Revista de Toxicologa

ISSN: 0212-7113
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Asociacin Espaola de Toxicologa
Espaa

Gil, L; Ruiz, P; Font, G; Manyes, L

An overview of the applications of hazards analysis and critical control point (HACCP)
system to mycotoxins
Revista de Toxicologa, vol. 33, nm. 1, -, 2016, pp. 50-55
Asociacin Espaola de Toxicologa
Pamplona, Espaa

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 Rev. Toxicol (2016) 33:50-55

An overview of the applications of hazards analysis and critical control point

(HACCP) system to mycotoxins
Gil L, Ruiz P, Font G, Manyes L*
Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology. Faculty of Pharmacy. University of Valencia. Burjassot. Spain

Abstract: Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungal products or animal products derived from animals fed on
species that commonly contaminate staple foods and feeds. The contaminated feeds (Lee et al., 2001). The worldwide contamination
worldwide mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is a problem of food and feed with mycotoxins is a significant problem as it is
of public health as it is shown in the total mycotoxin notifications shown in the total mycotoxin notifications reported by Rapid Alert
reported by Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed in the European System for Food and Feed of 495 only after pathogenic
Union. The inclusion of mycotoxin control in food and feed micro-organisms (European Commission 2015).
manufacturing hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)
system is widely used as prevention of mycotoxin occurrence. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of fungi belonging,
essentially, to the Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium genera.
Several food commodities are mainly involved in control These naturally occurring chemical compounds can be produced on a
mycotoxins as cereals, grapes, coffee, nuts, milk and wine wide range of agricultural commodities and under a diverse range of
manufacturers. Moreover, feed is particularly vulnerable to situations worldwide. Significant economic losses are associated with
mycotoxin contamination because typically lower quality their impact on human health, animal productivity, and both domestic
ingredients are used and HACCP is used to quality control. and international trade. There is an ongoing need to protect the health
of humans and susceptible animals by limiting their exposure to
Aflatoxins and ochratoxins are the most determined mycotoxins for mycotoxins (FAO, 2001). They affect a wide range of agricultural
controlling the quality of the products by rapid tests and liquid products, including cereals, dried fruits, nuts, coffee beans and
chromatography methods. oilseeds, which are the backbone of most developing economies.
Despite many years of research, and the introduction of good These major crops are highly susceptible to fungal contamination and
practices in the food production, storage and distribution chain, mycotoxin production. Mycotoxin contamination of susceptible
mycotoxins continue to be a concern in food safety. commodities occurs as a result of environmental conditions in the field
as well as improper harvesting, storage and processing operations.
Key words: Mycotoxins, HACCP, food, feed, food safety. Exposure to mycotoxins can produce both acute and chronic toxicities
Resumen: Una visin general de las aplicaciones del anlisis de ranging from death to deleterious effects upon the central nervous,
peligros y puntos crticos de control (APPCC) a las micotoxinas cardiovascular and pulmonary systems, and upon the alimentary tract.
Las micotoxinas son metabolitos txicos producidos por especies de They may also be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and
hongos que comnmente contaminan los alimentos bsicos y immunosuppressive (Marin et al, 2013).
piensos. La contaminacin mundial de alimentos y piensos con The HACCP system has been increasingly and successfully applied
micotoxinas es un problema de salud pblica, como se muestra en by the food industry and by official food control authorities to prevent
las notificaciones de micotoxinas totales registradas por el Sistema and control risks associated with potential contamination of food
de Alerta Rpida para Alimentos y Piensos en la Unin Europea. El products with pathogenic micro-organisms and chemical toxicants.
control de las micotoxinas en la produccin de alimentos y piensos Food safety programs routinely use information about the factors
en el sistema de Anlisis de Peligros y Puntos Crticos de Control leading to contamination to establish preventive and control
(HACCP) es ampliamente utilizado como prevencin de la presencia procedures, thus providing the consumer with a safe, wholesome food
de micotoxinas. supply (Aiko and Mehta 2015).
Varios productos alimenticios estn principalmente involucrados en The expansion of global market has recalled more and more the
el control de micotoxinas como cereales, uvas, caf, frutos secos, attention of the researchers on the presence of mycotoxins in the
leche y el vino. Adems, los piensos son particularmente vulnerables foodstuff trying to limit health damages fixing more restrictive limits
a la contaminacin por micotoxinas debido a emplear ingredientes for the presence of mycotoxins in the single food products. Many
tpicamente de menor calidad, por lo que el sistema de HACCP se countries regulate for, or suggest permitted levels of, mycotoxins in
utiliza para el control de calidad. foods and feed because of their public health significance and
Las aflatoxinas y ocratoxinas son las micotoxinas ms analizadas commercial and the governmental agencies concerned make efforts to
para controlar la calidad de los productos por pruebas inmunolgicas prevent the presence of mycotoxins; establishment of tolerances and
rpidas y mtodos cromatogrficos. guidelines regarding the analysis and control of these compounds by
programs conducted to audit the status of these natural contaminants
A pesar de muchos aos de investigacin, y la introduccin de in foods (Alonzo et al., 2008).
buenas prcticas en la cadena de produccin de alimentos,
almacenamiento y distribucin, las micotoxinas siguen siendo un While humans are adapting to cope with environmental changes, such
motivo de preocupacin en seguridad alimentaria. as food scarcity, decreased food quality, mycotoxin regulations, crop
production and seasonality, and other climate related modifications,
Palabras claves: Micotoxinas, APPCC, alimentos, piensos, fungal species are also adapting so increased cases of mycotoxin
seguridad alimentaria. adverse health effects are likely to occur in the future. To guarantee
access to quality food for everybody, it is needed a way to balance
Introduction global mycotoxin standards with the realistic feasibility of reaching
Food safety is a term broadly applied to food quality that may them, considering limitations of producers and designing strategies to
adversely affect human health. These include zoonotic diseases and reduce mycotoxin exposure based on sound research (Marroqun-
acute and chronic effects of ingesting natural and human-made Cardona et al., 2014).
xenobiotics. Fungus and associated mycotoxins are important HACCP has been introduced to promote food safety from farm to table
factors adversely affecting foods produced using contaminated plant by reducing hazardous biological, chemical and physical agents (Lee
et al., 2001). Prevention of food risks means enforcing international
*e-mail: [email protected] regulations on the part of the member states of the World Trade

50 Rev. Toxicol (2016) 33:50-55

 An overview of the applications of hazards analysis and critical control point (HACCP) system to mycotoxins
Organization, increasing vigilance with regard to illegal imports of Mycotoxin analysis is usually carried out by liquid or gas
food, systematically investigating collective food-borne outbreaks, chromatography methods. These methods normally involve
and finally implementing controls according to the HACCP system determination of a single or several compounds. EU legislation
(Buisson et al., 2008). already exists for the aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fusarium toxins, patulin
and citrinin in food (Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006).
This paper reviews the control of mycotoxin contamination of food
and feed in the context of HACCP in economic sectors as feed, Mycotoxin citrinin (CIT) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were
cereals, coffee, dried fruits, grapes, milk, nut and wine. simultaneously identified using immunoaffinity column-high
performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection.
Techniques for toxin detection and quantification to With the proposed method, CIT and OTA were both quickly
HACCP purposes determined in table olives and could be used to detect of mycotoxin
A number of steps should be taken to minimize mycotoxin risks in a HACCP quality system of olive and olive-based food
contamination worldwide. Within several countries, analytical products (Tokusoglu et al, 2010).
methods to determine mycotoxin levels for regulatory purposes must To enforce the various legal limits, it would be preferable to determine
fulfill to certain performance criteria. Decisions relating to matters all mycotoxins by routine analysis in different types of matrices in one
of regulatory or commercial arbitration need to be based on agreed single extract. This would also be advantageous for HACCP control
and well defined methods of analysis, which are normally laboratory purposes. For this reason, a multi-method was developed with which
based. These data are also often sufficient to verify food safety 33 mycotoxins: Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxin A,
management systems. deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, a-zearalenol, a-
Rapid tests and liquid chromatography methods for the rapid zearalanol, b-zearalanol, sterigmatocystin, cyclopiazonic acid,
detection and quantification of toxins have been developed to penicillic acid, fumonisins B1, B2 and B3, diacetoxyscirpenol, 3- and
HACCP purposes. 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, zearalanone, ergotamin, ergocornin,
ergocristin, a-ergocryptin, citrinin, roquefortin C, fusarenone X,
Rapid tests based on immunoassay products nivalenol, mycophenolic acid, alternariol and alternariol monomethyl
ether. The multi-mycotoxin method has been proven by the detection
Within the commercial environment it is critical for those purchasing
of more than one mycotoxin in maize, buckwheat, figs and nuts. The
raw materials to satisfy themselves that any delivery meets
LCMS/MS technique has also been applied to baby food, which is
regulatory and specification requirements. Decisions to accept or
subject to lower limits for aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, ergot
reject deliveries usually need to be taken within short time periods.
alkaloids in naturally contaminated rye and freeze-dried silage
This requires the use of rapid reliable analytical methodology based
samples (Spanjer et al., 2008).
in immunoassay products; furthermore, the methods need to be of
minimal complexity as rapid test kits (Alldrick, 2014). Rapid test Economic sectors sensitive to the contamination by
methods are increasingly being promoted as tools for food mycotoxins
companies to validate and or verify the efficacy of their food safety
management systems (Alldrick et al, 2009). In order to gain further It is included mycotoxins (Tables 1) and ochratoxin A (Table 2) in
information about the use of these tests a questionnaire-based survey commodities and geographical distribution of HACCP studies.
was conducted in 17 countries, 11 European Union members and 6
Table 1: Mycotoxins, commodities and geographical area of production
non-European Union members. The survey was designed to gain
insight into routine analytical regimes operated by food industries Aflatoxins Feed manufacturers Greece Vlachou et al,
and the role played in them by the use of rapid test methods. Over 2004
2600 questionnaires were circulated to companies covering the Paramithiotis et
whole food chain and 661 replies (about 25%) were received. al., 2009
Aflatoxins Pig Feed Serbia Milicevic et al.,
Results at a strategic level, the survey revealed that raw materials
deoxynivalenol, 2010
and final products are the most routinely analyzed samples, and that ochratoxin A
into the major analyte tested for concerned were mycotoxins. With zearalenone
regard to the use of rapid test methods, 66% of the respondents use Aflatoxins Maize Argentina Chulze, 2010
them, while, almost all respondents stated their interest for extending Fumonisins
the range of tests performed. The results obtained indicate that the Aflatoxins Maize Romania Gagiu et al.,
food industries currently use or are well prepared for the Deoxynivalenol 2007
implementation of new rapid methods of analysis (Lebesi et al, Zearalenone
2010). Aflatoxins Cassava Ghana Amoa-Awua et
al, 2007
The presence of aflatoxin M1 in raw milk samples produced in Atter et al, 2015
Ardebil City (Iran) was evaluated by ELISA (Enzyme Linked Aflatoxins Cassava Nigeria Lateef & Ojo,
Immuno Sorbent Assay) technique. 122 samples of raw milk were 2016
acquired from milk collecting centers and dairy plants in the region Aflatoxins Groundnut based Brazil Toregeani-
and aflatoxin M1 contamination was detected in all of milk samples. B1,B2, G, G2 industries Mendes et al.,
2011
The mean concentration of aflatoxin M1 was 40.01ng/L and 14.75%
Lima et al, 2013
of the samples had higher levels than the maximum limits Aflatoxin M1 Raw milk Iran Kamkar et al.,
recommended by the Institute of standards and industrial research of 2011
Iran (ISIRI), European Community and Codex Alimentarius. In Aflatoxin M1 Cows milk Germany Bluethgen,
view of the fact that milk is used by all the age groups including 2007
infants and children in the city of Ardebil, it is necessary to apply an
ideal recommended limit to minimize the health hazard from Sector of cereals
aflatoxin M1 contamination in this matrix. Application of Good
Agricultural Practices and Good Veterinary Practices by agriculture China, one of the largest importers and exporters of food and animal
and also the HACCP system as a draft code of practice for preharvest feed, has implemented management strategies to protect consumers
and postharvest control of dairy cows feed and in milk and dairy from mycotoxins and ensure safe trading of food and feed. The
products processing was found effective (Kamkar et al, 2011). development and status of these management strategies are of interest
to many stakeholders. There are 49 mycotoxin-related regulations in
Liquid chromatography methodology

Rev. Toxicol (2016) 33:50-55 51

 Gil L, Ruiz P, Font G, Manyes L
China; these include maximum levels for seven mycotoxins, Feed control is important for the safety of foods of animal origin. Feed
standard methods for detecting 17 mycotoxins, and a code of hazards include mycotoxins as Aflatoxins (Vlachou et al, 2004)
practice for the prevention and reduction of mycotoxin responsible for food-borne diseases. A study was realized to evaluate
contamination in cereals. Twelve mycotoxins found in daily food are the safety of samples consisting of compound feeds, feed materials
covered by the Chinese contamination monitoring network. A new and premixes, and provide information for the food chain. Aflatoxins
risk assessment organization is required to systematically implement were not found however the data meet demands of recent EU
and manage food safety risk assessments in China. In addition, self- legislation for establishing specific criteria for feed manufacturers and
control by companies and daily supervisions and inspections by fill gaps on the traceability and development of HACCP system in the
government departments are quite effective in preventing the animal production sector (Paramithiotis et al, 2009).
consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed (Zhang et
al., 2014). Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the main cereals as a source of food,
forage and processed products for industry. World production is
Table 2: Ochratoxin, commodities and geographical area of study around 800 million tons of maize because as a staple food it provides
more than one third of the calories and proteins in some countries.
Pig Feed Serbia Milicevic et al., 2010 Stored maize is a man-made ecosystem in which quality and nutritive
Cereals, grapes and England Scudamore, 2005 changes occur because of interactions between physical, chemical and
coffee beans biological factors. Fungal spoilage and mycotoxin contamination are
Rice Spain Gonzalez et al, 2006 of major concern. Aspergillus and Fusarium species can infect maize
Cocoa Venezuela Lopez D'Sola et al., 2012 pre-harvest, and mycotoxin contamination can increase if storage
Coffee Ecuador Lopez-Garcia et al. 2008 conditions are poorly managed. Prevention strategies to reduce the
Red Paprika Korea Ahn et al., 2010 impact of mycotoxin in maize food and feed chains are based on using
Wine Italy Alonzo et al., 2008 a hazard analysis critical control point systems (HACCP) approach.
Wine Italy Brera et al., 2003 To reduce or prevent production of mycotoxins, drying should take
Wine Spain Martnez-Rodrguez & place soon after harvest and as rapidly as feasible. The critical water
Carrascosa AV, 2009 content for safe storage corresponds to a water activity (aw) of about
Olive Turkey Tokusoglu & Bozoglu 2010 0.7. Problems in maintaining an adequate low aw often occur in the
tropics where high ambient humidity makes the control of commodity
The agriculture sector plays an important role in the economy of any moisture difficult. Damaged grain is more prone to fungal invasion
country, with livestock being an integral part. Feed production and and, therefore, mycotoxin contamination. It is important to avoid
costs are a major issue faced by international as well as local damage before and during drying, and during storage. Drying maize
industries. As the same feed materials are shared by animals and on the cob before shelling is a very good practice. In storage, many
humans alike, cereals like rice, wheat, corn and their by-products are insect species attack grain and the moisture that can accumulate from
used for the production of poultry feed. Due to this and the their activities provides ideal conditions for fungal activity. To avoid
competitive nature of raw material pricing, typically lower quality moisture and fungal contamination, it is essential that the numbers of
ingredients are used in poultry feed. These materials may be stored insects in stored maize is kept to a minimum. It is possible to control
for longer periods and due to poor storage conditions, contamination fungal growth in stored commodities by controlled atmospheres,
of these products can occur. Due to the ubiquitous nature of fungi, preservatives or natural inhibitors. Studies using antioxidants,
they contaminate these ingredients. Humid and hotter countries essential oils under different conditions of aw, and temperature and
experience more fungal problems due to the environmental controlled atmospheres have been evaluated as possible strategies for
conditions and other aspects such as poor storage. The end result is the reduction of fungal growth and mycotoxin as aflatoxins and
the production of fungal metabolites within cereals and grains fumonisins, in stored maize, but the cost of these treatments is likely
known as mycotoxins. Although many forms exist amongst to remain prohibitive for large-scale use (Chulze, 2010).
mycotoxins, ochratoxins and aflatoxins are considered to be most
important. When more than one fungal contaminant is present, As maize quality before storage and storage conditions are of
typically additive synergistic interactions are seen, increasing the paramount importance, it was assessed microbial and mycotoxin
toxicity within the feed. Determination of toxins can be done in contamination of 11 maize samples, comprising different
tissues and feed samples by using different techniques such liquid combinations of healthy and damaged corncobs. Tested parameters
chromatography and Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) were bacterial, fungal and mycotoxin levels (deoxynivalenol,
should be referred to for the control of mycotoxins in the food chain. zearalenone and total aflatoxins), taking into account relative
Due to increased consumer demand for poultry in almost all humidity (% RH) and temperature, for the 7 months storage period of
countries, this sector is gaining in importance. The poultry feed maize samples. Results show that microbial and mycotoxin
industry suffers the greatest economic losses compared to other contamination of maize is dependent on temperature and RH
animal species due to mycotoxins, as it heavily reliant on cereals. conditions (Gagiu et al., 2007).
Due to this, control strategies should be adapted to minimize the To manage the hazards, aflatoxins associated with the production of
exposure of birds to mycotoxins. Control strategies are adapted at an indigenous African fermented maize product, kenkey, HACCP was
pre harvest, harvest and post-harvest levels. The hazard analysis implemented at a semi-commercial kenkey production plant in Accra
critical control point (HACCP) system can be used to manage the (Ghana). As prerequisite programme, the facility was upgraded and
risk of mycotoxins throughout the production (Abidin et al, 2011). GMP implemented before HACCP. The effectiveness of GMP and
Approaches for the early detection and prevention strategies which HACCP was assessed by monitoring the environment and kenkey
have been employed in Serbia for the control of ochratoxigenic fungi production, as well as the auditing and verification of HACCP (Amoa-
and its metabolites in feed in the context of a HACCP framework Awua et al, 2007). Ice-kenkey is a chilled cereal beverage sold as
are presented. The deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin A and zearalenone street food in some open markets in Ghana. It is produced by mashing
were detected, while aflatoxins were not present. Deoxynivalenol and sweetening kenkey, a stiff dumpling produced from fermented
was detected in 10 samples in the concentration range 0.25-2.5 maize meal. The safety of street vended ice-kenkey was assessed by
mg/kg. Ochratoxin A and zearalenone were detected in nine and microbiological, elemental and myco-toxicological analysis of ice-
eight samples, respectively, in the concentration range 0.057-0.27 kenkey and intermediary products obtained from 16 producers in four
and 0.2-5.0 mg/kg, respectively. These findings indicate that there open markets in the Accra and Tema metropolis. The results of
may be a risk of animal exposure to mycotoxins through the aflatoxin analysis showed high levels of aflatoxins in the ice-kenkey
consumption of mouldy infected feeds (Milicevic et al., 2010). samples. The study showed the need to improve the safety of ice-
kenkey production and vending in Accra. The use of maize and

52 Rev. Toxicol (2016) 33:50-55

 An overview of the applications of hazards analysis and critical control point (HACCP) system to mycotoxins
groundnuts as raw materials exposed ice-kenkey to aflatoxin Practice for prevention and management of OTA are being developed
contamination and required strict control. The work enabled a and can be used in conjunction with a HACCP approach to protect the
training manual to be developed which has been used to training ice- end consumer, in line with EU statutory limits. If prevention fails, an
kenkey producers in Accra (Atter et al, 2015). understanding of how concentrations change during the whole food
chain may be useful in minimizing the concentrations reaching the
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is considered by the International Agency for consumer. OTA is quite heat stable under neutral conditions but may
Research on Cancer to be the most carcinogenic of all the aflatoxins. be partly broken down, e.g. in extrusion processing. In milling or other
About 250,000 hepatocellular carcinoma related deaths are reported separation procedures, OTA will be concentrated or reduced in the
to occur annually in Africa due to aflatoxin ingestion where 80% of resulting components. By products such as 'cleanings' or bran may
cases and deaths of liver cancer occur in Western and Central Africa. contain high concentrations and are often used for animal feed.
The carcinogens may be present in many raw and processed food Introduction of guideline or statutory maximum concentrations for
and feed. Among these products, cereals and milk are very feed within the EU makes it essential that concentrations of OTA in
susceptible to mycotoxin contamination and are often used as such by-products are acceptable. Studies have emphasized that OTA
ingredients in many infant food products. Samples dried lafun in cereals is a storage problem that can be prevented if sound Codes
obtained from processors from two villages in Ogbomoso, Nigeria of Practice are carefully followed and can be managed using a HACCP
were analysed showing aflatoxins ranging from 1 to 1,600 mu g/kg. approach. Similar guidelines are being developed for other key food
The critical control points identified in the production were steeping, commodities such as grapes and coffee. Prevention should be the
drying, packaging/storage, and the implementation of the corrective primary aim because OTA is quite heat stable and difficult to remove
measures led to the production of laboratory-prepared lafun with although it can be reduced at higher temperatures and during
improved microbiological safety (Lateef & Ojo, 2016) extrusion. OTA may increase during malting or may be reduced by
Dried fruits enzymatic actions. In wheat and maize milling OTA is concentrated
in cleanings, bran and other fractions derived from the seed coat.
The groundnut is highly sensitive to contamination by toxigenic However these by-products are often used for animal feed and
fungi in the field, before and after harvest, and during drying and maximum permissible guideline limits for OTA are likely to operate
storing. This explains the high prevalence of aflatoxins in within the EU from January 2006. In addition, barley and wheat may
groundnuts when compared to other agricultural products. be grown on farm and used directly for animal feed. Bran based human
Aspergillus flavus is actually abundant in the mycoflora extant in the foods present a particular problem in relationship to the 2-tier
soils in which the oleaginous plant is planted. HACCP principles regulations of 5 and 3gkg1 for whole and finished cereal products
were employed to assess the food safety protocols needed to handle because OTA is concentrated by a factor of approximately 3 on
aflatoxin contamination in southern Brazils groundnut based food milling and is quite stable during most processes (Scudamore, 2005).
industry and provide a model for the establishment of CCPs in
groundnut-based food production in this geographical area in order OTA has been related to cocoa beans. Although the shell separation
to reduce or eliminate aflatoxin contamination. This methodology from the nib has been reported as an effective measure to control this
has been suggested by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) chemical hazard, ochratoxin prevalence study in cocoa beans
of the United Nations. Reception of prime matter, groundnut storage, produced in the country is recommended, and validate the winnowing
roasting and thermal treatment were the main CCPs identified. step as well (Lopez DSola et al, 2012).
Critical factors were the determination of aflatoxin, moisture content Coffee is an important export product of Ecuador. Producers are
and water activity (aw) during groundnut reception and storage, challenged by the implementation of regulatory limits for ochratoxin
control of temperature, roasting time and thermal treatment in the A. Ecuador has four coffee production areas and the potential for
groundnut-based food manufacturing. The critical limit for moisture mycotoxin contamination varies due to different environmental
was 8.2% and 0.6 was established for aw. In Brazil, the limit for conditions and cultural differences in harvesting, storage, processing
aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 has been established at 20 ppb. and commercialization. The major contributors to contamination are
Temperatures of 180C 1h and 80C40 min were established for the lack of selection during harvesting, delays in drying or rewetting,
roasting and thermal treatment stages of groundnut-based food, the lack of proper drying and storage conditions, the mixing of
respectively (Toregeani-Mendes et al., 2011). products with different levels of moisture, and the potential for cross-
Milk products contamination. The long commercialization chain involves different
intermediaries that use foreign materials to increase the weight of the
The quality of goat milk production of a goat cheese of Camembert product without consideration of quality. Preliminary results show
type was studied. The process with the HACCP system that coffee managed using the models had a better quality, a lower
implemented, enabled the production of a healthy and safe cheese contamination, a higher yield and better commercial value. The use of
with the well-known characteristics (Anka et al., 2008). local resources and low-cost technology was important in
Cows milk can be contaminated by aflatoxin M-1. The measures to demonstrating the practical approach (Lopez-Garcia et al, 2012).
achieve this are part of a combined legislation for consumer's Wines
protection, and are mainly addressed to animal feed producers.
Commercial feed manufacturers have to include a HACCP system, The limits of presence of OTA in the wines have been established by
including monitoring of the hazards by a sufficiently equipped the rule EEC 123/2005. With the purpose to prevent the formation of
laboratory and adherence to the general rules by farmers of good OTA in the wine (from the grape to the bottled product), a study has
agricultural practice including feeding and feed cultivation and been conducted to compare the different techniques currently used, as
storage. For aflatoxin M-1 the actual contamination is well below the Good Agricultural Practices (BPA), the Good Practices of
the threshold values. This demonstrates the possibility for an Manufacture (BPF) and the Good Practices of storage (BPS) with the
effective control of environmental contamination in the food chain system of HACCP, nowadays used only from the begin of the phase
from feed to milk (Bluethgen, 2007). of processing of the agricultural products. It results that, concerning
the BPAs, the application of the System HACCP on the primary
OTA in Food commodities production would bring neither some innovation nor qualitative
Whenever possible, preventing the formation of OTA in susceptible improvement. The comparison among BPF, BPS and HACCP,
food commodities such as cereals, grapes and coffee beans should confirms, instead, as the HACCP allows individualizing a series of
be a priority. Each product tends to host specific OTA producing additional critical points worth of attention during the process and
fungi so that the environmental conditions and factors that produce maintenance of the grapes. Such result is in agreement with the new
the subsequent formation of OTA need to be understood. Codes of community rule 852/2004, which, also because of the difficulties in

Rev. Toxicol (2016) 33:50-55 53

 Gil L, Ruiz P, Font G, Manyes L
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Communication: Prescribed measures for the reduction of
shopping mall, small stakeholder mills, HACCP implemented
contaminations of feedstuff and cows milk with polychlorinated
factories, and an import company was measured. The data of two
dibenzodioxins and furans (PCDD/ Fs), and mycotoxins in feed
model factories that had adopted HACCP in different ways were
and food legislation. Tieraerztl Umschau 62 (1) 7-15.
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of the mycotoxin contamination. The dehydration and sterilization 11. Brera, C., Grossi, S., De Santis, B., Miraglia, M (2003) Automated
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The best way to protect consumers against toxic effects of
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for production and storage. during storage: a review. Food Addit Contam 27 (5) 651-657. R
Several food commodities and feed industries are mainly interested 14. Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006
in control mycotoxins as cereals, grapes, coffee, nuts, milks and setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs.
wine manufacturers.
15. European Commission. RASFF preliminary annual report 2015.
Aflatoxins and ochratoxins are the most determined mycotoxins for
16. FAO/IAWA Training and Reference Centre for Food And
controlling the quality of the products by rapid tests and liquid
Pesticide Control. Manual on the application of the HACCP
chromatography methods.
system in Mycotoxin prevention and control. Food and
Despite many years of research and the introduction of good Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome, 2001
practices in the food production, storage and distribution chain,
17. Gagiu V, Avram M, Belc N, Iorga E, Diaconu M, Diaconu A,
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Pricop M (2007) The effect of processing temperature and time on
Conflict of interest zearalenone concentration from maize products. Rom Biotechnol
Lett 12 (5) 3431-3434.
The authors report no confict of interest.
18. Kamkar, A., J Kershen ahed Khaniki, Gh. R., Alavi, S.A. (2011)
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This research was supported by the Ministry of Economy and
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