KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

YEAR 3, SEMESTER 1

INTRUMENTATION COURSE WORK

NAME; WATUM SIMON PETER

ADMISSION NUMBER; 15/U/5250/CHD/PD

SIGNATURE
MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL
Liquid level refers to the position or height of a liquid surface above a datum line.
Level measurements are made to a certain quantity of the liquid held with in a container.
Level offers both the pressure and rate of flow in and out of the container and as such its
measurement and control is an important function in a variety of processes. The task of liquid
level measurement may be accomplished by direct methods and indirect methods.
(1) Direct methods
(2) Indirect methods

(1) DIRECT METHODS

This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the level of liquid is
measured directly by means of the following level indicators:
(i) Hook-type Level Indicator
(ii) Sight Glass
(iii) Float-type
(iv) Float and shaft liquid level gauge.
(i) Hook-type Level Indicator:
When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale (the scale may be in the
liquid or outside it), it is sometimes difficult to read the level accurately because of parallax
error. In this case a hook type of level indicator is used.
Construction:
Hook-type level indicator consists of a wire of corrosion resisting alloy (such as stainless steel)
about in (0.063 mm) diameter. Bent into U-Shane with one arm longer than the other as
shown in Figure above. The shorter arm is pointed with a 60 tater. While the longer one is
attached to a slider having a Vernier scale. Which moves over the main scale and indicates the
level.
Working:
In hook-type level indicator, the hook is pushed below the surface of liquid whose level is to be
measured and gradually raised until the point is just about to break through the surface. It is
then clamped, and the level is read on the scale. This principle is further utilized in the
measuring point manometer in which the measuring point consists of a steel point fixed with
the point upwards underneath the water surface.
(ii) Sight Glass:
A sight glass (also called a gauge glass) is another method of liquid level measurement. It is
used for the
continuous indication of liquid level within, tank or vessel.

Construction and working:

A sight glass instrument consists of a graduated tube of toughened glass which is connected to
the interior of the tank at the bottom in which the water level is required. Figure shows a
simple sight glass for an open tank in which the liquid level in the sight glass matches the level
of liquid in the tank, as the Ievel of liquid in the tank rises and falls, the level in the sight glass
also rises and falls accordingly. Thus, by measuring the level in the sight glass, the level of liquid
in the tank is measured. In sight glass, it is not necessary to use the same liquid as in the tank.
Any other desired liquid also can be used.
(iii) Float-type:
FIoat-Type Level Indicator moat operated level indicator is used to measure liquid levels in a
tank in which a float rests on the surface of liquid and follows the changing level of liquid. The
movement of the float is transmitted to a pointer through a suitable mechanism which
indicates the level on a calibrated scale. Various types of floats are used such as hollow mewl
spheres, cylindrical-shaped floats and disc- shaped floats.

Figure shows the simplest form of float operated mechanism for the continuous liquid level
measurement. In this case, the movement of the float is transmitted to the pointer by stainless
steel or phosphor-bronze flexible cable wound around a pulley, and the pointer indicates liquid
level in the tank. The float is made of corrosion resisting material (such as stainless steel) and
rests on liquid level surface between two grids to avoid error due to turbulence, With this type
of instrument, liquid level from ft. (152 mm) to 60, ft. (1.52 m) can be easily measured.
(2) INDIRECT METHODS:
Indirect methods liquid level measurements converts the changes in liquid level into some
other form such as resistive, capacitive or inductive beyond force, hydrostatic pressure Etc.
and measures them. Thus the change occurred in these parameters gives the measures of liquid
level.
(i) CAPACITIVE LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR:

The principle of operation of capacitance level indicator is based upon the familiar capacitance
equation of a parallel plate capacitor given by:

where, C = Capacitance, in farad

K = Dielectric constant
A = area of plate, in 2
D= Distance between two plates. in m
Therefore, it is seen from the above elation that if A and D are constant, then the capacitance
of a capacitor is directly proportional to the dielectric constant, and this principle is utilized in
the capacitance level indicator.
Figure shows a capacitance type Liquid level indicator. It consists of an insulated capacitance
probe (which is a metal electrode) firmly fixed near and parallel to the maul wall of the tank If
liquid in the tank is non-inductive, the capacitance probe and the tank wall form the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor and liquid in between them acts as the dielectric. If liquid is conductive,
the capacitance probe and liquid form the plates of the capacitor and the insulation of the
probe acts as the dielectric. A capacitance measuring device is connected with the probe and
the tank wall, which is calibrated in terms of the level of liquid in the tank.
(ii) Ultrasonic method:

Ultrasonic liquid level works on the principle of reflection of the sound wave from the surface
of the liquid. The schematic arrangement of liquid level measurement by ultrasonic liquid level
gauge is illustrated above. The transmitter T sends the ultrasonic wave towards the free
surface of the liquid. The wave gets reflected from the surface. The reflected waves received by
the receiver R. The time taken by the transmitted wave to travel to the surface of the liquid
and then back to the receives gives the level of the liquid. As the level of the liquid reaches the
time taken to reach the surface of the liquid and then back to receiver also changes. Thus the
change in the level of the liquid are determined accurately.
Advantages: -
1. Operating principle is very simple.
2. It can be used for various types of liquids and solid substances.
Disadvantages: -
1. Very expensive.
2. Very experienced and skilled operator is required for measurement.
 (iii) MAGNETIC TYPE LEVEL INDICATORS:

These are used for measuring the toxic and corrosive liquids. It is used to measure the level of
liquids which contain corrosive and toxic materials. It contains a float in which a magnet is
arranged and is placed in the chamber, whose liquid level is to be determined. The float moves
up and down with the increase and decrease in the level of liquid respectively. A magnetic
shielding device and an indicator containing small wafers arranged in series and attached to the
sealed chamber. These wafers are coated with luminous paint and rotate 180o. As the level
changes the float moves (along with the magnet) up and down. Due to this movement of
magnet, wafers rotate and present a black coloured surface for the movement of float in
opposite direction.
(iv) Cryogenic fuel level indicator:
A gas which changes its state (gaseous state into liquid state). When cooled to very low
temperatures is known as cryogenic fluid. A cryogenic fluid exists in liquid state at very low
temperatures, which are usually less than the temperature levels at which a superconductor
exhibits zero resistance characteristic.
(v) Bubbler level indicator:
The Bubbler type level indicator is also known as purge type of liquid level meter.

In this technique of level measurement, the air pressure in the pneumatic pipeline is adjusted
and maintained slightly greater than the hydrostatic pressure at the lower end of the bubbler
tube. The bubbler tube is dipped in the tank such that its lower end is at zero level i.e.,
reference level, and the other end is attached to a pressure regulator and a pressure gauge.
Now the supply of air through the bubbler tube is adjusted so that the air pressure is slightly
higher than the pressure exerted by the liquid column in the vessel or tank. This is
accomplished by adjusting the air pressure regulator until a slow discharge of air takes place
i.e., bubbles are seen leaving the lower end of the bubbler tube. (In some cases a small air flow
meter is arranged to control an excessive air flow if any). When there is a small flow of air and
the fluid has uniform density, the pressure indicated by the pressure gauge is directly
proportional to the height of the level in the tank provided the gauge is calibrated properly in
unit of liquid level.
MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR RADIATION AND MASS SPECTROMETRY/SPECTROCOPY
1) NUCLEAR RADIATION
Radiation is measured using a Geiger counter. The Geiger counter is an instrument used for
measuring ionizing radiation.

Detecting radiation using a Geiger-Muller tube

The ionising effect of radiation is used in the Geiger-Muller (GM) tube as a means of detecting
the radiation.
The GM tube is a hollow cylinder filled with a gas at low pressure. The tube has a thin window
made of mica at one end. There is a central electrode inside the GM tube. A voltage supply is
connected across the casing of the tube and the central electrode as shown in the following
diagram.

When an alpha or beta or gamma radiation enters the tube it produces ions in the gas. The ions
created in the gas enable the tube to conduct. A current is produced in the tube for a short
time. The current produces a voltage pulse. Each voltage pulse corresponds to one ionising
radiation entering the GM tube. The voltage pulse is amplified and counted.

2) MASS SPECTROMETER

Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spectrometry is widely used to determine and identify the elements present in
samples and to determine their concentrations.
Mass Spectrometry is also used to measure the relative atomic mass of an element and
to measure the relative molecular mass of a substance.
Mass Spectrometry Process

There are four key stages in the process for Mass Spectrometry.
1. Ionisation
2. Acceleration
3. Deflection
4. Detection

Stage 1 Ionisation

Electro Ionisation is the most common type of ionisation.

The sample is bombarded by electrons which come from a heated filament.
The electrons run in a stream between the cathode and anode.
 When the sample passes through the electron stream, the high energy electrons in the
stream knock electrons out of the sample to form ions.

Stage 2 Acceleration

Acceleration is a simple step where the ions are placed between a set of charges parallel
plates.
The ions will then be repelled by one plate and attracted to the other.
There is a slit cut in the plate which the ions are attracted to. the force of attraction and
repulsion forces the ions through the slit at an accelerated rate.
The speed of acceleration can be adjusted by changing the charge on the plates.

Stage 3 Deflection

Ions are deflected by the magnetic field surrounding the instrument.

The amount of deflection depends on the mass and charge of the ions.
 The heavier ions and ions with a positive charge of 2 or more, are deflected the least
(Ion stream C)
The lightest ions and ions with 1 positive charge are deflected the most (Ion Stream A)
The ions at the correct mass and charge travel to the detector. (Ion Stream B)
The mass to charge ratio (m/z) is determined from the ion that hits the detector.

Step 4 Detection

When the ion stream reached the detector the hit a wire. On hitting the wire they
become neutralised by an electron jumping from the metal wire to the ion.
The amplifier picks up on this current being created between the wire and the ion and
amplifies the signal being detected.
The computer picks up on this and converts it to mass/charge ratio and a spectrum is
produced.
Applications of Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spectrometry as a technique can be coupled with other techniques such as HPLC
and GC.
As it is used in the identification of compounds it is used in all areas of science.
Some of its uses are:
1. Trace Gas Analysis
2. Pharmaceutical Industry
3. Space Exploration
4. Forensic Toxicology
5. Archaeological Dating.