Longitude is defined as distance, measured in degrees, east and
lines that together make up Earths grid system, a universally used west of the zero or prime meridimz. Because all meridians are identical,
scheme for locating points on Earths surface. The northsouth lines the choice of a zero line is obviously arbitrary. However, the meridian
of the grid are called meridians and extend from pole to pole that passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, is
"Y : 1- . _). All are halves of great circles. A great circle is the largest universally accepted as the reference meridian. Thus, the longitude for
possible circle that may be drawn on a globe; if a globe were sliced any place on the globe is measured east or west from this line. Longi-
along one of these circles, it would be divided into two equal parts tude can vary from 0 degrees along the prime meridian to 180 degrees,
halfway around the globe.
called hemispheres. By viewing a globe or Figure B.l, you can see that
It is important to remember that when a location is specied, di-
meridians are spaced farthest apart at the equator and converge to- rections must be giventhat is, north or south latitude and east or west
ward the poles. The east-west lines (circles) of the grid are called longitude (*- 1;- . *1). If this is not done, more than one point on the
parallels. As their name implies, these circles are parallel to one an- globe is being designated. The only exceptions, of course, are places
other (Figure B.1). Whereas all meridians are parts of great circles, all that lie along the equator, the prime meridian, or the 180-degree merid-
parallels are not. In fact, only one parallel, the equator, is a great circle. ian. It should also be noted that while it is not incorrect to use fractions,
a degree of latitude or longitude is usually divided into minutes and
Latitude and Longitude seconds. A minute ( ) is 1/60th of a degree, and a second (. ) is
1/ 60th of a minute. When locating a place on a map, the degree of ex-
Latitude may be defined as distance, measured in degrees, north actness will depend on the scale of the map. When using a small-scale
and south of the equator. Parallels are used to show latitude. Be- world map or globe, it may be difficult to estimate latitude and longi-
cause all points that lie along the same parallel are an identical dis- tude to the nearest whole degree or two. On the other hand, when a
tance from the equator, they all have the same latitude designation. large-scale map of an area is used, it is often possible to estimate lati-
The latitude of the equator is 0 degrees, whereas the north and tude and longitude to the nearest minute or second.
south poles lie 90 degrees N and 90 degrees S, respectively.
Distance Measurement
The length of a degree of longitude depends on where the mea-
.=L Earth's grid system.
surement is taken. Along the equator, which is a great circle, a de-
North Pole gree of east-west distance is equal to approximately 111 kilometers
90N (69 miles). This figure is found by dividing Earths circumference-
Merdans / WM 40,075 kilometers (24,900 miles)by 360. However, with an in-
0: 0 O 2
crease in latitude, the parallels become smaller, and the length of a
degree of longitude diminishes (see Table B.'l). Thus, at about latitude
60 degrees N and S, a degree of longitude has a value equal to about
/A/<\ 1 SW, half of what it was at the equator.
As all meridians are halves of great circles, a degree of latitude is
QM 7{ l __. 15|\1 equal to about 111 kilometers (69 miles), just as a degree of longitude
/ West Efst O along the equator is. However, Earth is not a perfect sphere but is
mer'd'an slightly attened at the poles and bulges slightly at the equator. Be-
Equator . - - - . - . . - .-0
75 60 45 30 15 0 15 30 45 60 75 cause of this, there are small differences in the length of a degree of
latitude.
Pr7'me ~ 15"s Determining the shortest distance between two points on a globe
\ can be done easily and fairly accurately using the globe-and-string
xii.
\/ method. It should be noted here that the arc of a great circle is the short-

7<>/\ \
wt// -4 est distance between two points on a sphere. To determine the great
__H_
\HLHZ .\\ circle distance (as well as observe the great circle route) between two
places, stretch a piece of string between the locations in question. Then,
Parallelsk A C 458 measure the length of the string along the equator (since it is a great cir-
A 75S cle with degrees marked on it) to determine the number of degrees be-
90S tween the two points. To calculate the distance in kilometers or miles,
South Pole simply multiply the number of degrees by 1 11 or 69, respectively.

710
 Appendix B: Earths Grid System 71 1

West - 559%-j
0 0
90 75 60 45 30 15 C-;_ -1. U1 30 45 60 75 90905
90
75 7
I 1 _ I
, _ I 1 1 l
1 -
1 75"
1 - - 1 60
//// 1 $9-. .
/// , , \A
1- 5- 5 45

./111:. 11\
A
cbca
ON
'~l l-I

15 T1 - - 15
.E ; . .
l

QC 1 1 er'7d'a Equator ,
1' 1 . 5 1 0
90 7560 45 30 1 30 45 60 75
1 1 1

K ////1
Prmem 15
1 1 15

B 1 ,5 65C3 nos
O

l-I1

\\\ . / / , , , 45
\\\\ \_ l
Q ///Q/4 75 7
,
1 I 1 1 1
1.
1 5 1
. 1 1 1 1 (750
90 90
' 1 1. '1 J D 1 Locating places using the grid system. For both diagrams: Point A is latitude 30 degrees N, longitude 60 degrees E; Point B is
latitude 30 degrees S, longitude 30 degrees W; point C is latitude 0 degrees, longitude 90 degrees W; Point D is latitude 45 degrees N, longitude
75 degrees W; Point E is approximately latitude 10 degrees N, longitude 25 degrees W.

TABLE B31 Longitude as Distance

1Fr?9"h_19?l 1:9_19i"'?1 1 11 1111L9"9Fh19*11413-995'? 1 1 11 1 1F8"1!'*l1111f111':1191"F1!F1 -1 1

Latitude km miles Latitude km miles Latitude km miles
.825 3 . 4
0 111.367 69.172 30 96.528 59.955 60 55 4 67
0-) 111.349 69.161 31 95.5 45 59 . 345 61 54 . 131 33 . 622

7 _ 011.296 69.129 32 94.533777 756.716 762 7 _ _g 52.4g2 7 _ 62.560 _

111.214 69.077 33 7 77 9371423 7 576.0707 637 7 50.696 31.466
11l.096g 0 69.004 gig 34 0 g 92% jg 514071, ff g *48.954W *0 30g.406g
_ 110.945 g 35 0 091.327 56 .7 25 65 .
47196 29 . 314
O')CJ"l>~CQL\J 110.760 68.795 7 7 367 77 90.203 56.027 66 _ g__W 45.426 g__26.2l5 _
110.543 68.660 37 89.051 55.311 67 43.639 27.105
_ 110.290 68.503 38
g g 87.871 g 68 g g 41.841 *0 25.988
4 862
(.OOO\'l L g f 110.003 if ff 68.325 gig Ii f *0 @.829g* *0 69* 0.02L i 2 .
Q 109.666 66.1267 40 85.431 53.063 70 38.204 23.729
11 0 109.333 67.909 41 64.171 52.260 71 N _ 36.366 22.569 -
12 108.949 67.670 42 62666 _ 51.462 72 _ 34.520 U 21.441
13 Z __ l06.530 67.410 43 61.575 50.666 73 32.662 20.267
49.839 74 30.793 19.126
714 106.079 7 67.130 44 80.241

15 107.596 66.830 45 78.880 48;%34 g 0 75 i g 28;914 if 17.359 g

16 107.7079 766.5097 46 77.4977 48.135 76 27.029 16.788

17 106.530 0 66.168 47 76.089 47.260 77 25.134 15.611

16 7 105.949 65.807 46 74.659 46.372 78 23.229 g 14.428

19 105.337 _ 7765.427 E 7 g 7 77
g 73.203 77 45.4667 i 77g 797if 77g 77 21.320 g 13.242 g g

20 104.692 65.026 50 71.727 44.551 80 19.402 12.051

21 104.014 64.605 51 70.228 43.620 81 17.480 10.857

22 103.306 64.165 W 52 ff in 68.318 ff 42.676g f 82* jg jg 4015.551 kg W9.659 g

23 77 7 402.5657 7 63.705 53 if 67.168 41.719 83 13.617 *8.458WA

24 101.7957 7 63.27277 77 54 65.604 4707.746 77 776477 77 1.66717 7 77.7255

25 100.994 62.729 77 55 64.022 39.765 85 9.739 6.049

26 100.160 62.211 56 f 62.420 0 g 38.770) if 86 f W g 4.842 f

27 99.297 617.675 7 57 60.796 37.763_ g 87 _ pi 5.842 *3.63i 0

26 7 7 77 96.4057 7 611.7121 7 56 59.159 36.745 88 3.899 2.422

29 97.481 60.547 59 57.501 35.715 89 1.950 1.211

30 96.528 59.955 60 55.625 34.674 90 0.000 0.000

 1 ??EN@X

Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables*

TABLE 0.1 Relative Humidity (Percent)
DIV Depression of Wet-Bulb Temperature
bulb (C) (Dry-Bulb Temperature Minus Wet Bulb of the Wet Bulb)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
1-491 28

. _
40
1
48 770
14 55 11

-12- 1
-10
61
66
4 i v or v v I v1
391 01 1 11 11 1 11 1
1 f11 11411113111 1
71 1 177 111 77 1
,wy6 73 _49 Z9 0 1 1 11 11 1 11 1 1 11 11 1 1 11 1111 111 11
-4 77 54 3 11
-2 79 58 3 411 777 777 77 7 11
37775 775 63 45 *28 *11 HT i i i ff if W i ff f fii
2 83
6?11151111?5 11j411 1911 11111 111 1111 111111 11111 1111111 11111 11111 111111 111111 11111 _
4 85 70 56 42 27 14
4,9, 11
6 86 72 5 46 36 _22 1111
10 01111 Q6;
1 Q1 111 1111 111 111 111 1 111 11 11 1
8 87 54 197 51 69__29 111511 $111 9'12, __ m 11_ 1m 1*1 _m
10 88 76 65 54 43 as 24 13 4 0'
31> 4444 44444 4444 44444 444~ 44444 44444 4
12 88 78 67 157 46* 36 28 19 19 2 11 64b 16 1 1 11 111 1111 1111 1111 111
1 1111 89 79 69
1?? 50 y 41W** 33 25 11 9___ 1 __W* ___y *___ _ y ___W* ____ ____ A
Dr(AiTeym-pBerulratu)bre
16 90 80 77 62 64 45 37 29 21 14 7 1 1 1

18 21 1811 14 y 64 56 467 40 39 26 119 14 _1 6_1 1 0 1 _1_ __1 771 711 1

720 91 1E1 741 66458 51 44 36 30 123 17 11* 5 finf *_* ff ifi i

.1 1
92 83 75 68 60 777
53 46 40 33 27 21 15 10 4 0* f iiiif pi j
24 92 84 76 Q9 62 55 1 49 1%? 36? 3O _26 1291 14111 9 111% 191
92 85 7 70
m 261 L
64 57
1151 155 39 34 28 11E 18* 1349y i*5hi
. _1
93 86 78 71 65 59 53 45 42 36 31 26 21 17 12 8 4 iiiiii liiiif iii %
39 93 86 79 72 66 61* 55 fy 49 y 44 39 34 29 _26 2o___ 16 r_ 12 1 8 4 _ 11 1 _ 117

32 93 86 80 73*A68 11 111 51*_!46 41 36 32 27 22 19 14 11 8 4

34 93 86 81 74 69 63 58 52 48 43 66 77764 7790 26 22 18
36 94 87 6 74 69_ 64 n59 64 50 44 14 391 33 11138 1 ?4 21 17 13 10 7 4
38 111 94 111 97 7 1132 Z? 70 66 60 55 51 46 42 38 34 30 26
251 311}? 131110 7 1 511
40 94 89 82 76 717776777761 77677 52 48 44 40 36 33 29 25* 22 19 K 16 13 10 vyh
To determine the relative humidity, find the air (dry-bulb) temperature on the vertical axis (far left) and the depression of the wet bulb on the horizontal axis (top). Where the two meet, the
relative humidity is found. For example, when the dry-bulb temperature is 20 C and a wet-bulb temperature is 14 C, then the depression of the wet bulb is 6 C (20 C 14 C). From Table C.1,
the relative humidity is 51 percent and from Table C.2, the dew point is 10 C.

712
 j Appendix C: Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables 7'13

TABLE (3.2 Dew-point Temperature (C)

Dr?
bulb (C) (Dry-Bulb Temperature Minus Wet-Bulb Temperature = Depression of the Wet Bulb)
19 20 21 22
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

_2O __ 33

-13 -26
"1511 "211 11 11 1 11 1 11 11 11 1 1 11 1 11
-14 -21 -36 7 7
-12 -16 -23
-10 -14 -22
-3 -12 -19 -29 _
-6 -10 -14 -22

1?'"1 11"17 "11121"171"29 1 11 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 11 1 11 11 11

-2 -5 -8 -13 -20
0 -3 -6 -9 -15 -24
2 -1 -3 -6 -11 -17
7 717 -1 77 -4 777
-7 77
-11 -19 7 7 66 77 77777 777 7 77 77777 77 7 77 7
(AiTDremype-rBartuulr)eb
6 4 1 -1 -11-1 -111 -111
1 1 5'41.0,, 1 11 1
6 6 3 1 2 -6 -9 -14 '1: I,
" 10 """" 6 """"6 """
4 1"" """ """ """ """"Q(""" "" " 1"" """ """ "" """ """ """ "
11 2
"11" 6 "1"11"
9 14 19 1:19,9 1
151 1511 511 5 *1 1111 "2 "5 T915115 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
112 11151 E11 91115 111 111 21 511115117 11 111 111 11 11 11 1 11 11 1
16 1413119v)41 -1 -6 -10 -17
18 i16 15 13 11*) 9 i 47 4 2 -2y 6 10 - 19 i i
20W* 19 %17 15 414 12*) 10 if? **m4 p52 -2* -5* -10 -19 ii ii) if f ii ii

22 21 19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 3 -1-5 -10 - 19
24 23 21 20 19 16 11 12 10 8 6 2 -1 -5 -10 -18

1126 12151 1251 2

1 11 __13
20 17 15* 13m* 11* 9 _i6 i3 )0* p41 9* 18) 4* phi) f i f

28 Z7 25 2 22 27 19 1'7 16 14 11 9 7 4 1 -3 -9 16

30 29 27 26 24 23 21 19 18 16 14 12 10 8 5 1 -2 -8 -15

32* 31*i 29 *28 ~27 25* 24* 22 *%21 19 H17 15* 13* 11n*i 8 *5 )W2 i:2i -7* 14* i i iif
34 _33 31 30_ 29 2'7 26 24 23 21 20 _16 16 14 12* 9 6 3 -1 -6 -12 -29
36 35 33 32 31 29 11 27 25W 24) 22 i20 19 17 15 13 10 7 4 0 -4* -10

38 37 35 3 33 7 32 30 1125 35 Z51 25*U23 21 19 117 15 13 11 8 5 1 -3

40 39 37 36 35 34 32 31 30 23 27 25 11 22 20 18 1511 14 12 9 6 2 -2
 Stellar Properties
Measuring Distances have such small parallax shifts that accurate measurements are not
to the Closest Stars possible. Fortunately, other methods have been developed to estimate
distances to more distant stars. In addition, the Hubble Space Tele-
Measuring the distance to stars is difficult. Nevertheless, as-
scope, which is not hindered by Earth's light-distorting atmosphere,
tronomers have developed some direct as well as indirect methods
has obtained accurate parallax distances for many more stars.
to measure stellar distances. One simple measurement, called
stellar parallax, is effective in determining the distances to only the
closest stars. Stellar Brightness
Stellar parallax is the slight back-and-forth shift of the apparent po- The oldest means of classifying stars is based on their brightness,
sition of a nearby star due to the orbital motion of Earth around the also called luminosity or magnitude. Three factors control the
Sun. The principle of parallax is easy to visualize. Close one eye, and
brightness of a star as seen from Earth: how large it is, how lzotit is,
with your index finger in a vertical position, use your open eye to align
and its distance from Earth. The stars in the night sky come in a
your nger with some distant object. Without moving your finger, view
the object with your other eye and notice that its position appears to grand assortment of sizes, temperatures, and distances, so their ap-
have changed. Now repeat the exercise holding your nger farther away, parent brightness varies widely.
and notice that the farther away you hold your finger, the less its posi-
tion seems to shift. In principle, this method of measuring stellar dis- Apparent Magnitude
tances is elementary and was practiced by ancient Greek astronomers. Stars have been classified according to their apparent brightness
Modern cosmologists determine parallax by photographing a since at least the second century B.C., when Hipparchus placed
nearby star against the background of distant stars. Then, when Earth
about 850 of them into six categories based on his ability to see dif-
has moved halfway around its orbit six months later, the same star is
ferences in brightness. Because he could only reliably see six dif-
photographed again. Vilhen these two photographs are compared, the
position of the nearby star appears to have shifted with respect to the ferent brightness levels, he created six categories. These categories
background stars. 1:-.1 ? illustrates this shift and the parallax angle were later called magnitudes, with first magnitude being the bright-
is determined from it. The nearest stars have the largest parallax an- est and sixth magnitude the dimmest. Because some stars may ap-
gles, whereas those of distant stars are much too small to measure. pear dimmer than others only because they are farther away, a stars
In practice, conducting parallax measurements are quite complex brightness, as it appears when viewed from Barth, is called its
because of the miniscule angles being measured. The process is fur- apparent magnitude. With the invention of the telescope, many
ther complicated because both the Sun and the star being measured are stars fainter than the sixth magnitude were discovered.
moving relative to each other. The rst accurate stellar parallax was not In the mid-1800s, a method was developed to standardize the mag-
determined until 1838. Even today, parallax angles for only a few thou- nitude scale. An absolute comparison was made between the light com-
sand of the nearest stars are known with certaintynearly all others ing from stars of the first magnitude and those of the sixth magnitude.

1111 Geometry of stellar parallax. The parallax angle shown here is enormously exaggerated to illustrate the
principle. Because distances to even the nearest stars are thousands of times greater than the EarthSun distance, the
triangles that astronomers work with are extremely long and narrow, making the angles that are measured very small.

7\\OriginaI
photo

Photo taken 6 months later

714
 Appendix D: Stellar Properties 715

TABLE 13.1 Ratios of Star Brightness years. For example, if the Sun, which has an apparent magnitude of
-26.7, was located 32.6 light-years from Earth, it would have an absolute
Difference in Magnitude Brightness Ratio magnitude of about +5. Thus, stars with absolute magnitudes greater
(]_5 1.6: 1 than 5 (smaller numerical value) are intrinsically brighter than the Sun,
but appear much dimmer because of their distance from Earth.
f g 1 jg _ g_ if W 2.521
Table D.2 lists the absolute and apparent magnitudes of some stars as
2 6.311 well as their distances from Earth. Most stars have an absolute magni-
g 3*" pg g i i g g 16:1 tude between -5 [very bright) and l5 (very dim). The Sun is near the
midpoint of this range.
11 114 11 1 1 11 111 1 "1011 1
5 100:1
__10 __ 10,0g0;g1 Stellar Color and Temperature
20 100,000,000:1 The next time you are outside on a clear night, look carefully at the
stars and note their colors (1 : '13-). Because human eyes do
*Calculations: 2.512 >< 2.512 >< 2.512 >< 2.512 >< 2.512 or 2.512 raised to the fifth power, equals
100. not respond well to color in low-intensity light (when it is very dark,
we only see in black and white), we tend to look at the brightest
stars. Some that are quite colorful can be found in the constella-
It was determined that a first-magnitude star was about 100 times tion Orion. Of the two brightest stars in Orion, Rigel (B Orionis) ap-
brighter than a sixth-magnitude star. On the scale that was devised,
pears blue, whereas Betelgeuse [a Orionis) is definitely red.
any two stars that differ by ve magnitudes have a ratio in brightness of Very hot stars with surface temperatures above 30,000 K emit most
I00 to l. Hence, a third-magnitude star is I00 times brighter than an of their energy in the form of short-wavelength light and therefore ap-
eighth-magnitude star. It follows, then, that the brightness ratio of two pear blue. On the other hand, cooler red stars, with surface tempera-
stars differing by only one magnitude is about 2.5.7 A star of the first tures generally less than 3,000 K, emit most of their energy as
magnitude is about 2.5 times brighter than a star of the second mag- longer-wavelength red light. Stars, such as the Sun, with surface tem-
nitude. Table D.1 shows how differences in magnitude correspond to peratures between 5,000 and 6,000 K, appear yellow. Because color is
brightness ratios. primarily a manifestation of a star's surface temperature, this charac-
Because some celestial bodies are brighter than first-magnitude teristic provides astronomers with useful information. As you will see,
stars, zero and negative magnitudes were introduced. On this scale, combining temperature data with stellar magnitude tells us a great deal
the Sun has an apparent magnitude of -26.7. At its brightest, Venus about the size and mass of stars.
has a magnitude of -4.3. At the other end of the scale, the Hubble
Space Telescope can view stars with an apparent magnitude of 30,
more than one billion times dimmer than stars that are visible to the Binary Stars and Stellar Mass
unaided eye. One of the night skys best-known constellations, the Big Dipper,
appears to consist of seven stars. But those with good eyesight can
Absolute Magnitude recognize that the second star in the handle is actually two stars.
Apparent magnitudes were good approximations of the true bright- In the early 19th century, careful examination of numerous star
ness of stars when astronomers thought that the universe was very pairs by William Herschel showed that many stars found in pairs
small-containing no more than a few thousand stars that were all actually orbit one another. In such cases, the two stars are in fact
at very similar distances from Earth. However, we now know that the united by their mutual gravitation. These pairs, in which the mem-
universe is unimaginably large and contains innumerable stars at bers are far enough apart to be telescopically identied as two stars,
wildly varying distances. Since astronomers are interested in the are called visual binaries (binaries = double). The idea of one star
true brightness of stars, they devised a measure called absolute orbiting another may seem unusual, but many stars in the universe
magnitude. exist in pairs or multiples.
Stars of the same apparent magnitude usually do not have the same Binary stars can be used to determine the star property most diffi-
brightness because their distances from us are not equal. Astronomers cult to calculateits mass. The mass of a body can be established if it
correct for distance by determining what brightness (magnitude) the is gravitationally attached to a partner. Binary stars orbit each other
stars would have if they were at a standard distance-about 32.6 light- around a common point called the center ofmass (1;-" 11: Y ). For stars
of equal mass, the center of mass lies exactly halfway between them.
*The more negative, the brighter; the more positive, the dimmer. When one star is more massive than its partner, their common center

TABLE 13.2 Distance, Apparent Magnitude, and Absolute Magnitude of Some Stars
Name Distance (light-years) Apparent Magnitude* Absolute Magnitude*
Sun NA -26.7 5.0
Alpha Centauri 4.27 0.0 4.4

Sirius 8 .70 -1.4 1.5

Arcturus 36 -0.1 -0.3

Betelgeuse 520 0.8 -5.5

Deneb 1600 1.3 -6.9 7 7

 Time-lapse photograph of stars in the constellation
Orion. These star trails show some of the various star colors. It is
important to note that the human eye sees color somewhat
differently than photographic film. (Courtesy of National Optical Astronomy
Observatories)

will be located closer to the more massive one. Thus, if the sizes of their
orbits can be observed, their individual masses can be determined.
You can experience this relationship on a seesaw by trying to balance
a person who has a much greater (or smaller) mass.
For illustration, when one star has an orbit half the size (radius) of
its companion, it is twice as massive as its companion. If their com- Binary stars orbit each other around their common
center of mass A For stars of equal mass the center of mass lies
bined masses are equal to three solar masses, then the larger will be exactly halfway between them B If one star IS twice as massive as
twice as massive as the Sun, and the smaller will have a mass equal to its companion it is twice as close to their common center of mass
that of the Sun. Most stars have a mass that falls in a range between Therefore, more massive stars have proportionately smaller orbits
1/ l0 and 50 times the mass of the Sun. than their less massive companions

716
 Glossary

Aa flow A type of lava ow that has a jagged, Air pollutants Airborne particles and gases Arctic (A) air mass A bitterly cold air mass that
blo cky surface. that occur in concentrations that endanger the forms over the frozen Arctic Ocean.
Abrasion The grinding and scraping of a rock health and well-being of organisms or disrupt Arte A narrow knifelike ridge separating two
surface by the friction and imp act of rock particles the orderly functioning of the environment. adjacent glaciated valleys.
carried by water, wind, or ice. Air pressure The force exerted by the weight of Arid See Desert.
a column of air above a given point. Arid climate See Dry climate.
Absolute humidity The weight of water vapor
in a given volume of air (usually expressed in Albedo The reectivity of a substance, usually Arkose A feldspar-rich sandstone.
GRAMS/M3). expressed as a percentage of the incident radia-
Artesian Well A well in which the water rises
tion reected.
Absolute instability Air that has a lapse rate above the level where it was initially encountered.
greater than the dry adiabatic rate. Alluvial fan A fan-shaped deposit of sediment
Asteroid belt The region in which most aster-
formed when a sti'eams slope is abruptly reduced.
Absolute magnitude The apparent brightness oids orbit the Sun between Mars and Iupiter.
ofa star ifit were viewed from a distance of 10 Alluvium Unconsolidated sediment deposited
Asteroids Thousands of small planetlike bodies,
parsecs (32.6 light-years). Used to compare the by a stream.
ranging in size from a few hundred kilometers to
true brightness of stars. Alpine glacier A glacier confined to a I110l.1I1 less than a kilometer, whose orbits lie mainly
Absolute stability Air with a lapse rate less tain valley, which in most instances had previ- between those of Mars and Jupiter.
than the wet adiabatic rate. ously been a stream valley.
Asthenosphere A subdivision of the mantle sit-
Absorption spectrum A continuous spectrum Altitude (of the Sun) The angle of the Sun uated below the lithosphere. This zone of weak
with dark lines superimposed. above the horizon. material exists below a depth of about 100 kilo-
Abyssal plain Very level area of the deep-ocean
Andean-type plate margin Plate boundaries meters and in some regions extends as deep as
that generate continental volcanic arcs. 700 kilometers. The rock within this zone is easily
oor, usually lying at the foot of the continental rise.
Andesitic composition See Intermediate com- deformed.
Abyssal zone A sub division of the benthic zone
position. Astronomical theory A theory of climatic
characterized by extremely high pressures, low
temperatures, low oxygen, few nutrients, and no Anemometer An instrument used to determine change first developed by Yugoslavian
sunlight. wind speed. astronomer Milutin Milankovitch. It is based on
Aneroid barometer An instrument for measuring changes in the shape of Earths orbit, variations in
Accretionary wedge A large wedge-shaped the obliquity of Earth's axis, and the wobbling of
mass of sediment that accumulates in subduction air pressure that consists of evacuated metal cham-
bers very sensitive to variations in air pressure. Eai'ths axis.
zones. Here, sediment is scraped from the sub-
ducting oceanic plate and accreted to the overrid- Angle of repose The steepest angle at which Astronomical unit (AU) Average distance from
ing crustal block. loose material remains stationary without sliding 661111 to the Sun; 1.5 >< 105 km, or 93 >< 105 miles.
Acid precipitation Rain or snow with a pH downslope. Astronomy The scientific study of the universe;
value that is less than the pH of uiipolluted pre- Angular unconformity An unconformity in it includes the observation and interpretation of
cipitation. which the strata below dip at an angle different celestial bodies and phenomena.
from that of the beds above. Atmosphere The gaseous portion of a planet; the
Active continental margin Usually narrow
Annual mean temperature An average of the planets envelope of air. One of the traditional subdi-
and consisting of highly deformed sediments.
12 monthly temperature means. visions of Earths physical environment.
They occur where oceanic lithosphere is being
subducted beneath the margin of a continent. Annual temperature range The difference Atoll A continuous or broken ring of coral reef
between the highest and lowest monthly temper- surrounding a central lagoon.
Adiabatic temperature change Cooling or
warming of air caused when air is allowed to ature means. Atom The smallest particle that exists as an ele-
expand or is compressed, not because heat is Anthracite A hard, metamorphic form of coal nient.
added or subtracted. that burns clean and hot. Atomic number The number of protons in the
Advection Horizontal convective motion, such Anticline A fold in sedimentary strata resem- nucleus of an atom.
as wind. bling an arch. Atomic Weight The average of the atomic
Advection fog A fog formed when warm, moist Anticyclone A high-pressure center character- masses of isotopes for a given element.
air is blown over a cool surface. ized by a clockwise ow of air in the Northern Aurora A bright display of ever-changing light
Aerosols Tiny solid and liquid particles sus- Hemisphere. caused by solar radiation interacting with the
pended in the atmosphere. Aphelion The place in the orbit of a planet upper atmosphere in the region ofthe poles.
Aftershocks Smaller earthquakes that follow where the planet is farthest from the Sun. Autumnal equinox The equinox that occurs on
the main earthquake. Aphotic Zone That portion of the ocean where September 21-23 in the Northern Hemisphere
there is no sunlight. and on March 21-22 in the Southern Hemisphere.
Air A mixture of many discrete gases, of which
Apparent magnitude The brightness of a star Axial precession A slow motion of Earths axis
nitrogen and oxygen are most abundant, in which
when viewed from Earth. that traces out a cone over a period of 26,000 years.
varying quantities of tiny solid and liquid particles
are suspended. Aquifer Rock or soil through which groundwa- Backshore The inner portion of the shore, lying
ter moves easily. landward of the high-tide shoreline. It is usually
Air mass A large body of air that is characterized
Aquitard Impermeable beds that hinder or pre- dry, being affected by waves only during storms.
by a sameness of temperature and humidity.
vent groundwater movement. Backswamp A poorly drained area on a ood-
Air-mass weather The conditions experienced
Archean eon The second eon of Precambrian plain that results when natural levees are present.
in an area as an air mass passes over it. Because
air masses are large and fairly homogenous, air- time, following the Hadean and preceding the Banded iron formations A nely layered iron
mass weather will be fairly constant and may last Proterozoic. It extends between 3.8 billion and 2.5 and silica-rich (chert) layer deposited mainly dur-
for several days. billion years before the present. ing the Precambrian. 7'17
 718 Glossary

Bar Common term for sand and gravel deposits Binary stars Two stars revolving around a com- Cavern A naturally formed underground cham-
in a stream channel. mon center of mass under their mutual gravita- ber or series of chambers most commonly pro-
Barchan dune A solitary sand dune shaped like tional attraction. duced by solution activity in limestone.
a crescent with its tips pointing downward. Biogenous sediment Seaoor sediments con- Celestial sphere An imaginary hollow sphere
Barchanoid dune Dunes forming scalloped sisting of material of marine-organic origin. upon which the ancients believed the stars were
rows of sand oriented at right angles to the wind. Biomass The total mass of a dened organism hung and carried around Earth.
This form is intermediate between isolated or group of organisms in a particular area or Cenozoic era A span on the geologic time scale
barchans and extensive waves of transverse ecosystem. beginning about 65 million years ago following
dunes Biosphere The totality of life on Earth; the parts the Mesozoic era.
Barograph A recording barometer". of the solid Earth, hydrosphere, and atmosphere Cepheid variable A star whose brightness
Barometer An instrument that measures atmos- in which living organisms can be found. varies periodically because it expands and con-
pheric pressure. Bituminous The most common form of coal, tracts. A type of pulsating star.
Barometric tendency See Pressure tendency. often called soft, black coal. Chemical bond A strong attractive force that
Barred spiral galaxy A galaxy having straight Black dwarf A final state of evolution for a star, exists between atoms in a substance. It involves
arms extending from its nucleus. in which all of its energy sources are exhausted the transfer or sharing of electrons that allows
Barrier island A low, elongate ridge of sand that and it no longer emits radiation. each atom to attain a full valence shell.
parallels the coast. Black hole A massive star that has collapsed to Chemical compound A substance formed by
Basalt A ne-grained igneous rock of inafic such a small volume that its gravity prevents the the chemical combination of two or more ele-
composition. escape of all radiation. ments in denite proportions and usually having
Basaltic composition A compositional group Blowout (deation hollow) A depression properties different from those of its constituent
of igneous rocks indicating that the rock contains excavated by the wind in easily eroded deposits. elements.
substantial dark silicate minerals and calcium- Bode's law A sequence of numbers that approx- Chemical sedimentary rock Sedimentaiy
rich plagioclase feldspar. irnates the mean distances of the planets from the rock consisting of material that was precipitated
Base level The level below which a stream can- Sun. from water by either inorganic or organic means.
not erode. Body waves Seismic waves that travel through Chemical weathering The processes by which
Basin A circular downfolded structure. Earths interior. the internal structure of a mineral is altered by the
Bowen's reaction series A concept proposed removal and/or addition of elements.
Batholith A large mass of igneous rock that
formed when magma was emplaced at depth, by N. L. Bowen that illustrates the relationships Chinook A wind blowing down the lee-ward
crystallized, and subsequently exposed by between magma and the minerals crystallizing side of a mountain and warming by compression.
erosion. from it during the formation of igneous rocks. Chromatic aberration The property of a lens
Bathymetry The measurement of ocean depths Braided stream A stream consisting of numer- whereby light of different colors is focused at dif-
and the charting of the shape or topography of the ous intertwining channels. ferent places.
ocean oor. Breakwater A structure protecting a nearshore Chromosphere The rst layer of the solar
Baymouth bar A sandbar that completely area from breaking waves. aunosphere found directly above the photosphere.
crosses a bay, sealing it off from the open ocean. Breccia A sedimentary rock composed of angu- Cinder cone A rather small volcano built pri-
Beach An accumulation of sediment found lar fragments that were lithified. marily of pyroclastics ejected from a single vent.
along the landward margin of the ocean or a lake. Bright-line spectrum The bright lines produced Circle of illumination The great circle that
Beach drift The transport of sediment in a by an incandescent gas under low pressure. separates daylight from darkness.
zigzag pattern along a beach caused by the Bright nebula A cloud of glowing gas excited by Cirque An amphitheater-shaped basin at the
iiprush of water from obliquely breaking waves. ultraviolet radiation from hot stars. head of a glaciated valley produced by frost wedg-
Beach face The wet, sloping surface that Brittle deformation Deformation that involves ing and plucking.
extends from the berm to the shoreline. the fracturing of rock. Associated with rocks near Cirrus One of three basic cloud forms; also one
Beach nourishment The process by which the surface. of the three high cloud types. They are thin, deli-
large quantities of sand are added to the beach Cactolith A quasi-horizontal chonolith com- cate ice-crystal clouds often appearing as veil-like
system to offset losses caused by wave erosion. posed of ariastomosing ductoliths, whose distal patches or thin, wispy bers.
Bed load Sediment that is carried by a stream ends curl like a harpolith, thin like a sphenolith, Clastic rock A sedimentary rock made of bro-
along the bottom of its channel. or bulge discordantly like an akinolith or eth- ken fragments of preexisting rock.
Benioff zone Zone of inclined seismic activity molith. Cleavage The tendency of a mineral to break
that extends from a trench downward into the Caldera A large depression typically caused by along planes of weak bonding.
asthenosphere. collapse or ejection of the summit area of a volcano.
Climate A description of aggregate weather con-
Benthic zone The marine life zone that Calorie The amount of heat required to raise the ditions; the sum of all statistical weather informa-
includes any seabottorn surface regardless of its temperature of one gram of water 1 C. tion that helps describe a place or region.
distance from shore. Calving Wastage of a glacier that occurs when Climate-feedback mechanism Because the
Benthos The forms of marine life that live on or large pieces of ice break off into water. atmosphere is a complex interactive physical sys-
in the ocean bottom. Capacity The total amount of sediment a tem, several different possible outcoines may
Bergeron process A theory that relates the for- stream is able to transport. result when one of the systems elements is
mation of precipitation to supercooled clouds, Carbonate group Mineral group whose mem- altered. These various possibilities are called
freezing nuclei, and the different saturation levels bers contain the carbonate ion (CO227) and one climate-feedback mecli.anisms.
of ice and liquid water. or more kinds of positive ions. Calcite is a com- Climate system The exchanges of energy and
Berm The dry, gently sloping zone on the back- mon example. moisture that occur among the atmosphere, hydros-
shore of a beach at the foot of the coastal cliffs or Cassirii division A wide gap in the ring system phere, solid Earth, biosphere, and ciyosphere.
dunes of Saturn between the A ring and the B ring. Climatology The scientic study of climate.
Big bang theory The theory that proposes that Catastrophism The concept that Earth was Closed system A system that is self-contained
the universe originated as a single mass, which shaped by catastrophic events of a short-term with regards to matterthat is, no matter enters
subsequently exploded. nature. or leaves.
 Glossary 719

Cloud A form of condensation best described as Conduit A pipelike opening through which is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to
a dense concentration of suspended water magma moves toward Earths surface. It termi- the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
droplets or tiny ice crystals. nates at a surface opening called a vent. Corona The outer, tenuous layer of the solar
Clouds of vertical development A cloud that Cone of depression A cone-shaped depression atmosphere.
has its base in the low-height range but extends in the water table immediately surrounding a well. Correlation Establishing the equivalence of
upward into the middle or high altitudes. Conformable Layers of rock that were rocks of similar age in different areas.
Cluster (star) A large group of stars. deposited without interruption. Cosmological red shift Changes in the spectra
Coarse-grained texture An igneous rock tex- Conglomerate A sedimentary rock composed of galaxies that indicate they are moving away
ture in which the crystals are roughly equal in size of rounded, gravel-size particles. from the Milky Way as the result of the expansion
and large enough so that individual minerals can Constellation An apparent group of stars origi- of space.
be identified with the unaided eye. nally named for mythical characters. The sky is Cosmology The study of the universe.
Coast A strip of land that extends inland from presently divided into 88 constellations. Country breeze A circulation pattern charac-
the coastline as far as ocean-related features can Contact metamorphism Changes in rock terized by a light wind blowing into a city from the
be found. caused by the heat from a nearby magma body. surrounding countryside. it is best developed on
Continental (c) air mass An air mass that clear and otherwise calm nights when the urban
Coastline The coasts seaward edge. The land-
forms overland; it is normally relatively dry. heat island is most pronounced.
ward limit of the effect of the highest storm waves
on the shore. Continental drift A theory that originally pro- Covalent bond A chemical bond produced by
posed that the continents are rafted about. It has the sharing of electrons.
Col A pass between mountain valleys where the
headwalls of two cirques intersect. essentially been replaced by the plate tectonics Crater The depression at the summit of a volcano,
theory. or that which is produced by a meteorite impact.
Cold front A front along which a cold air mass
thrusts beneath a warmer air mass. Continental margin That portion of the Craton That part of the continental crust that
seafloor adjacent to the continents. It may include has attained stability; that is, it has not been
Collision-coalescence process A theory of
the continental shelf, continental slope, and con- affected by signicant tectonic activity during the
raindrop formation in warm clouds (above 0 C)
tinental rise. Phanerozoic eon. It consists of the shield and sta-
in which large cloud droplets (giants) collide and
ble platform.
join together with smaller droplets to form a rain- Continental rift A linear zone along which conti-
drop. Opposite electrical charges may bind the nental lithosphere stretches and pulls apart. its cre- Creep The slow downhill movement of soil and
cloud droplets together. ation may mark the beginning of a new ocean basin. regolith.
Color A phenomenon of light by which other- Continental rise The gently sloping surface at Crevasse A deep crack in the brittle surface of a
wise identical objects may be differentiated. the base of the continental slope. glacier.

Column A feature found in caves that is formed Continental shelf The gently sloping sub- Cross-bedding Structure in which relatively
merged portion of the continental margin, extend- thin layers are inclined at an angle to the main
when a stalactite and stalagmite join.
ing froin the shoreline to the continental slope. bedding. Formed by currents of wind or water.
Columnar joints A pattern of cracks that form
Continental slope The steep gradient that Cross-cutting A principle of relative dating. A
during cooling of molten rock to generate
leads to the deep-ocean oor and marks the sea- rock or fault is younger than any rock [or fault)
columns that are generally six-sided.
ward edge of the continental shelf. through which it cuts.
Coma The fuzzy, gaseous component of a
Continental volcanic arc Mountains formed in Crust The very thin outermost layer of Earth.
comets head.
part by igneous activity associated with the subduc- Cryovolcanism A type of volcanism that results
Comet A small body that generally revolves
tion of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent. from the eruption of magmas derived from the
about the Sun in an elongated orbit.
Continuous spectrum An uninterrupted band partial melting of ice.
Competence A measure of the largest particle a
of light emitted by an incandescent solid, liquid, Crystal An orderly arrangement of atoms.
stream can transport; a factor dependent on
or gas under pressure. Crystal form See Habit.
velocity.
Convection The transfer of heat by the move- Crystal Settling During the crystallization of
Composite cone Avolcano composed of both
ment of a mass or substance. It can take place magma, the earlier-formed minerals are denser
lava ows and pyro clastic material.
only in uids. than the liquid portion and settle to the bottom of
Compound A substance formed by the chemical the magma chamber.
Convergence The condition that exists when
combination of two or more elements in denite
the distribution of winds within a given area Crystal shape See Habit.
proportions and usually having properties differ-
results in a net horizontal inow of air into the Crystallization The formation and growth of a
ent from those of its constituent elements.
area. Because convergence at lower levels is asso- crystalline solid from a liquid or gas.
Compressional mountains Mountains in ciated with an upward movement of air, areas of
which great horizontal forces have shortened and Cumulus One of three basic cloud forms; also
convergent winds are regions favorable to cloud
thickened the crust. Most major mountain belts the name given one of the clouds of vertical
formation and precipitation.
are of this type. development. Cumulus are billowy individual
Convergent boundary A boundary in which cloud masses that often have at bases.
Concordant A term used to describe intrusive two plates move together, causing one of the slabs
igneous masses that form parallel to the bedding Cup anemometer See Anemometer.
of lithosphere to be consumed into the mantle as
of the surrounding rock. it descends beneath on an overriding plate. Curie point The temperature above which a
Condensation The change of state from a gas to material loses its magnetization.
Coral reef Structure formed in a warm, shallow,
a liquid. sunlit ocean environment that consists primarily Cut bank The area of active erosion on the out-
Condensation nuclei Tiny bits of particulate of the calcite-rich remains of corals as well as the side of a meander.
matter that serve as surfaces on which water limy secretions of algae and the hard parts of Cutoff A short channel segment created when a
vapor condenses. many other small organisms. river erodes through the narrow neck of land
Core Located beneath the mantle, it is the inner- between meanders.
Conditional instability Moist air with a lapse
rate between the dry and wet adiabatic rates. most layer of Earth. The core is divided into an Cyclone A low-pressure center characterized by
outer core and an inner core. a counterclockwise ow of air in the Northern
Conduction The transfer of heat through mat-
Coriolis force (effect) The deective force of Hemisphere.
ter by molecular activity. Energy is transferred
through collisions from one molecule to Earths rotation on all free-moving objects, Daily mean The mean temperature for a day
another. including the atmosphere and oceans. Deection that is determined by averaging the 24 hourly
 E20 Glossary

readings or, more commonly, by averaging the Differential weathering The variation in the Dry climate A climate in which yearly precipita-
maximum and minimum temperatures for a day. rate and degree of weathering caused by such fac- tion is not as great as the potential loss of water by
Daily temperature range The difference tors as mineral makeup, degree of jointing, and evaporation.
between the maximum and minimum tempera- climate. Dry-summer subtropical climate A climate
tures for a day. Diffused light Solar energy scattered and located on the west sides of continents between
Dark-line spectrum See Absorption spectrum. reected in the atmosphere that reaches Earths latitudes 30 and 45. It is the only humid climate
Dark matter Undetected matter that is thought surface in the form of diffuse blue light from the with a strong winter precipitation maximum.
to exist in great quantities in the universe. sky. Ductile deformation A type of solid state ow
Dark nebula A cloud of interstellar dust that Dike A tabular-shaped intrusive igneous fea- that produces a change in the size and shape of a
obscures the light of more distant stars and ture that cuts through the surrounding rock. rock body without fracturing. Occurs at depths
appears as an opaque curtain. Dip-slip fault A fault in which the movement is where temperatures and conning pressures are
Daughter product An isotope resulting from parallel to the dip of the fault. high.
radioactive decay. Discharge The quantity of water in a stream that Dune A hill or ridge of wind- deposited sand.
Debris flow A relatively rapid type of mass passes a given point in a period of time. . Dwarf galaxy Very small galaxies, usually ellip-
wasting that involves a flow of soil and regolith Disconforrnity A type of unconformity in which tical and lacking spiral arms.
containing a large amount of water. Also called the beds above and below are parallel. Dwarf planets Celestial bodies that orbit stars,
mudows. Discordant A term used to describe plutons that massive enough to be spherical but have not
Declination (stellar) The angular distance cut across existing rock structures, such as bed- cleared their neighboring regions of planetesimals.
north or south of the celestial equator denoting ding planes. Earthflow The downslope movement of water-
the position of a celestial body. Disseminated deposit Any economic mineral saturated, clay-rich sediment. Most characteristic
Decompression melting Melting that occurs as deposit in which the desired mineral occurs as of humid regions.
rock ascends due to a drop in conning pressure. scattered particles in the rock but in sufficient Earthquake The vibration of Earth produced by
Deep-ocean basin The portion of seaoor that quantity to make the deposit an ore. the rapid release of energy.
lies between the continental margin and the Dissolved load That portion of a streams load Earth science The name for all the sciences
oceanic ridge system. This region comprises carried in solution. that collectively seek to understand Earth. It
almost 30 percent of Earths surface. Distributary A section of a stream that leaves includes geology, oceanography, meteorology,
Deep-ocean trench See Trench. the main flow. and astronomy.
Deep-sea fan A cone-shaped deposit at the Diurnal tidal pattern A tidal pattern exhibiting Earth system science An interdisciplinary
base of the continental slope. The sediment is one high tide and one low tide during a tidal day; study that seeks to examine Earth as a system
transported to the fan by turbidity currents that a daily tide. composed of numerous interacting parts or sub-
follow submarine canyons. systems.
Divergence The condition that exists when the
Deation The lifting and removal of loose mate- distribution ofwinds within a given area results in Ebb current The movement of a tidal current
rial by wind. a net horizontal outow of air from the region. In away from the shore.
Deformation General term for the processes of divergence at lower levels the resulting deficit is Eccentricity The variation of an ellipse from a
folding, faulting, shearing, compression, or exten- compensated for by a downward movement of air circle.
sion of rocks as the result of various natural from aloft; hence, areas of divergent winds are Echo sounder An instrument used to deter-
forces. unfavorable to cloud formation and precipitation. mine the depth ofwater by measuring the time
Degenerate matter Extremely dense solar Divergent boundary A region where the rigid interval between emission of a sound signal and
material caused by electrons being displaced plates are moving apart, typied by the mid the return of its echo from the bottom.
inward toward an atorns nucleus. oceanic ridges. Eclipse The cutting-off of the light of one celes-
Delta An accumulation of sediment formed Divide An imaginary line that separates the tial body by another passing in front of it.
where a stream enters a lake or ocean. drainage of two streams; often found along a Ecliptic The yearly path of the Sun plotted
Dendritic pattern A stream system that resem- ridge. against the background of stars.
bles the pattern of a branching tree. Dome A roughly circular upfolded structure sim- Elastic deformation Rock deformation in
Density Mass per unit volume of a substance, ilar to an anticline. which the rock will return to nearly its original
usually expressed as grams per cubic centimeter Doppler effect The apparent change in wave- size and shape when the stress is removed.
is/CH13) length of radiation caused by the relative motions Elastic rebound The sudden release of stored
Deposition The process by which water vapor is of the source and the observer. strain in rocks that results in movement along a
changed directly to a solid without passing Doppler radar In addition to the tasks per- fault.
through the liquid state. formed by conventional radar, this new genera- Electromagnetic radiation See Radiation.
Desalination The removal of salts and other tion of weather radar can detect motion directly Electromagnetic spectrum The distribution
chemicals from seawater. and hence greatly improve tornado and severe of electromagnetic radiation by wavelength.
Desert One of the two types of dry climate; the storm warnings.
Electron A negatively charged subatomic parti-
driest of the dry climates. Drainage basin The land area that contributes cle that has a negligible mass and is found outside
Desert pavement A layer of coarse pebbles and water to a stream. an atoms nucleus.
gravel created when wind removed the finer Drawdown The difference in height between Element A substance that cannot be decom-
material. the bottom of a cone of depression and the origi- posed into simpler substances by ordinary chemi-
Detrital sedimentary rock Rock formed from nal height of the water table. cal or physical means.
the accumulation of material that originated and Drift See Glacial drift. Elements of weather and climate Those
was transported in the form of solid particles Drumlin A streamlined asymmetrical hill com- quantities or properties of the atmosphere that
derived from both mechanical and chemical posed of glacial till. The steep side of the hill faces are measured regularly and that are used to
weathering. the direction from which the ice advanced. express the nature of weather and climate.
Dew-point temperature The temperature to Dry adiabatic rate The rate of adiabatic cool- Elliptical galaxy A galaxy that is round or ellip-
which air has to be cooled in order to reach satu- ing or warming in unsaturated air. The rate of tical in outline. It contains little gas and dust, no
ration. temperature change is 1 C per 100 meters. disk or spiral arms, and few hot, bright stars.
 Glossary 72'].

El Niiio The name given to the periodic warm- Eukaryotes An organism whose genetic mater- Fissure eruption An eruption in which lava is
ing of the ocean that occurs in the central and ial is enclosed in a nucleus; plants, animals, and extruded from narrow fractures or cracks in the
eastern Pacic. A major El Nino episode can fungi are eukaryotes. crust.
cause extreme weather in many parts of the Euphoric zone The portion of the photic zone Flare A sudden brightening of an area on the Sun.
world. near the surface where light is bright enough for Flood basalts Flows of basaltic lava that issue
Eluviation The washing-out of ne soil compo- photosynthesis to occur. from numerous cracks or ssures and commonly
nents from the horizon by downward-percolating Evaporation The process of converting a liquid cover extensive areas to thicknesses of hundreds
water. to a gas. of meters.
Emergent coast A coast where land that was Evaporite deposits A sedimentary rock formed Flood current The tidal current associated with
formerly below sea level has been exposed either of material deposited from solution by evapora- the increase in the height of the tide.
because of crustal uplift or a drop in sea level or tion of water. Floodplain The at, low-lying portion of a
both. Evapotranspiration The combined effect of stream valley subject to periodic inundation.
Emission nebula A gaseous nebula that derives evaporation and transpiration. Flow A type of movement common to mass-
its visible light from the uorescence of ultraviolet Evolution (Theory of) A fundamental theory in wasting processes in which water-saturated mate-
light from a star in or near the nebula. biology and paleontology that sets forth the rial moves downslope as a viscous uid.
Emission spectrum See Bright-line spectrum process by which members of a population of Fluorescence The absorption of ultraviolet
End moraine A ridge of till marking a former organisms come to differ from their ancestors. light, which is reemitted as visible light.
position of the front of a glacier. Organisms evolve by means of mutations, natural Focal length The distance from the lens to the
Energy The capacity to do work. selection, and genetic factors. Modern species are point where it focuses parallel rays of light.
descended from related but different species that
Energy levels Spherically shaped, negatively Focus (earthquake) The zone within Earth
lived in earlier times.
charged zones that surround the nucleus of an where rock displacement produces an earthquake.
atom. Exfoliation dome Large, dome-shaped struc-
Focus (light) The point where a lens or mirror
ture, usually composed of granite, formed by
Environment Everything that surrounds and causes light rays to converge.
sheeting.
inuences an organism. Fog A cloud with its base at or very near Earths
Exotic stream A permanent stream that tra-
Environmental lapse rate The rate of temper- surface.
verses a desert and has its source in well-watered
ature decrease with increasing height in the tro- Fold A bent rock layer or series of layers that
areas outside the desert.
posphere. were originally horizontal and subsequently
External process Process such as weathering,
Eon The largest time unit on the geologic time deformed.
mass wasting, or erosion that is powered by the
scale, next in order of magnitude above era. Foliation A texture of metamorphic rocks that
Sun and transforms solid rock into sediment.
Ephemeral stream A stream that is usually dry gives the rock a layered appearance.
Extrusive igneous activity that occurs outside
because it carries water only in response to spe- Food chain A succession of organisms in an
the crust.
cic episodes of rainfall. Most desert streams are ecological community through which food energy
of this type. Eye A zone of scattered clouds and calm averag-
is transferred from producers through herbivores
ing about 20 kilometers in diameter at the center
Epicenter The location on Earths surface that and on to one or more carnivores.
of a hurricane.
lies directly above the focus of an earthquake. Food Web A group of interrelated food chains.
Eyepiece A short-focal-length lens used to enlarge
Epoch A unit of the geologic calendar that is a Foreshocks Small earthquakes that often pre-
the image in a telescope. The lens nearest the eye.
subdivision of a period. cede a major earthquake.
Eye Wall The doughnut-shaped area of intense
Equatorial low A belt of low pressure lying near Foreshore That portion of the shore lying
cumulonimbus development and very strong
the equator and between the subtropical highs.
winds that surrounds the eye of a hurricane. between the normal high and low water marks;
Equatorial system A method of locating stellar the intertidal zone.
Fall A type of movement common to mass-wast-
objects much like the coordinate system used on
ing processes that refers to the free falling of Fossil The remains or traces of organisms pre-
Earths surface.
detached individual pieces of any size. served from the geologic past.
Equinox The time when the vertical rays of the
Fault A break in a rock mass along which move- Fossil fuel General term for any hydrocarbon
Sun are striking the equator. The length of day-
ment has occurred. that may be used as a fuel, including coal, oil, and
light and darkness is equal at all latitudes at
Fault-block mountain A mountain formed by natural gas.
equinox.
the displacement of rock along a fault. Fossil magnetism See Paleoma-gn-etism.
Era A major division on the geologic calendar;
eras are divided into shorter units called periods. Fault creep Displacement along a fault that is Fossil succession Fossil organisms that suc-
so slow and gradual that little seismic activity ceed one another in a denite and determinable
Erosion The incorporation and transportation of
occurs. order, and any time period can be recognized by
material by a mobile agent, such as water, wind,
Fault scarp A cliff created by movement along a its fossil content.
or ice.
fault. It represents the exposed surface of the fault Fracture zone Any break or rupture in rock
Eruption column Buoyant plumes of hot, ash-
prior to modification by weathering and erosion. along which no appreciable movement has taken -
laden gases that can extend thousands of meters
Felsic The group of igneous rocks composed place.
into the atmosphere.
primarily of feldspar and quartz. Freezing The change of state from a liquid to a
Eruptive variable A star that varies in
Filaments Dark, thin streaks that appear across solid.
brightness.
the bright solar disk. Freezing nuclei Solid particles that serve as
Escape velocity The initial velocity an object
Fine-grained texture A texture of igneous cores for the formation of ice crystals.
needs to escape from the surface of a celestial
body. rocks in which the crystals are too small for indi- Front The boundary between two adjoining air
vidual minerals to be distinguished with the masses having contrasting characteristics.
Esker Sinuous ridge composed largely of sand
and gravel deposited by a stream owing in a tun- unaided eye. Frontal fog Fog formed when rain evaporates as
nel beneath a glacier near its terminus. Fiord A steep-sided inlet of the sea formed when it falls through a layer of cool air.
Estuary A partially enclosed coastal water body a glacial trough was partially submerged. Frontal Wedging Lifting of air resulting when
that is connected to the ocean. Salinity here is mea- Fissure A crack in rock along which there is a cool air acts as a barrier over which warmer,
surably reduced by the freshwater ow of rivers. distinct separation. lighter air will rise.
 Glossary W

Frost Wedging The mechanical breakup of Granules The fine structure visible on the solar Horizon A layer in a soil prole.
rock caused by the expansion of freezing water in surface caused by convective cells below. Horn A pyramid-like peak formed by glacial
cracks and crevices. Gravitational collapse The gradual subsi- action in three or more cirques surrounding a
Fumarole A vent in a volcanic area from which dence of mountains caused by lateral spreading mountain summit.
fumes or gases escape. of weak material located deep within these struc- Horst An elongated, uplifted block of crust
Galactic cluster Groups of gravitationally tures. bounded by faults.
bound galaxies that sometimes contain thou- Greenhouse effect The transmission of short- Hot spot A concentration of heat in the mantle
sands of galaxies. wave solar radiation by the atmosphere, coupled capable of producing magma, which in turn
Geocentric The concept of an Earth-centered With the selective absorption of longer-wave- extrudes onto Earths surface. The intraplate vol-
universe. length terrestrial radiation, especially by water canism that produced the Hawaiian lslands is one
Geologic time scale The division of Earth his- vapor and carbon dioxide. example.
tory into blocks of timeeons, eras, periods, and Groin A short wall built at a right angle to the Hot spot track Chain of volcanic structures
epochs. The time scale was created using relative shore to trap moving sand. produced as a lithospheric plate moves over a
dating principles. Ground moraine An undulating layer of till mantle plume.
Geology The science that examines Earth, its deposited as the ice front retreats. Hot spring A spring in which the water is 69 C
form and composition, and the changes it has Groundwater Water in the zone of saturation. [10-15 F) warmer than the mean annual air tem-
undergone and is undergoing. perature of its locality.
Guyot A submerged at-topped seamount.
Geosphere The solid Earth, the largest of Earths H-R diagram A plot of stars according to their
Gyre The large circular surface current pattern
four major spheres. absolute magnitudes and spectral types.
found in each ocean.
Geostrophic wind A wind, usually above a Ht1bble's law Relates the distance to a galaxy
Habit Refers to the common or characteristic
height of 600 meters (2,000 feet], that blows paral- and its velocity.
shape of a crystal, or aggregate of crystals.
lel to the isobars. Humid continental climate A relatively
Hadean eon A term found on some versions of
Geothermal energy Natural steam used for severe climate characteristic of broad continents
the geologic time scale. It refers to the earliest
power generation. in the middle latitudes between approximately 40
interval (eon) of Earth history, and ended 4 billion
Geothermal gradient The gradual increase in and 50 degrees north latitude. This climate is not
years ago.
temperature with depth in the crust. The average found in the Southern Hemisphere, where the
Hail Nearly spherical ice pellets having concen- middle latitudes are dominated by the oceans.
is 30 C per kilometer in the upper crust.
tric layers and formed by the successive freezing
Geyser A fountain of hot water ejected of layers ofwater.
Humid subtropical climate A climate gener-
periodically. ally located on the eastern side of a continent and
Half graben A tilted fault block in which the characterized by hot, sultry summers and cool
Giant (star) A luminous star of large radius. higher side is associated with mountainous winters.
Glacial drift An all-embracing term for sedi- topography and the lower side is a basin that fills
ments of glacial origin, no matter how, where, or Humidity A general term referring to water
with sediment.
in what shape they were deposited. vapor in the air but not to liquid droplets of fog,
Half-life The time required for one-half of the cloud, or rain.
Glacial erratic An ice-transported boulder that atoms of a radioactive substance to decay.
was not derived from bedrock near its present site. Humus Organic matter in soil produced by the
Halocline A layer of water in which there is a decomposition of plants and animals.
Glacial striations Scratches and grooves on high rate of change in salinity in the vertical
bedrock caused by glacial abrasion. Hurricane A tropical cyclonic storm having
dimension.
winds in excess of 119 kilometers [74 miles) per
Glacial trough A mountain valley that has been Hanging valley A tributary valley that enters a hour
widened, deepened, and straightened by a glacier. glacial trough at a considerable height above its
Hydrogen burning The conversion of hydro-
Glacier A thick mass of ice originating on land oor
gen through fusion to form helium.
from the compaction and recrystallization of Hard stabilization Any form of articial struc-
Hydrogen fusion The nuclear reaction in
snow that shows evidence of past or present ow. ture built to protect a coast or to prevent the
which hydrogen nuclei are fused into helium
Glassy texture A term used to describe the tex- movement of sand along a beach. Examples
nuclei.
ture of certain igneous rocks, such as obsidian, include groins, jetties, breakwaters, and seawalls.
that contain no crystals.
Hydrogenous sediment Seaoor sediments
Hardness The resistance a mineral offers to consisting of minerals that crystallize from seawa-
Glaze A coating of ice on objects formed when scratching. ter. An important example is manganese nodules.
supercooled rain freezes on contact. Heat The kinetic energy of random molecular Hydrosphere The water portion of our planet;
Globular cluster A nearly spherically shaped motion. one of the traditional subdivisions of Earths phys-
group of densely packed stars. Heliocentric The view that the Sun is at the cen- ical environment.
Globule A dense, dark nebula thought to be the ter of the solar system. Hydrothermal solution The hot, watery solu-
birthplace of stars. Hertzsprung-Russell diagram See H-R dia- tion that escapes from a mass of magma during
Gondwanaland The southern portion of Pan- gram. the later stages of crystallization. Such solutions
gaea consisting of South America, Africa, Aus- High A center of high pressure characterized by may alter the surrounding country rock and are
tralia, lndia, and Antarctica. anticyclonic winds. frequently the source of significant ore deposits.
Graben A valley formed by the downward dis- High cloud A cloud that normally has its base Hygrometer An instrument designed to mea-
placement of a fault-bounded block. above 6,000 meters; the base may be lower in sure relative humidity.
Graded bed A sediment layer that is character- winter and at high-latitude locations. Hygroscopic nuclei Condensation nuclei having
ized by a decrease in sediment size from bottom Highland climate Complex pattern of cli- a high affinity for water, such as salt particles.
to top. mate conditions associated with mountains. Hypothesis A tentative explanation that is
Gradient The slope of a stream; generally mea- Highland climates are characterized by large tested to determine if it is valid.
sured in feet per mile. differences that occur over short distances. Ice cap A mass of glacial ice covering a high
Granitic composition A compositional group Hogbaclt A narrow, sharpcrested ridge formed upland or plateau and spreading out radially.
of igneous rocks that indicates a rock is composed by the upturned edge of a steeply dipping bed of Ice cap climate A climate that has no monthly
almost entirely of light-colored silicates. resistant rock. means above freezing and supports no vegetative
 Glossary 723

cover except in a few scattered high mountain Ionic bond A chemical bond between two Lake-effect snow Snow showers associated
areas. This climate, with its perpetual ice and oppositely charged ions formed by the transfer of with a cP air mass to which moisture and heat are
snow, is conned largely to the ice sheets of valence electrons from one atom to the other. added from below as the air mass traverses a large
Greenland and Antarctica. Ionosphere A complex zone of ionized gases and relatively warm lake (such as one of the Great
that coincides with the lower portion of the ther- Lakes), rendering the air mass humid and unsta-
Ice sheet A very large, thick mass of glacial ice
mosphere. ble. '
owing outward in all directions from one or
more accumulation centers. Iron meteorite One of the three main cate- Laminar flow The movement of water particles
gories of meteorites. This group is composed in straight-line paths that are parallel to the chan-
Ice shelf Forming where glacial ice ows into
bays, it is a large, relatively at mass of oating ice largely of iron with varying amounts of nickel nel. The water particles move downstream with-
(5-20 percent). Most meteorite nds are irons. out mixing.
that extends seaward from the coast but remains
attached to the land along one or more sides. Irregular galaxy A galaxy that lacks symmetry. Land breeze A local wind blowing from land
toward the water during the night in coastal areas.
Igneous rock A rock formed by the crystallize Island arc See Volcanic island arc.
tion of molten magma. Lapse rate (normal) The average drop in tem-
Isobar A line drawn on a map connecting points
Immature soil A soil lacking horizons. perature (6.5 C per kilometer; 3.5 F per 1,000
of equal atmospheric pressure, usually corrected
feet] with increased altitude in the troposphere.
Impact craters Depressions that are the result to sea level.
Latent heat The energy absorbed or released
of collisions with bodies such as asteroids and Isostasy The concept that Earths crust is oat-
comets. during a change in state.
ing in gravitational balance upon the material of
the mantle. Lateral moraine A ridge of till along the sides of
Incised meander Meandering channel that
an alpine glacier composed primarily of debris
ows in a steep, narrow valley. They form either Isostatic adjustment Compensation of the
when an area is uplifted or when base level drops. that fell to the glacier from the valley walls.
lithosphere when weight is added or removed.
When weight is added, the lithosphere will Laurasia The northern portion of Pangaea con
Inclination of the axis The tilt of Earths axis
from the perpendicular to the plane of Earths respond by subsiding, and when weight is sisting of North America and Eurasia.
orbit. removed, there will be uplift. Lava Magma that reaches Earths surface.
Inclusion A piece of one rock unit contained Isotherms Lines connecting points of equal Lava tube Tunnel in hardened lava that acts as
within another. Inclusions are used in relative temperature. a horizontal conduit for lava owing from a vol-
dating. The rock mass adjacent to the one con- Isotope Varieties of the same element that have canic vent. Lava tubes allow uid lavas to advance
taining the inclusion must have been there rst in different mass numbers; their nuclei contain the great distances.
order to provide the fragment. same number of protons but different numbers of Law of conservation of angular
Index fossil A fossil that is associated with a neutrons. momentum The product of the velocity of an
particular span of geologic time. Jet stream Swift (120-240 kilometers per hour), object around a center of rotation (axis), and the
Inertia A property of matter that resists a change high-altitude winds. distance squared of the object from the axis is
in its motion. constant.
Jetties A pair of structures extending into the
Infiltration The movement of surface water into ocean at the entrance to a harbor or river that are Leaching The depletion of soluble materials
rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces. built for the purpose of protecting against storm from the upper soil by downward-percolating
waves and sediment deposition. water.
Infrared Radiation with a wavelength from 0.7 to
200 micrometers. Joint A fracture in rock along which there has Lightning A sudden ash of light generated by
been no movement. the ow of electrons between oppositely charged
Inner core The solid innermost layer of Earth,
Jovian planet The Jupiter-like planets: Iupiter, parts of a cumulonimbus cloud or between the
about 1,300 kilometers (800 miles) in radius. cloud and the ground.
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These planets have
Inner planets See Terrestrial planets. Light-year The distance light travels in a year;
relatively low densities.
Inselberg An isolated mountain remnant char- about 6 trillion miles.
Kame A steep-sided hill composed of sand and
acteristic of the late stage of erosion in an arid
gravel originating when sediment is collected in Liquefaction A phenomenon, sometimes asso-
region.
openings in stagnant glacial ice. ciated with earthquakes, in which soils and other
Intensity (earthquake) A measure of the unconsolidated materials containing abundant
degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale Karst A topography consisting of numerous
depressions called sinkholes. water are turned into a uid-like mass that is not
based on the amount of damage. capable of supporting buildings. '
Kettle holes Depressions created when blocks
Interface A common boundary where different Lithification The process, generally cemente-
of ice became lodged in glacial deposits and sub-
parts of a system interact. tion and/or compaction, of converting sediments
sequently melted.
Interior drainage A discontinuous pattern of to solid rock.
Kiippen classification A system for classifying
intermittent streams that do not ow to the ocean. Lithosphere The rigid outer layer of Earth,
climates devised by Wladimir Ktippen that is
Intermediate composition The composition based on mean monthly and annual values of including the crust and upper mantle.
of igneous rocks lying between felsic and mafic. temperature and precipitation. Lithospheric plate A coherent unit of Earths
Interstellar matter Dust and gases found Kuiper belt A region outside the orbit of Nep- rigid outer layer that includes the crust and upper
between stars. tune where most short-period comets are thought unit.
Intertidal zone The area where land and sea to originate. Local group The cluster of 20 or so galaxies to
meet and overlap; the zone between high and low La Niiia An episode of strong trade winds and which our galaxy belongs.
des unusually low sea-surface temperatures in the Localized convective lifting Unequal surface
Intraplate volcanism Igneous activity that central and eastern Pacific. The opposite of El heating that causes localized pockets of air (ther-
occurs within a tectonic plate away from plate Nina. mals) to rise because of their buoyancy.
boundaries. Laccolith A massive igneous body intruded Loess Deposits of windblown silt, lacking visible
Intrusion See Pluton. between preexisting strata. layers, generally buff-colored, and capable of
Intrusive Igneous rock that formed below Lahar Mudows on the slopes of volcanoes that maintaining a nearly vertical cliff.
Earths surface. result when unstable layers of ash and debris Longitudinal (seif dunes) Long ridges of sand
Ion An atom or molecule that possesses an elec- become saturated and ow downslope, usually oriented parallel to the prevailing wind; these
trical charge. following stream channels. dunes form where sand supplies are limited.
 724 Flossary H _

Longshore current A nearshore current that dominated by maritime air masses. Winters are Meteorology The scientific study of the atmos-
ows parallel to the shore. rnild and summers are cool. phere and atmospheric phenomena; the study of
Low A center of low pressure characterized by Maritime (In) air mass An air mass that origi- weather and climate.
cyclonic winds. nates over the ocean. These air masses are rela- Microcontinents Relatively small fragments of
Low cloud A cloud that forms below a height of tively humid. continental crust that may lie above sea level,
2,000 meters. Mass number The number of neutrons and such as the island of Madagascar, or be sub-
Low-velocity zone See Asthenosphere. protons in the nucleus of an atom. merged, as exemplied by the Campbell Plateau
Lower mantle The part of the mantle that Mass wasting The downslope movement of located near New Zealand.
extends from the coremantle boundary to a rock, regolith, and soil under the direct inuence Middle cloud A cloud occupying the height
depth of 660 kilometers. of gravity. range from 2,000 to 6,000 meters.
Luminosity The brightness of a star. The Massive An igneous pluton that is not tabular in Middle-latitude cyclone Large center of low
amount of energy radiated by a star. shape. pressure with an associated cold front and often a
Lunar breccia A lunar rock formed when angu- Mean solar day The average time between two warm front. Frequently accompanied by abun-
lar fragments and dust are welded together by the passages of the Sun across the local celestial dant precipitation.
heat generated by the impact of a meteoroid. meridian. Mid-ocean ridge See Oceanic ridge system.
Lunar eclipse An eclipse of the Moon. Meander A looplike bend in the course of a Mineral A naturally occurring, inorganic crys-
Lunar highlands See Terrae. stream. talline material with a unique chemical composi-
Lunar regolith A thin, gray layer on the surface Mechanical weathering The physical disinte- tion.
of the Moon, consisting of loosely compacted, gration of rock, resulting in smaller fragments. Mineral resource All discovered and undiscov-
fragmented material believed to have been Medial moraine A ridge of till formed when lat- ered deposits of a useful mineral that can be
formed by repeated meteoritic impacts. eral moraines from two coalescing alpine glaciers extracted now or at some time in the future.
Luster The appearance or quality of light join. Mineralogy The study of minerals.
reected from the surface of a mineral. Melt The liquid portion of magma, excluding the Mixed tidal pattern A tidal pattern exhibiting
Mafic Igneous rocks with a low silica content solid crystals. two high tides and two low tides per tidal day with
and a high iron-magnesium content. Melting The change of state from a solid to aliq- a large inequality in high water heights, low water
Magma A body of molten rock found at depth, uld. heights, or both. Coastal locations that experience
including any dissolved gases and crystals. Mercalli intensity scale See Modied Mercalli such a tidal pattern may also show alternating
Magmatic differentiation The process of gen- intensity scale. periods of diurnal and semidiurnal tidal patterns.
erating more than one rock type from a single Also called mixed semidiurnal.
Mercury barometer A mercury-lled glass
magma. tube in which the height of the mercury column is Mixing depth The height to which convectional
Magnetic reversal A change in Earths mag- a measure of air pressure. movements extend above Earths surface. The
netic eld from normal to reverse or vice versa. Mesocyclone An intense, rotating wind system greater the mixing depth, the better the air qual-
in the lower part of a thunderstorm that precedes ity.
Magnetic time scale A scale that shows the
ages of magnetic reversals and is based on the tornado development. Mixing ratio The mass of water vapor in a unit
polarity of lava flows of various ages. Mesopause The boundary between the mesos- mass of dry air; commonly expressed as grams of
Magnetometer A sensitive instrument used to phere and the thermosphere. water vapor per kilogram of dry air.
measure the intensity of Earths magnetic field at Mesosphere The layer of the atmosphere Model A term often used synonymously with
various points. immediately above the stratosphere and charac- hypothesis but is less precise because it is some-
Magnitude (earthquake) The total amount of terized by decreasing temperatures with height. times used to describe a theory as well.
energy released during an earthquake. Mesozoic era A span on the geologic time scale Modified Mercalli intensity scale A 12-point
Magnitude (stellar) A number given to a celes- between the Paleozoic and Cenozoic eras from scale developed to evaluate earthquake intensity
tial object to express its relative brightness. about 248 million to 65 million years ago. based on the amount of damage to various struc-
tures.
Main-sequence stars A sequence of stars on Metallic bond A chemical bond present in all
the IIertz-sprung-Russell diagram, containing the metals that may be characterized as an extreme Mohorovici; discontinuity (Moho) The
majority of stars, that runs diagonally from the type of electron sharing in which the electrons boundary separating the crust from the mantle,
upper left to the lower right. move freely from atom to atom. discernible by an increase in seismic velocity.
Manganese nodules Rounded lumps of Metamorphic rock Rocks formed by the alter- Mohs scale A series of 10 minerals used as a
hydrogenous sediment scattered on the ocean ation of preexisting rock deep within Earth (but standard in determining hardness.
floor, consisting mainly of manganese and iron still in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or Moment magnitude A more precise measure
and usually containing small amounts of copper, chemically active fluids. of earthquake magnitude than the Richter scale
nickel, and cobalt. Metamorphism The changes in mineral com- that is derived from the amount of displacement
Mantle The 2,900-kil0meter- (1,800-mile-) thick position and texture of a rock subjected to high that occurs along a fault zone.
layer of Earth located below the crust. temperature and pressure within Earth. Monocline A one-limbed flexure in strata. The
Mantle plume A mass of hotter-than-normal Meteor The luminous phenomenon observed strata are unusually at-lying or very gently dip-
mantle material that ascends toward the surface, when a meteoroid enters Earths atmosphere and ping on both sides of the monocline.
where it may lead to igneous activity. These burns up; popularly called a shooting star." Monsoon Seasonal reversal of wind direction
plumes of solid yet mobile material may originate Meteor shower Many meteors appearing in the associated with large continents, especially Asia.
as deep as the corernantle boundary. sky caused when Earth intercepts a swarm of In winter, the wind blows from land to sea; in
Maria The Latin name for the smooth areas of rneteoritic particles. summer, from sea to land.
the Moon formerly thought to be seas. Meteorite Any portion of a meteoroid that sur- Monthly mean temperature The mean tem-
Marine terrace A wave-cut platform that has vives its traverse through Earths atmosphere and perature for a month that is calculated by averag-
been exposed above sea level. strikes Earths surface. ing the daily means.
Marine west coast climate A climate found on Meteoroid Small solid particles that have orbits Mountain breeze The nightly downslope winds
windward coasts from latitudes 40-65 degrees and in the solar system. commonly encountered in mountain valleys.
 S.-rlossary W pg 725

Natural leeves The elevated landforms that Occlusion The overtaking of one front by another. Pahoehoe flow A lava ow with a smooth-to-
parallel some streams and act to confine their Occultation An eclipse of a star or planet by the ropey surface.
waters, except during oodstage. Moon or a planet. Paleomagnetism The natural remnant mag-
Neap tide Lowest tidal range, occurring near Oceanic plateau An extensive region on the netism in rock bodies. The permanent magnetiza-
the times of the rst- and third-quarter phases of ocean oor composed of thick accumulations of tion acquired by rock that can be used to
the Moon. pillow basalts and other mafic rocks that in some determine the location of the magnetic poles and
cases exceed 30 kilometers in thickness. the latitude of the rock at the time it became mag-
Nearshore zone The zone of beach that extends
netized.
from the low-tide shoreline seaward to where Oceanic ridge system A continuous elevated
waves break at low tide. zone on the oor of all the major ocean basins Paleontology The systematic study of fossils
and varying in width from 500 to 5,000 kilometers and the history of life on Earth.
Nebula A cloud of interstellar gas andfor dust.
Nebula: theory The basic idea that the Sun and [3003,000 miles). The rifts at the crests of ridges Paleozoic era A span on the geologic time scale
planets formed from the same cloud of gas and represent divergent plate boundaries. between the eons of the Precambrian and Meso-
dust in interstellar space. Oceanic zone The marine-life zone beyond the zoic era from about 540 million to 248 million
continental shelf. years ago.
Negative feedback mechanism A feedback
mechanism that tends to maintain a system as it Oceanography The scientic study of the Pangaea The proposed supercontinent that 200
isthat is, maintain the status quo. oceans and oceanic phenomena. million years ago began to break apart and form
the present landmasses.
Nekton Pelagic organisms that can move inde- Octet rule Atoms combine in order that each
pendently of ocean currents by swimming or may have the electron arrangement of a noble Parabolic dunes The shape of these dunes
other means of propulsion. gas; that is, the outer energy level contains eight resembles barchans, except their tips point into
neutrons. the wind; they often form along coasts that have
Neritic zone The marine-life zone that extends
strong onshore winds, abundant sand, and vege-
from the low tideline out to the shelf break. Offshore zone The relatively at submerged
tation that partly covers the sand.
Neutron A subatomic particle found in the zone that extends from the breaker line to the
edge of the continental shelf. Paradigm A theory that is held with a very high
nucleus of an atom. The neutron is electrically
degree of confidence and is comprehensive in
neutral and has a mass approximately that of a Oort cloud A spherical shell composed of
scope.
proton. comets that orbit the Sun at distances generally
greater than 10,000 times the EarthSun distance. Parallax The apparent shift of an object when
Neutron star A star of extremely high density
viewed from two different locations.
composed entirely of neutrons. Open cluster A loosely formed group of stars of
similar origin. Parasitic cone A volcanic cone that forms on
Nonconformity An unconformity in which
the ank of a larger volcano.
older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks are Open system One in which both matter and
overlain by younger sedimentary strata. energy ow into and out of the system. Most nat- Parcel An imaginary volume of air enclosed in a
ural systems are of this type. thin elastic cover. Typically it is considered to be a
Nonfoliated texture Metamorphic rocks that
few hundred cubic meters in volume and is
do not exhibit foliation. Orbit The path of a body in revolution around a
assumed to act independently of the surrounding
Nonmetallic mineral resource Mineral center of mass.
E111.
resource that is not a fuel or processed for the Ore Usually a useful metallic mineral that can be
metals it contains. mined at a prot. The term is also applied to cer- Parent material The material upon which a soil
develops.
Nonrenewable resource Resource that forms tain nonmetallic minerals such as uorite and
sulfur. Parsec The distance at which an object would
or accumulates over such long time spans that it
must be considered as fixed in total quantity. Ore deposit A naturally occurring concentra- have a parallax angle of 1 second of arc (3.26 light-
years).
Nonsilicates Mineral groups that lack silicas in tion of one or more metallic minerals that can be
their structures and account for less than 10 per- extracted economically. Partial melting The process by which most
cent of Earths crust. Original horizontality Layers of sediments are igneous rocks melt. Since individual minerals
generally deposited in a horizontal or nearly hori- have different melting points, most igneous rocks
Normal fault A fault in which the rock above
zontal position. melt over a temperature range of a few hundred
the fault plane has moved down relative to the degrees. If the liquid is squeezed out after some
rock below. Orogenesis The processes that collectively
melting has occurred, a melt with a higher silica
Normal polarity A magnetic field that is the result in the formation of mountains. content results.
same as that which exists at present. Orographic lifting Mountains acting as barri-
Passive continental margin Margins that
Nova A star that explosively increases in bright- ers to the ow of air, forcing the air to ascend. The
consist of a continental shelf, continental slope,
ness. air cools adiabatically, and clouds and precipita-
and continental rise. They are not associated with
Nuclear fusion The source of the Suns energy. tion may result.
plate boundaries and therefore experience little
Nucleus The small heavy core of an atom that Outer core A layer beneath the mantle about volcanism and few earthquakes.
contains all of its positive charge and most of its 2,200 kilometers (1,364 miles) thick that has the
Pegmatite A very coarse-grained igneous rock
mass. properties of a liquid.
(typically granite) commonly found as a dike
Nue ardente Incandescent volcanic debris Outer planet See Jovian planet. associated with a large mass of plutonic rock that
buoyed up by hot gases that moves downslope in Outgassing The escape of gases that had been has smaller crystals. Crystallization in a water-
an avalanche fashion. dissolved in magma. rich environment is believed to be responsible for
Numerical date Date that species the actual Outwash plain A relatively at, gently sloping the very large crystals.
number of years that have passed since an event plain consisting of materials deposited by meltwa- Pelagic zone Open ocean of any depth. Ani-
occurred. ter streams in front of the margin of an ice sheet. mals in this zone swim or oat freely.
Obliquity The angle between the planes of Overrunning Warm air gliding up a retreating Penumbra The portion of a shadow from which
Earths equator and orbit. cold air mass. only part of the light source is blocked by an
Obsidian A volcanic glass of felsic composition. Oxbow lake A curved lake produced when a opaque body.
Occluded front A front formed when a cold front stream cuts off a meander. Perched water table A localized zone of satu-
overtakes a warm front. It marks the beginning of Ozone A molecule of oxygen containing three ration above the main water table created by an
the end of a middle-latitude cyclone. oxygen atoms. impermeable layer (aquiclude).
 726 Glossary

Peridotite An igneous rock of ultratnafic com Planetesimal A solid celestial body that accu- Positive feedback mechanism A feedback
position thought to be abundant in the upper mulated during the first stages of planetary for- mechanism that enhances or drives change.
mantle. mation. Planetesimals aggregated into Precambrian All geologic time prior to the Pale-
Perihelion The point in the orbit of a planet increasingly larger bodies, ultimately forming the ozoic era.
where it is closest to the Sun. planets.
Procession See Axial precession.
Period A basic unit of the geologic calendar that Plankton Passively drifting or weakly swimming
Precipitation fog Fog formed when rain evapo-
is a subdivision of an era. Periods may be divided organisms that cannot move independently of
rates as it falls through a layer of cool air.
into smaller units called epochs. ocean currents. Includes microscopic algae, pro-
tozoa, jellysh, and larval forms of many animals. Pressure gradient The amount of pressure
Periodic table The tabular arrangement of the
change occurring over a given distance.
elements according to atomic number. Plate See Lithospheric plate.
Pressure tendency The nature of the change in
Permeability A measure of a materials ability Plate tectonics The theory that proposes that
atmospheric pressure over the past several hours.
to transmit water. Earths outer shell consists of individual plates
it can be a useful aid in short-range weather pre-
Perturbation The gravitational disturbance of that interact in various ways and thereby produce
diction.
the orbit of one celestial body by another. earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and the crust
itself. Prevailing Wind A wind that consistently blows
pH scale A common measure of the degree of from one direction more than from another.
acidity or alkalinity of a solution, it is a logarith- Playa A at area on the oor of an undrained
desert basin. Following heavy rain, the playa Primary pollutants Those pollutants emitted
mic scale ranging from 0 to 14. A value of 7
becomes a lake. directly from identiable sources.
denotes a neutral solution, values below '7 indi-
cate greater acidity, and numbers above '7 indi- Playa lake A temporary lake in a playa. Primary productivity The amount of organic
cate greater alkalinity. matter synthesized by organisms from inorganic
Pleistocene epoch An epoch of the Quaternary
substances through photosynthesis or chernosyn-
Phanerozoic eon That part of geologic time period beginning about 1.8 million years ago and
thesis within a given volume of water or habitat in
represented by rocks containing abundant fossil ending about 10,000 years ago. Best known as a
a unit of time.
evidence. The eon extending from the end of the time of extensive continental glaciation.
Proterozoic eon (about 540 million years ago) to Primary (P) wave A type of seismic wave that
Plucking (quarrying) The process by which
the present. involves alternating compression and expansion
pieces of bedrock are lifted out of place by a glac-
of the material through which it passes.
Phases of the Moon The progression of changes ier.
in the Moons appearance during the month. Principal shells See Energylevels.
Pluton A structure that results from the
Pheoncryst Conspicuously large crystals emplacement and crystallization of magma Prokaryotes Refers to the cells or organisms
embedded in a matrix of finer-grained crystals. beneath the surface of Earth. such as bacteria whose genetic material is not
enclosed in a nucleus.
Photic zone The upper part of the ocean into Pluvial lake A lake formed during a period of
which any sunlight penetrates. increased rainfall. During the Pleistocene epoch Prominence A concentration of material above
this occurred in some nonglaciated regions dur- the solar surface that appears as a bright archlike
Photochemical reaction A chemical reaction
ing periods of ice advance elsewhere. structure.
in the atmosphere that is triggered by sunlight,
often yielding a secondary pollutant. Point bar A crescent-shaped accumulation of Proterozoic eon The eon following the Archean
Photon A discrete amount (quantum) of electro- sand and gravel deposited on the inside of a and preceding the Phanerozoic. It extends
magnetic energy. meander. between about 2,500 million (2.5 billion) and 540
million years ago.
Photosphere The region of the Sun that radiates Polar (P) air mass A cold air mass that forms in
energy to space. The visible surface of the Sun. a high-latitude source region. Proton A positively charged subatomic particle
found in the nucleus of an atom.
Photosynthesis The process by which plants Polar easterlies in the global pattern of prevail-
and algae produce carbohydrates from carbon ing winds, winds that blow from the polar high Protonproton chain A chain of thermonu-
dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll, toward the subpolar low. These winds, however, clear reactions by which nuclei of hydrogen are
using light energy and releasing oxygen. should not be thought of as persistent winds, such built up into nuclei of helium.
Physical environment The part of the environ- as the trade winds. Protoplanets A developing planetary body that
ment that encompasses water, air, soil, and rock, Polar front The stormy frontal zone separating grows by the accumulation of planetesimals.
as well as conditions such as temperature, air masses of polar origin from air masses of tropi- Protostar A collapsing cloud of gas and dust
humidity, and sunlight. cal origin. destined to become a star.
Phytoplankton Algal plankton, which are the Polar high Anticyclones that are assumed to Psychrometer A device consisting of two ther-
most important community of primary producers occupy the inner polar regions and are believed to mometers (wet bulb and dry bulb) that is rapidly
in the ocean. be thermally induced, at least in part. whirled and, with the use of tables, yields the rela-
Piedmont glacier A glacier that forms when Polar wandering As the result of paleomag- tive humidity and dew point.
one or more valley glaciers emerge from the con- netic studies in the 1950s, researchers proposed Ptolemaic system An Earth-centered system of
ning walls of mountain valleys and spread out to that either the magnetic poles migrated greatly the universe.
create a broad sheet in the lowlands at the base of through time or the continents had gradually Pulsar A variable radio source of small size that
the mountains. shifted their positions. emits radio pulses in very regular periods.
Pipe A vertical conduit through which magmatic Population I Stars rich in atoms heavier than Pulsating variable A variable star that pulsates
materials have passed. helium. Nearly always relatively young stars in size and luminosity.
Placer Deposit formed when heavy minerals are found in the disk of the galaxy. Pycnocline A layer of water in which there is a
mechanically concentrated by currents, most Population II Stars poor in atoms heavier than rapid change of density with depth.
commonly streams and waves. Placers are helium. Nearly always relatively old stars found in Pyroclastic An igneous rock texture resulting
sources of gold, tin, platinum, diamonds, and the halo, globular clusters, or nuclear bulge. from the consolidation of individual rock frag-
other valuable minerals. Porosity The volume of open spaces in rock or ments that are ejected during a violent eruption.
Plane of the ecliptic The imaginary plane that soil. Pyroclastic flow A highly heated mixture,
connects Earths orbit with the celestial sphere. Porphyritic texture An igneous texture con- largely of ash and pumice fragments, traveling
Planetary nebula A shell of incandescent gas sisting of large crystals embedded in a matrix of down the anks of a volcano or along the surface
expanding from a star. much smaller crystals. of the ground.
 Glossary 727

Pyroclastic material The volcanic rock ejected to bend and tend to align itself with the underwa- Rockslide The rapid slide of a mass of rock
during an eruption, including ash, bombs, and ter contours. downslope along planes of weakness.
blocks. Regional metamorphism Metamorphism Rotation The spinning of a body, such as Earth,
Radial pattern A system of streams running in associated with large-scale mountain-building about its axis.
all directions away from a central elevated struc- processes. Runoff Water that flows over the land rather
ture, such as a volcano. Regolith The layer of rock and mineral frag- than infiltrating into the ground.
Radiation The transfer of energy (heat) through ments that nearly everywhere covers Earths sur- Salinity The proportion of dissolved salts to
space by electromagnetic waves. face. pure water, usually expressed in parts per thou-
Radiation fog Fog resulting from radiation heat Relative dating Rocks are placed in their sand (%).
loss by Earth. proper sequence or order. Only the chronological Saltation Transportation of sediment through a
Radiation pressure The force exerted by elec- order of events is determined. series of leaps or bounces.
tromagnetic radiation from an object such as the Relative humidity The ratio of the airs water- Santa Ana The local name given a chinook
Sun. vapor content to its water-vapor capacity. wind in southern California.
Radio interferometer Two or more radio tele- Renewable resource A resource that is virtu- Saturation The maximum quantity of water
scopes that combine their signals to achieve the ally inexhaustible or that can be replenished over vapor that the air can hold at any given tempera-
resolving power of a larger telescope. relatively short time spans. ture and pressure.
Radio telescope A telescope designed to make Reserve Already identied deposits from which Scattering The redirecting (in all directions) of
observations in radio wavelengths. minerals can be extracted protably. light by small particles and gas molecules in the
Radioactive decay The spontaneous decay of Residual soil Soil developed directly from the atmosphere. The result is diffused light.
certain unstable atomic nuclei. weathering of the bedrock below. Scoria Hardened lava that has retained the vesi-
Radioactivity The spontaneous emission of Resolving power The ability of a telescope to cles produced by escaping gases.
certain unstable atomic nuclei. separate objects that would otherwise appear as Scoria cone See Cinder cone.
Radiocarbon (carbon-14) The radioactive iso- one.
Sea arch An arch formed by wave erosion when
tope of carbon, which is produced continuously Retrograde motion The apparent westward caves on opposite sides of a headland unite.
in the atmosphere and is used in dating events motion of the planets with respect to the stars.
from the very recent geologic past (the last few Sea breeze A local wind blowing from the sea
Reverse fault A fault in which the material during the afternoon in coastal areas.
tens of thousands of years).
above the fault plane moves up in relation to the
Radiometric dating The procedure of calculat- Sea stack An isolated mass of rock standing just
material below.
ing the absolute ages of rocks and minerals that offshore, produced by wave erosion of a head-
Reverse polarity A magnetic field opposite to land.
contain radioactive isotopes.
that which exists at present.
Rain Drops ofwater that fall from clouds that Seafloor spreading The process of producing
Revolution The motion of one body about new seaoor between two diverging plates.
have a diameter of at least 0.5 millimeter (0.02
another, as Earth about the Sun.
inch). Seamount An isolated volcanic peak that rises
Richter scale A scale of earthquake magnitude at least 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) above the deep-
Rainshadow desert A dry area on the lee side
based on the motion of a seismograph. ocean oor.
of a mountain range. Many middle~latitude
deserts are of this type. Ridge push A mechanism that may contribute Seawall A barrier constructed to prevent waves
to plate motion. It involves the oceanic lithos- from reaching the area behind the wall. Its pur-
Rapids A part of a stream channel in which the
phere sliding down the oceanic ridge under the pose is to defend property from the force of break-
water suddenly begins flowing more swiftly and
pull of gravity. ing waves.
turbulently because of an abrupt steepening of
the gradient. Rift valley Along, narrow trough bounded by Secondary enrichment The concentration of
Ray (lunar) Any of a system of bright elongated normal faults. It represents a region where diver- minor amounts of metals that are scattered
streaks, sometimes associated with a crater on the gence is taking place. through unweathered rock into economically
I
Moon. Rift Zone A region of Earth s crust along which valuable concentrations by weathering processes.
Recessional moraine An end moraine formed divergence is taking place. Secondary pollutants Pollutants that are pro-
as the ice front stagnated during glacial retreat. Right ascension An angular distance measured duced in the atmosphere by chemical reactions
Rectangular pattern A drainage pattern char- eastward along the celestial equator from the ver- that occur among primary pollutants.
acterized by numerous right-angle bends that nal equinox. Used with declination in a coordi- Secondary (S) wave A seismic wave that
develops on jointed or fractured bedrock. nate system to describe the position of celestial involves oscillation perpendicular to the direction
bodies. of propagation.
Red giant Alarge, cool star of high luminosity; a
star occupying the upper-right portion of the Rime A thin coating of ice on objects produced Sediment Unconsolidated particles created by
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. when supercooled fog droplets freeze on contact. the weathering and erosion of rock, by chemical
Reflecting telescope A telescope that concen- Rip current A strong narrow surface or near- precipitation from solution in water, or from the
trates light from distant objects by using a con- surface current of short duration and high speed secretions of organisms and transported by water,
cave mirror. owing seaward through the breaker zone at wind, or glaciers.
nearly right angles to the shore. It represents the Sedimentary rock Rock formed from the
Reflection The process whereby light bounces
return to the ocean of water that has been piled weathered products of preexisting rocks that have
back from an object at the same angle at which it
up on the shore by incoming waves. been transported, deposited, and lithied.
encounters a surface and with the same intensity.
Rock A consolidated mixture of minerals. Seismic gap A segment of an active fault zone
Reflection nebula A relatively dense dust cloud
in interstellar space that is illuminated by Rock cycle A model that illustrates the origin of that has not experienced a major earthquake over
starlight. the three basic rock types and the interrelated- a span when most other segments have. Such seg-
ness of Earth materials and processes. ments are probable sites for future major earth-
Refracting telescope A telescope that employs
a lens to bend and concentrate the light from dis- Rock our Ground-up rock produced by the quakes.
tant objects. grinding effect of a glacier. Seismic waves A rapidly moving ocean wave
Refraction The process by which the portion of Rock-forming minerals The minerals that generated by earthquake activity capable of
a wave in shallow water slows, causing the wave make up most of the rocks of Earths crust. inicting heavy damage in coastal regions.
728 Glossary

Seismogram The record made by a seismograph. Slump The downward slipping of a mass of rock Spicule A narrow jet of rising material in the
Seismograph An instrument that records earth- or unconsolidated material moving as a unit solar chromosphere.
quake waves. along a curved surface. Spiral galaxy A attened, rotating galaxy with
Seismology The study of earthquakes and seis- Small solar system bodies Solar system objects pinwheel-like arms of interstellar material and
mic waves. not classied as planets or moons that include young stars winding out from its nucleus.
dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and rneteoroids. Spit An elongated ridge of sand that projects from
Semiarid See Steppe.
Snow A solid form of precipitation produced by the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay.
Semidiurnal tidal pattern A tidal pattern
sublimination of water vapor. Spreading center See Divergent boundary.
exhibiting two high tides and two low tides per
tidal day with small inequalities between succes- Snowiield An area where snow persists year- Spring A flow of groundwater that emerges nat-
sive highs and successive lows; a semi-daily tide. round. urally at the ground surface.
Settling velocity The speed at which a particle Snowline Lower limit of perennial snow. Spring equinox The equinox that occurs on
falls through a still uid. The size, shape, and spe- Soil A combination of mineral and organic mat- March 21-22 in the Northern Hemisphere and on
cic gravity of particles inuence settling velocity. ter, water, and air; that portion of the regolith that September 21-23 in the Southern Hemisphere.
Shadow zone The zone between 104 and M3 supports plant growth. Spring tide Highest tidal range that occurs near
degrees distance from an earthquake epicenter in Soil horizon A layer of soil that has identiable the times of the new and full moons.
which direct waves do not arrive because of characteristics produced by chemical weathering Stable air Air that resists vertical displacement. If
refraction by Earths core. and other soil-forming processes. it is lifted, adiabatic cooling will cause its tempera-
Sheeting A mechanical weathering process Soil profile A vertical section through a soil ture to be lower than the surrounding environment;
characterized by the splitting-off of slablike sheets showing its succession of horizons and the under- if it is allowed, it will sink to its original position.
of rock. lying parent material. Stable platform That part of the craton that is
Shelf break The point where a rapid steepening Soil taxonomy A soil classification system con- mantled by relatively undeformed sedimentary
of the gradient occurs, marking the outer edge of sisting of six hierarchical categories based on rocks and underlain by a basement complex of
the continental shelf and the beginning of the observable soil characteristics. The system recog- igneous and metamorphic rocks.
continental slope. nizes 12 soil orders. Stalactite The icicle-like structure that hangs
Shield A large, relatively at expanse of ancient Soil texture The relative proportions of clay, silt, from the ceiling of a cavern.
metamorphic rock within the stable continental and sand in a soil. Texture strongly inuences the Stalagmite The columnlike form that grows
interior. soils ability to retain and transmit water and air. upward from the floor of a cavern.
Shield volcano A broad, gently sloping volcano Solar constant The rate at which solar radiation Star dune Isolated hill of sand that exhibits a
built from fluid basaltic lavas. is received outside Earths atmosphere on a sur- complex form and develops where wind direc-
Shore Seaward of the coast, this zone extends face perpendicular to the Surfs rays when Earth is tions are variable.
from the highest level of wave action during at an average distance from the Sun. Stationary front A situation in which the sur-
storms to the lowest tide level. Solar eclipse An eclipse of the Sun. face position of a front does not move; the ow on
Shoreline The line that marks the contact Solar flare A sudden and tremendous eruption either side of such a boundary is nearly parallel to
between land and sea. It migrates up and down as in the solar chromosphere. the position of the front.
the tide rises and falls. Solar nebula The cloud of interstellar gas Steam fog Fog having the appearance of steam,
Sidereal day The period of Earths rotation with and/'or dust from which the bodies of our solar produced by evaporation from a warm water sur-
respect to the stars. system formed. face into the cool air above.
Sidereal month A time period based on the Solar winds Subatomic particles ejected at high Stellar parallax A measure of stellar distance.
revolution of the Moon around Earth with respect speed from the solar corona. Steppe One of the two types of dry climate. A
to the stars. ' Soliiluction Slow, downslope ow of water-sat- marginal and more humid variant of the desert
Silicate Any one of numerous minerals that urated materials common to permafrost areas. that separates it from bordering humid climates.
have the oxygen and silicon tetrahedron as their Solstice The time when the vertical rays of the Stock A pluton similar to but smaller than a
basic structure. Sun are striking either the Tropic of Cancer or the batholith.
Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron A structure com- Tropic of Capricorn. Solstice represents the longest Stony meteorite One of the three main cate-
posed of four oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon or shortest day (length of daylight) of the year. gories of meteorites. Such meteorites are com-
atom that constitutes the basic building block of Solum The O, A, and B horizons in a soil prole. posed largely of silicate minerals with inclusions
silicate minerals. Living roots and other plant and animal life are of other minerals.
Sill A tabular igneous body that was intruded largely confined to this zone. Stony-iron meteorite One of the three main
parallel to the layering of preexisting rock. Sorting The process by which solid particles of categories of meteorites. This group, as the name
Sinkhole A depression produced in a region various sizes are separated by moving water or implies, is a mixture of iron and silicate minerals.
where soluble rock has been removed by ground- wind. Also, the degree of similarity in particle size Storm surge The abnormal rise of the sea along
water. in sediment or sedimentary rock. a shore as a result of strong winds.
Slab pull A mechanism that contributes to plate Source region The area where an air mass Strata Parallel layers of sedimentary rock.
motion in which cool, dense oceanic crust sinks acquires its characteristic properties of tempera- Stratified drift Sediments deposited by glacial
into the mantle and pulls the trailing lithos- ture and moisture. meltwater.
phere along. Specific gravity The ratio of a substances Stratopause The boundary between the stratos-
Sleet Frozen or semifrozen rain formed when weight to the weight of an equal volume ofwater. phere and the mesosphere.
raindrops freeze as they pass through a layer of Spectral class A classication of a star accord- Stratosphere The layer of the atmosphere
cold air. ing to the characteristics of its spectrum. immediately above the troposphere, character-
Slide A movement common to mass-wasting Spectroscope An instrument for directly view- ized by increasing temperatures with height,
processes in which the material moving downs- ing the spectrum of a light source. owing to the concentration of ozone.
lope remains fairly coherent and moves along a Spectroscopy The study of spectra. Stratovolcano See Composite cone.
well-defined surface. Spheroidal weathering Any weathering Stratus One of three basic cloud forms; also, the
Slip face The steep, leeward slope of a sand process that tends to produce a spherical shape name given one of the flow clouds. They are sheets
dune; it maintains an angle of about 34 degrees. from an initially blocky shape. or layers that cover much or all of the sky.
 Glossary 729

Streak The color of a mineral in powdered form. Superposition In any undeformed sequence of Thermal metamorphism See Contact meta-
sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the lay- morphism.
Stream Valley The channel, valley oor, and
sloping valley walls of a stream. ers above and younger than the layers below. Thermocline A layer of water in which there is a
Stress The force per unit area acting on any sur- Supersaturation The condition of being more rapid change in temperature in the vertical
face within a solid. highly concentrated than is normally possible dimension.
under given temperature and pressure condi- Therrnohaline circulation Movements of
Striations (glacial) Scratches or grooves in a tions. When describing humidity, it refers to a rel-
bedrock surface caused by the grinding action of ocean water caused by density differences brought
ative humidity that is greater than 100 percent. about by variations in temperature and salinity.
a glacier and its load of sediment.
Surf A collective term for breakers; also, the Thermosphere The region of the atmosphere
Strike-slip fault A fault along which the move- wave activity in the area between the shoreline
ment is horizontal. immediately above the mesosphere and charac-
and the outer limit of breakers. terized by increasing temperatures due to absorp-
Stromatolite Structures that are deposited by Surface soil The uppermost layer in a soil pro- tion of very shortwave solar energy by oxygen.
algae and consist of layered mounds of calcium le: the A horizon.
carbonate. Thrust fault A low-angle reverse fault.
Surface Waves Seismic waves that travel along
Subarctic climate A climate found north of the Thunder The sound emitted by rapidly expand-
the outer layer of Earth.
humid continental climate and south of the polar ing gases along the channel of lightning discharge.
Suspended load The ne sediment carried
climate and characterized by bitterly cold winters Thunderstorm A storm produced by a cumu-
within the body of owing water.
and short, cool summers. Places within this cli- lonimbus cloud and always accompanied by
matic realm experience the highest annual tem- Swells Wind-generated waves that have moved
lightning and thunder. It is of relatively short
perature ranges on Earth. into an area of weaker winds or calm.
duration and usually accompanied by strong
Subduction The process of thrusting oceanic Syncline A linear downfold in sedimentary wind gusts, heavy rain, and sometimes hail.
lithosphere into the mantle along a convergent strata; the opposite of anticline.
Tidal current The alternating horizontal move-
boundary. Synodic month The period of revolution of the ment ofwater associated with the rise and fall of
Moon with respect to the Sun, or its cycle of phases. the tide.
Suhduction Zone Along, narrow zone where
one lithospheric plate descends beneath another. System Any size group of interacting parts that
Tidal delta A deltalike feattue created when a
form a complex whole.
Sublimation The conversion of a solid directly rapidly moving tidal current emerges from a narrow
to a gas without passing through the liquid state. Talus An accumulation of rock debris at the base inlet and slows, depositing its load of sediment.
of a cliff.
Submarine canyon A seaward extension of a Tidal flat A marshy or muddy area that is cov-
valley that was cut on the continental shelf during Tarn A small lake in a cirque. ered and uncovered by the rise and fall of the tide.
a time when sea level was lower, or a canyon Tectonic plate A coherent unit of Earths rigid Tide Periodic change in the elevation of the
carved into the outer continental shelf, slope, and outer layer that includes the crust and upper unit. ocean surface.
rise by turbidity currents. Tectonics The study of the large-scale processes
? Till Unsorted sediment deposited directly by a
Submergent coast A coast with a form that is that collectively deform Earth s crust.
glacier.
largely the result of the partial drowning of a for- Temperature A measure of the degree of hot-
mer land surface either because of a rise of sea ness or coldness of a substance; a measure of the Tombolo A ridge of sand that connects an island
level or subsidence of the crust or both. to the mainland or to another island.
avemge kinetic energy of individual atoms or
Subpolar low Low pressure located at about the molecules in a substance. Tornado A small, very intense cyclonic storm
latitudes of the Arctic and Antarctic circles. in the Temperature inversion A layer in the atmo- with exceedingly high winds, most often pro-
Northern Hemisphere the low takes the form of sphere of limited depth where the temperature duced along cold fronts in conjunction with
individual oceanic cells; in the Southern Hemi- increases rather than decreases with height. severe thunderstorms.
sphere there is a deep and continuous trough of Temporary (local) base level The level of a Tornado warning A warning issued when a
low pressure. lake, resistant rock layer, or any other base level tornado has actually been sighted in an area or is
Subsoil A term applied to the B horizon of a soil that stands above sea level. indicated by radar.
profile. Tenacity Describes a rninerals toughness or its Tornado Watch A warning issued for areas of
Subtropical high Not a continuous belt of high resistance to breaking or deforming. about 65,000 square kilometers (25,000 square
pressure but rather several semipermanent, anti- Terminal moraine The end moraine marking miles), indicating that conditions are such that
cyclonic centers characterized by subsidence and the farthest advance of a glacier. tornadoes may develop; it is intended to alert
divergence located roughly between latitudes 25 people to the possibility of tornadoes.
Terrace A at, benchlike structure produced by
and 35 degrees. a stream, which was left elevated as the stream Trade winds Two belts of winds that blow
Summer solstice The solstice that occurs on cut downward. almost constantly from easterly directions and are
Iune 21-22 in the Northern Hemisphere and on located on the equatorward sides of the subtropi-
Terrae The extensively cratered highland areas
December 21-22 in the Southern Hemisphere. cal highs.
of the Moon.
Sunspot A dark spot on the Sun, which is cool by Terrane A crustal block bounded by faults, Transform fault A major strike-slip fault that
contrast to the surrounding photosphere. whose geologic history is distinct from the histo- cuts through the lithosphere and accommodates
Supercontinent A large landmass that contains ries of adjoining crustal blocks. motion between two plates.
all, or nearly all, of the existing continents. Terrestrial planets Any of the Earth-like plan- Transform fault boundary A boundary in
Supercontinent cycle The idea that the rifting ets, including Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth. which two plates slide past one another without
and dispersal of one supercontinent is followed creating or destroying lithosphere.
Terrigenous sediment Seaoor sediments
by a long period during which the fragments derived from terrestrial weathering and erosion. Transpiration The release of water vapor to the
gradually reassemble into a new supercontinent. Texture The size, shape, and distribution of the atmosphere by plants.
Supercooled The condition of water droplets particles that collectively constitute a rock. Transported soil Soils that form on unconsoli-
that remain in the liquid state at temperatures Theory A well-tested and widely accepted view dated deposits.
well below 0 C. that explains certain observable facts. Transverse dunes A series of long ridges ori-
Supergiant A very large star of high luminosity. Thermal gradient The increase in temperature ented at right angles to the prevailing wind; these
Supernova An exploding star that increases in with depth. It averages 1 C per 30 meters (1-2 F dunes form where vegetation is sparse and sand
brightness many thousands of times. per 100 feet) in the crust. is very plentiful.
 730 Glossary if

Travertine A form of limestone (CaCO3) that is Unsaturated zone The area above the water Wave-cut platform A bench or shelf in the
deposited by hot springs or as a cave deposit. table where openings in soil, sediment, and rock bedrock at sea level, cut by wave erosion.
Trellis pattern A system of streams in which are not saturated but filled mainly with air. Wave height The vertical distance between the
nearly parallel tributaries occupy valleys cut in Unstable air Air that does not resist vertical dis- trough and crest of a wave.
folded strata. placement. If it is lifted, its temperature will not Wave of oscillation A water wave in which the
Trench An elongated depression in the seaoor cool as rapidly as the surrounding environment, wave form advances as the water particles move
produced by bending of oceanic crust during sub- so it will continue to rise on its own. in circular orbits.
duction. Upslope fog Fog created when air moves up a Wave of translation The turbulent advance of
Trophic level A nourishment level in a food slope and cools adiabatically. water created by breaking waves.
chain. Plant and algae producers constitute the Upwelling The rising of cold water from deeper Wave period The time interval between the
lowest level, followed by herbivores and a series of layers to replace warmer surface water that has passage of successive crests at a stationary
carnivores at progressively higher levels. been moved away. point.
Tropic of Cancer The parallel of latitude, 23/.5 Urban heat island The fact that temperatures Wave refraction See Refraction.
degrees north latitude, marking the northern limit within a city are generally higher than in sur-
of the Suns vertical rays. Wavelength The horizontal distance separating
rounding rural areas. successive crests or troughs.
Tropic of Capricorn The parallel of latitude, Valence electron The electrons involved in the
23% degrees south latitude, marking the south- Weather The state of the atmosphere at any
bonding process; the electrons occupying the given time.
ern limit of the Sun's verticalrays. highest-principal energy level of an atom.
Tropical depression By international agree- Weathering The disintegration and decomposi-
Valley breeze The daily upslope winds com- tion of rock at or near Earths surface.
ment, a tropical cyclone with maximum winds that monly encountered in a mountain valley.
do not exceed 61 kilometers (38 miles) per hour. Welded tuff A pyroclastic rock composed of
Valley glacier See Alpine glacier. particles that have been fused together by the
Tropical rain forest A luxuriant broadleaf ever-
green forest; also, the name given the climate Valley train A relatively narrow body of strati- combination of heat still contained in the deposit
associated with this vegetation. ed drift deposited on a valley oor by meltwater after it has come to rest and by the weight of over-
streams that issue from a valley glacier. lying material.
Tropical storm By international agreement, a
tropical cyclone with maximum winds between Vapor pressure That part of the total atmospheric Well An opening bored into the zone of
61 and 119 kilometers [38 and '74 miles) per hour. pressure attributable to water-vapor content. saturation.
Tropical Wet and dry A climate that is transi- Variable stars Red giants that overshoot equi- Westerlies The dominant west-to-east motion
tional between the wet tropics and the subtropical librium, then alternately expand and contract. of the atmosphere that characterizes the regions
steppes. Vein deposit A mineral lling a fracture or fault on the poleward side of the subtropical highs.
Tropopause The boundary between the tropos- in a host rock. Such deposits have a sheetlike, or Wet adiabatic rate The rate of adiabatic tem-
phere and the stratosphere. tabular, form. perature change in samrated air. The rate of tem-
Troposphere The lowermost layer of the atmos- Vent The surface opening of a conduit or pipe. perature change is variable, but it is always less
phere. It is generally characterized by a decrease than the dry adiabatic rate.
Ventifact A cobble or pebble polished and
in temperature with height. shaped by the sandblasting effect of wind. White dwarf A star that has exhausted most or
Tsunami The Iapanese word for a seismic sea all of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a very
Vesicular texture A term applied to igneous small size; believed to be near its final stage of
wave. rocks that contain small cavities called vesicles,
evolution.
Tundra climate Found almost exclusively in which are formed when gases escape from lava.
the Northern Hemisphere or at high altitudes in White frost Ice crystals instead of dew that
Viscosity A measure of a fluids resistance to ow. form on surfaces when the dew point is below
many mountainous regions. A treeless climatic
Visible light Radiation with a wavelength from freezing.
realm of sedges, grasses,_mosses, and lichens that
0.4 to 0.7 micrometer. Wind Air flowing horizontally with respect to
is dominated by a long, bitterly cold winter.
Volatiles Gaseous components of magma dis- Earths surface.
Turbidite Turbidity current deposit character-
solved in the melt. Volatiles will readily vaporize Wind vane An instrument used to determine
ized by graded bedding.
(form a gas) at surface pressures. wind direction.
Turbidity current A downslope movement of
dense, sediment-laden water created when sand Volcanic bomb A streamlined pyroclastic frag- Winter solstice The solstice that occurs on
and mud on the continental shelf and slope are ment ejected from a volcano while molten. December 21-22 in the Northern Hemisphere and
dislodged and thrown into suspension. Volcanic island arc A chain of volcanic islands on Iune 21-22 in the Southern Hemisphere.
Turbulent flow The movement of water in an generally located a few hundred kilometers from Yazoo tributary A tributary that ows parallel
erratic fashion, often characterized by swirling, a trench where active subduction of one oceanic to the main stream because a natural levee is pre-
whirlpool-like eddies. Most streamow is of this slab beneath another is occurring. sent.
type. Volcanic neck An isolated, steep-sided, ero- Zodiac A band along the ecliptic containing the
Ultimate base level Sea level; the lowest level sional remnant consisting of lava that once occu- l2 constellations of the zodiac.
to which stream erosion could lower the land. pied the vent of a volcano.
Zone of accumulation The part of a glacier
Ultramac composition Igneous rocks corn- Volcano A mountain formed of lava ar1d/or characterized by snow accumulation and ice for-
posed mainly of iron and magnesium-rich minerals. pyroclastics. mation. Its outer limit is the snowline.
Ultraviolet Radiation with a wavelength from Warm. front A front along which a warm air Zone of fracture The upper portion of a glacier
0.2 to 0.1-i micrometer. mass overrides a retreating mass of cooler air. consisting of brittle ice.
Umbra The central, completely dark part of a Wash A common term for a desert stream Zone of saturation Zone where all open spaces
shadow produced during an eclipse. course that is typically dry except for brief periods in sediment and rock are completely lled with
Unconformity A surface that represents a break in immediately following a rain. water.
the rock record, caused by erosion or nondeposition. Water table The upper level of the saturated Zone of wastage The part of a glacier beyond
Uniformitarianism The concept that the zone of groundwater. the zone of accumulation where all of the snow
processes that have shaped Earth in the geologic Wave-cut cliff A seaward-facing cliff along a from the previous winter melts, as does some of
past are essentially the same as those operating steep shoreline formed by wave erosion at its base the glacial ice.
today. and mass wasting. Zooplankton Animal plankton.