Introduction to the C Programming Language

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 Table of Contents

Introduction User-defined Functions

C Program Structure Formatted Input and Output
Variables, Expressions, & Pointers
Operators Structures
Input and Output Unions
Program Looping File Input and Output
Decision Making Statements Dynamic Memory Allocation
Array Variables Command Line Arguments
Strings Top-Down Programming
Math Library Functions Operator Precedence Table
Problem Set

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C Programming
 Introduction

Why Learn C?

3
C Programming
 Why Learn C?

Compact, fast, and powerful

Mid-level Language
Standard for program development (wide acceptance)
It is everywhere! (portable)
Supports modular programming style
Useful for all applications
C is the native language of UNIX
Easy to interface with system devices/assembly routines
C is terse

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C Programming
 C Program Structure

Canonical First Program

Header Files
Names in C
Comments
Symbolic Constants

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C Programming
 Canonical First Program

The following program is written in the C programming language:

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
/* My first program */
printf("Hello World! \n");
}

C is case sensitive. All commands in C must be lowercase.

C has a free-form line structure. End of each statement must be marked
with a semicolon. Multiple statements can be on the same line. White space is
ignored. Statements can continue over many lines.

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C Programming
 Canonical First Program

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
/* My first program */
printf("Hello World! \n");
}

The C program starting point is identified by the word main().

This informs the computer as to where the program actually starts. The
parentheses that follow the keyword main indicate that there are no arguments
supplied to this program (this will be examined later on).
The two braces, { and }, signify the begin and end segments of the
program. In general, braces are used throughout C to enclose a block of
statements to be treated as a unit. COMMON ERROR: unbalanced number
of open and close curly brackets!

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C Programming
 Canonical First Program

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
/* My first program */
printf("Hello World! \n");
}

The purpose of the statement #include <stdio.h> is to allow the use of

the printf statement to provide program output. For each function built
into the language, an associated header file must be included. Text to be
displayed by printf() must be enclosed in double quotes. The program
only has the one printf() statement.
printf() is actually a function (procedure) in C that is used for printing
variables values and text. Where text appears in double quotes "", it is
printed without modification. There are some exceptions however. This has to
do with the \ and % characters. These characters are modifiers, and in this
code the \ followed by the n character represents a newline character.

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C Programming
 Canonical First Program Output & Comments

Thus the program prints

Hello World!
And the cursor is set to the beginning of the next line. As we shall see later on,
the letter that follows the \ character will determine what special printing
action is taken (i.e., a tab, backspace, clear line, etc.)

/* My first program */
Comments can be inserted into C programs by bracketing text with the /* and
*/ delimiters. As will be discussed later, comments are useful for a variety of
reasons. Primarily they serve as internal documentation for program structure
and functionality.

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C Programming
 Header Files
Header files contain declarations of functions and variables which can be
incorporated into any C program by using the pre-processor #include statement.
Standard header files are provided with each compiler, and cover a range of areas:
string handling, mathematics, data conversion, printing and reading of variables, etc.
To use any of the standard functions, the appropriate header file should be included.
This is done at the beginning of the C source file. For example, to use the function
printf() in a program, the line
#include <stdio.h>
should be at the beginning of the source file, because the declaration for printf() is
found in the file stdio.h. All header files have the extension .h and generally reside
in the /usr/include subdirectory. Some examples:
#include <string.h>
#include <math.h>
#include "mylib.h"
The use of angle brackets <> informs the compiler to search the compilers include
directories for the specified file. The use of the double quotes "" around the filename
informs the compiler to start the search in the current directory for the specified file.

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C Programming
 Names in C

Identifiers in C must begin with a character or underscore, and may be

followed by any combination of characters, underscores, or the digits 0-9.
summary exit_flag i
Jerry7 Number_of_moves _id
You should ensure that you use meaningful (but short) names for your
identifiers. The reasons for this are to make the program easier to read and
self-documenting. For example, compare these two lines of code:
x = y * z;
distance = speed * time;
Some users choose to adopt the convention that variable names are all lower
case while symbolic names for constants are all upper case.
Keywords are reserved identifiers that have strict meaning to the C compiler.
C only has 29 keywords. Example keywords are:
if, else, char, int, while

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C Programming
 Comments

The addition of comments inside programs is desirable. These may be added to

C programs by enclosing them as follows,
/*
Computational Kernel: In this section of code we implement the
Runge-Kutta algorithm for the numerical solution of the
differential Einstein Equations.
*/
Note that the /* opens the comment field and the */ closes the comment
field. Comments may span multiple lines. Comments may not be nested one
inside the another.
/* this is a comment. /* this comment is inside */ wrong */
In the above example, the first occurrence of */ closes the comment
statement for the entire line, meaning that the text wrong is interpreted as a C
statement or variable, and in this example, generates an error.

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C Programming
 Why use comments?

Documentation of variables and functions and their usage

Explaining complex sections of code
Describes the program, author, date, modification changes, revisions

Best programmers comment as they write the code, not after the fact.

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C Programming
 Symbolic Constants
Symbolic constants are names given to values that cannot be changed.
Implemented with the #define preprocessor directive.
#define N 3000
#define FALSE 0
#define PI 3.14159
#define FIGURE "triangle"
Note that preprocessor statements begin with a # symbol, and are NOT
terminated by a semicolon. Traditionally, preprocessor statements are listed at
the beginning of the source file.
Preprocessor statements are handled by the compiler (or preprocessor) before
the program is actually compiled. All # statements are processed first, and the
symbols (like N) which occur in the C program are replaced by their value
(3000). Once these substitutions has taken place by the preprocessor, the
program is then compiled.
By convention, preprocessor constants are written in UPPERCASE. This acts
as a form of internal documentation to enhance program readability and
reuse.
In the program itself, values cannot be assigned to symbolic constants.

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C Programming
 Use of Symbolic Constants

Consider the following program which defines a constant called TAXRATE.

#include <stdio.h>
#define TAXRATE 0.10
main () {
Calculations using TAXRATE
}

The whole point of using #define in your programs is to make them easier
to read and modify. Considering the above program as an example, what
changes would you need to make if the TAXRATE was changed to 20%?
Obviously, the answer is one, edit the #define statement which declares the
symbolic constant and its value. You would change it to read
#define TAXRATE 0.20
Without the use of symbolic constants, you hard code the value 0.20 in
your program, and this might occur several times (or tens of times).

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C Programming
 Variables, Expressions, and Operators

Declaring Variables Advanced Assignment Operators

Basic Format Precedence & Associativity of
Basic Data Types: Integer Operators
Basic Data Types: Float Precedence & Associativity of
Basic Data Types: Double Operators Examples
The int Data Type
Basic Data Types: Character
The float and double Data
Expressions and Statements
Types
Assignment Operator
The char Data Type
Assignment Operator Evaluation
ASCII Character Set
Initializing Variables
Automatic Type Conversion
Initializing Variables Example
Automatic Type Conversion with
Arithmetic Operators Assignment Operator
Increment/Decrement Operators Type Casting
Prefix versus Postfix

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C Programming
 Declaring Variables

A variable is a named memory location in which data of a certain type can be

stored. The contents of a variable can change, thus the name. User defined
variables must be declared before they can be used in a program. It is during
the declaration phase that the actual memory for the variable is reserved, a
process called static memory allocation. All variables in C must be declared
before use.
It is common to adopt the habit of declaring variables using lowercase
characters. Remember that C is case sensitive, so even though the two
variables listed below have the same name, they are considered different
variables in C.
sum Sum
The declaration of variables is done after the opening brace of main().
main() {
int sum;
It is possible to declare variables elsewhere in a program, but lets start simply
and then get into variations later on.

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C Programming
 Basic Format

The basic format for declaring variables is

data_type var, var, ;

where data_type is one of the four basic types, an integer, character, float,
or double type. Examples are

int i,j,k;
float length,height;
char midinit;

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C Programming
 Basic Data Types: INTEGER

INTEGER: These are whole numbers, both positive and negative. Unsigned
integers(positive values only) are also supported. In addition, there are short
and long integers. These specialized integer types will be discussed later.

The keyword used to define integers is

int

An example of an integer value is 32. An example of declaring an integer

variable called age is

int age;

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C Programming
 Basic Data Types: FLOAT

FLOATING POINT: These are positive and negative REAL numbers which
contain fractional parts. They can be written in either floating point notation or
scientific notation.

The keyword used to define float variables is

float

Typical floating point values are 1.73 and 1.932e5 (1.932 x 105). An example
of declaring a float variable called x is

float x;

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C Programming
 Basic Data Types: DOUBLE

DOUBLE: These are floating point numbers, both positive and negative,
which have a higher precision than float variables.

The keyword used to define double variables is

double

An example of declaring a double variable called voltage is

double voltage;

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C Programming
 Basic Data Types: CHARACTER

CHARACTER: These are variables that contain only one character.

The keyword used to define character variables is

char

Typical character values might be the letter A, the character 5, the symbol ,
etc. An example of declaring a character variable called letter is

char letter;

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C Programming
 Expressions and Statements

An expression in C is some combination of constants, variables, operators

and function calls. Sample expressions are:

a + b
3.0*x - 9.66553
tan(angle)

Most expressions have a value based on their contents.

A statement in C is just an expression terminated with a semicolon. For

example:

sum = x + y + z;
printf("Go Buckeyes!");

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C Programming
 The Assignment Operator

In C, the assignment operator is the equal sign = and is used to give a variable
the value of an expression. For example:

i=0;
x=34.8;
sum=a+b;
slope=tan(rise/run);
midinit='J';
j=j+3;

When used in this manner, the equal sign should be read as gets. Note that
when assigning a character value the character should be enclosed in single
quotes.

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C Programming
 The Assignment Operator Evaluation

In the assignment statement

a=7;

two things actually occur. The integer variable a gets the value of 7, and the
expression a=7 evaluates to 7. This allows a shorthand for multiple
assignments of the same value to several variables in a single statement. Such
as

x=y=z=13.0;

as opposed to

x=13.0;

y=13.0;

z=13.0;

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C Programming
 Initializing Variables

C variables may be initialized with a value when they are declared. Consider
the following declaration, which declares an integer variable count and sets
its starting value to 10.

int count = 10;

In general, the user should not assume that variables are initialized to some
default value automatically by the compiler. Programmers must ensure that
variables have proper values before they are used in expressions.

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C Programming
 Initializing Variables Example

The following example illustrates two methods for variable initialization:

#include <stdio.h>
main () {
int sum=33;
float money=44.12;
char letter;
double pressure;
letter='E'; /* assign character value */
pressure=2.01e-10; /*assign double value */
printf("value of sum is %d\n",sum);
printf("value of money is %f\n",money);
printf("value of letter is %c\n",letter);
printf("value of pressure is %e\n",pressure);
}
which produces the following output:
value of sum is 33
value of money is 44.119999
value of letter is E
value of pressure is 2.010000e-10

27
C Programming
 Arithmetic Operators

The primary arithmetic operators and their corresponding symbols in C are:

Negation - Modulus %
Multiplication * Addition +
Division / Subtraction -

When the / operator is used to perform integer division the resulting integer
is obtained by discarding (or truncating) the fractional part of the actual
floating point value. For example:
1/2 0
3/2 1
The modulus operator % only works with integer operands. The expression
a%b is read as a modulus b and evaluates to the remainder obtained after
dividing a by b. For example
7 % 2 1
12 % 3 0
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C Programming
 Increment/Decrement Operators

In C, specialized operators have been defined for the incrementing and

decrementing of integer variables. The increment and decrement operators are
++ and -- respectively. These operators allow a form of shorthand in C:

++i; is equivalent to i=i+1;

--i; is equivalent to i=i-1;

The above example shows the prefix form of the increment/decrement

operators. They can also be used in postfix form, as follows

i++; is equivalent to i=i+1;

i--; is equivalent to i=i-1;

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C Programming
 Prefix versus Postfix

The difference between prefix and postfix forms is apparent when the
operators are used as part of a larger expression.
If ++k is used in an expression, k is incremented before the expression is
evaluated.
If k++ is used in an expression, k is incremented after the expression is
evaluated.
The above distinction is also true of the decrement operator --
Assume that the integer variables m and n have been initialized to zero. Then
in the following statement
a=++m + ++n; m 1, n 1, then a 2
whereas in this form of the statement
a=m++ + n++; a 0 then m 1, n 1

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C Programming
 Advanced Assignment Operators

A further example of C shorthand are operators which combine an arithmetic

operation and a assignment together in one form. For example, the following
statement
k=k+5; can be written as k += 5;
The general syntax is
variable = variable op expression;
can alternatively be written as
variable op= expression;
common forms are:
+= -= *= /= %=
Examples:
j=j*(3+x); j *= 3+x;
a=a/(s-5); a /= s-5;

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C Programming
 Precedence & Associativity of Operators

The precedence of operators determines the order in which operations are

performed in an expression. Operators with higher precedence are used first. If
two operators in an expression have the same precedence, associativity
determines the direction in which the expression will be evaluated.

C has a built-in operator hierarchy to determine the precedence of operators.

Operators higher up in the following diagram have higher precedence. The
associativity is also shown.

- ++ -- R L
* / % L R Precedence
+ - L R
= R L

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C Programming
 Precedence & Associativity of Operators: Examples

This is how the following expression is evaluated

1 + 2 * 3 - 4
1 + 6 - 4
7 - 4
3

The programmer can use parentheses to override the hierarchy and force a
desired order of evaluation. Expressions enclosed in parentheses are
evaluated first. For example:

(1 + 2) * (3 - 4)
3 * -1
-3

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C Programming
 The int Data Type

A typical int variable is in the range 32,767. This value differs from
computer to computer and is thus machine-dependent. It is possible in C to
specify that an integer variable be stored using more memory bytes thereby
increasing its effective range and allowing very large integers to be
represented. This is accomplished by declaring the integer variable to have
type long int.
long int national_debt;
long int variables typically have a range of 2,147,483,648.
There are also short int variables which may or may not have a smaller
range than normal int variables. All that C guarantees is that a short int
will not take up more bytes than int.
There are unsigned versions of all three types of integers. Negative integers
cannot be assigned to unsigned integers, only a range of positive values. For
example
unsigned int salary;
typically has a range of 0 to 65,535.

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C Programming
 The float and double Data Types

As with integers the different floating point types available in C correspond to

different ranges of values that can be represented. More importantly, though,
the number of bytes used to represent a real value determines the precision to
which the real value is represented. The more bytes used the higher the
number of decimal places of accuracy in the stored value. The actual ranges
and accuracy are machine-dependent.

The three C floating point types are:

float
double
long double

In general, the accuracy of the stored real values increases as you move down
the list.

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C Programming
 The char Data Type

Variables of type char take up exactly one byte in memory and are used to
store printable and non-printable characters. The ASCII code is used to
associate each character with an integer (see next page). For example the
ASCII code associates the character m with the integer 109. Internally, C
treats character variables as integers.

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C Programming
 ASCII Character Set
Ctrl Decimal Code Decimal Char Decimal Char Decimal Char Decimal Char
^@ 0 NUL 32 sp 32 sp 64 @ 96 `
^A 1 SOH 33 ! 33 ! 65 A 97 a
^B 2 STX 34 " 34 " 66 B 98 b
^C 3 ETX 35 # 35 # 67 C 99 c
^D 4 EOT 36 $ 36 $ 68 D 100 d
^E 5 ENQ 37 % 37 % 69 E 101 e
^F 6 ACK 38 & 38 & 70 F 102 f
^G 7 BEL 39 39 71 G 103 g
^H 8 BS 40 ( 40 ( 72 H 104 h
^I 9 HT 41 ) 41 ) 73 I 105 I
^J 10 LF 42 * 42 * 74 J 106 j
^K 11 VT 43 + 43 + 75 K 107 k
^L 12 FF 44 , 44 , 76 L 108 l
^M 13 CR 45 - 45 - 77 M 109 m
^N 14 SOH 46 . 46 . 78 N 110 n
^O 15 ST 47 / 47 / 79 O 111 o
^P 16 SLE 48 0 48 0 80 P 112 p
^Q 17 CS1 49 1 49 1 81 Q 113 q
^R 18 DC2 50 2 50 2 82 R 114 r
^S 19 DC3 51 3 51 3 83 S 115 s
^T 20 DC4 52 4 52 4 84 T 116 t
^U 21 NAK 53 5 53 5 85 U 117 u
^V 22 SYN 54 6 54 6 86 V 118 v
^W 23 ETB 55 7 55 7 87 W 119 w
^X 24 CAN 56 8 56 8 88 X 120 x
^Y 25 EM 57 9 57 9 89 Y 121 y
^Z 26 SIB 58 : 58 : 90 Z 122 z
^[ 27 ESC 59 ; 59 ; 91 [ 123 {
^\ 28 FS 60 < 60 < 92 \ 124 |
^] 29 GS 61 = 61 = 93 ] 125 }
^^ 30 RS 62 > 62 > 94 ^ 126 ~
^_ 31 US 63 ? 63 ? 95 _ 127 DEL

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C Programming
 Automatic Type Conversion
How does C evaluate and type expressions that contain a mixture of different
data types? For example, if x is a double and i an integer, what is the type of
the expression
x+i
In this case, i will be converted to type double and the expression will
evaluate to a double. NOTE: the value of i stored in memory is unchanged.
A temporary copy of i is converted to a double and used in the expression
evaluation.
This automatic conversion takes place in two steps. First, all floats are
converted to doubles and all characters and shorts are converted to ints. In the
second step lower types are promoted to higher types. The expression
itself will have the type of its highest operand. The type hierarchy is as
follows
long double
Higher types
double
unsigned long
long
unsigned Lower types
int
38
C Programming
 Automatic Type Conversion: The Assignment Operator

Automatic conversion even takes place if the operator is the assignment

operator. This creates a method of type conversion. For example, if x is double
and i an integer, then

x=i;

i is promoted to a double and resulting value given to x

On the other hand say we have the following expression:

i=x;

a conversion occurs, but result is machine-dependent

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C Programming
 Type Casting

Programmers can override automatic type conversion and explicitly cast

variables to be of a certain type when used in an expression. For example,

(double) i

will force i to be of type double. The general syntax is

(type) expression

Some examples,

x = (float) 77;
(double) k * 57

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C Programming
 Input and Output

Basic Output
printf Function
Format Specifiers Table
Special Characters for Cursor Control
Basic Output Examples
Basic Input
Basic Input Example

41
C Programming
 Basic Output

Now, let us look more closely at the printf() function. In a previous

program, we saw this example
print("value of sum is %d\n",sum);
which produced this output:
value of sum is 33
The first argument of the printf function is called the control string. When
the printf is executed, it starts printing the text in the control string until it
encounters a % character. The % sign is a special character in C and marks the
beginning of a format specifier. A format specifier controls how the value of
a variable will be displayed on the screen. When a format specifier is found,
printf looks up the next argument (in this case sum), displays its value and
continues on. The d character that follows the % indicates that a (d)ecimal
integer will be displayed. At the end of the control statement, printf reads
the special character \n which indicates print the new line character.

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C Programming
 printf Function

General syntax of the printf function

printf(control string,argument list);

where the control string consists of 1) literal text to be displayed, 2)

format specifiers, and 3)special characters. The arguments can be variables,
constants, expressions, or function calls -- anything that produces a value
which can be displayed. Number of arguments must match the number of
format identifiers. Unpredictable results if argument type does not match
the identifier.

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C Programming
 Format Specifiers Table

The following table show what format specifiers should be used with what
data types:

Specifier Type
%c character
%d decimal integer
%o octal integer (leading 0)
%x hexadecimal integer (leading 0x)
%u unsigned decimal integer
%ld long int
%f floating point
%lf double or long double
%e exponential floating point
%s character string
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C Programming
 Special Characters for Cursor Control

Some widely-used special characters for cursor control are:

\n newline
\t tab
\r carriage return
\f form feed
\v vertical tab
\b backspace
\ Double quote (\ acts as an escape mark)
\nnn octal character value

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C Programming
 Basic Output Examples
printf(ABC); ABC (cursor after the C)
printf(%d\n,5); 5 (cursor at start of next line)
printf(%c %c % c,A,B,C); A B C
printf(From sea ); From sea to shining C
printf(to shining );
printf (C);
printf(From sea \n); From sea
printf(to shining \n); to shining
printf (C); C
leg1=200.3; leg2=357.4;
printf(It was %f miles It was 557.700012 miles
,leg1+leg2);
num1=10; num2=33;
printf(%d\t%d\n,num1,num2); 10 33
big=11e+23;
printf(%e \n,big); 1.100000e+24
printf(%c \n,?); ?
printf(%d \n,?); 63
printf(\007 That was a beep\n); try it yourself
46
C Programming
 Basic Input

There is a function in C which allows the program to accept input from the
keyboard. The following program illustrates the use of this function.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int pin;
printf("Please type in your PIN\n");
scanf("%d",&pin);
printf("Your access code is %d\n",pin);}
What happens in this program? An integer called pin is defined. A prompt to
enter in a number is then printed with the first printf statement. The scanf
routine, which accepts the response, has a control string and an address list.
In the control string, the format specifier %d shows what data type is expected.
The &pin argument specifies the memory location of the variable the input
will be placed in. After the scanf routine completes, the variable pin will
be initialized with the input integer. This is confirmed with the second
printf statement. The & character has a very special meaning in C. It is the
address operator. (Much more with & when we get to pointers)

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C Programming
 Basic Input Example

#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int pin;
printf("Please type in your PIN\n");
scanf("%d",&pin);
printf("Your access code is %d\n",pin);}

A session using the above code would look like this

Please type your PIN
4589
Your access code is 4589

The format identifier used for a specific C data type is the same as for the
printf statement, with one exception. If you are inputting values for a
double variable, use the %lf format identifier.
White space is skipped over in the input stream (including carriage return)
except for character input. A blank is valid character input.

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C Programming
 Basic Input Example (Two Variables)

The following code inputs two float values using one scanf statement:
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
float x,y;
printf("Please type the coordinates\n");
scanf("%f%f",&x,&y);
printf(The position is (%f,%f)\n",x,y);
}
A session using the above code would look like this:

Please type the coordinates

5.46 13.8
The position is (5.460000,13.800000)

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C Programming
 Program Looping

Introduction to Program Looping

Relational Operators
Relational Operators Table
for Loop
for Loop Example
for Loop Diagram
General Comments about for Loop
while Loop
while Loop Example
do while Loop
do while Loop Example
Input error Checking

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C Programming
 Introduction to Program Looping

Program looping is often desirable in coding in any language. Looping gives

the programmer the ability to repeat a block of statements a number of times.
In C, there are commands that allow iteration of this type. Specifically, there
are two classes of program loops -- unconditional and conditional. An
unconditional loop is repeated a set number of times. In a conditional loop
the iterations are halted when a certain condition is true. Thus the actual
number of iterations performed can vary each time the loop is executed.

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C Programming
 Relational Operators

Our first use of relational operators will be to set up the condition required to
control a conditional loop. Relational operators allow the comparison of two
expressions. Such as

a < 4

which reads a less than 4. If a is less than 4, this expression will evaluate to
TRUE. If not it will evaluate to FALSE.

Exactly what does it mean to say an expression is TRUE or FALSE? C uses

the following definition

FALSE means evaluates to ZERO

TRUE means evaluates to any NON-ZERO integer (even negative integers)

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C Programming
 Relational Operators Table

The following table shows the various C relational operators

Operator Meaning Example

== Equal to count == 10
!= Not equal to flag != DONE
< Less than a < b
<= Less than or equal to i <= LIMIT
> Greater than pointer > end_of_list
>= Greater than or equal to lap >= start

The relational operators have a precedence below the arithmetic operators.

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C Programming
 for Loop

The for loop is Cs implementation of an unconditional loop. The basic syntax of

the for statement is,
for (initialization expression; test expr; increment expr)
program statement;
Here is an example
sum=10;
for (i=0; i<6; ++i)
sum = sum+i;
The operation of the loop is as follows
1) The initialization expression is evaluated.
2) The test expression is evaluated. If it is TRUE, the body of the loop is executed. If
it is FALSE, exit the for loop.
3) Assume test expression is TRUE. Execute the program statements making up the
body of the loop.
4) Evaluate the increment expression and return to step 2.
5) When test expression is FALSE, exit loop and move on to next line of code.

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C Programming
 for Loop Example

Sample Loop (same as on previous page):

sum = 10;
for (i=0; i<6; ++i)
sum=sum+i;

We can trace the execution of the sample loop in this table

Iteration i i<6 sum

1st 0 TRUE 10
2nd 1 TRUE 11
3rd 2 TRUE 13
4th 3 TRUE 16
5th 4 TRUE 20
6th 5 TRUE 25
7th 6 FALSE 25
55
C Programming
 for Loop Diagram

The following diagram illustrates the operation of a for loop

for ( 11 ; 22 ; 44 )
{
TRUE

} 33

55 FALSE

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C Programming
 for Loop: General Comments
Some common observations regarding the use of the for statement:
Control expressions are separated by ; (semicolon) not , (comma)

If there are multiple C statements that make up the loop body, enclose them in
brackets (USE INDENTATION FOR READABILITY)

for (x=100; x!=65; x-=5) {

z=sqrt(x);
printf("The square root of %d is %f\n",x,z);
}

A block of code containing more than one statement is referred to as a

compound statement

Control expressions can be any valid expression. They dont necessarily have
to perform initialization, testing, and incrementation.

Any of the control expressions can be omitted (but always need the two
semicolons for syntax sake).
product=1;
for (i=1;i<=6;)
product*=i++; 57
C Programming
 for Loop: General Comments

Since testing is performed at the beginning of the loop, the body may never get
executed
x=10;
for (y=10;y!=x;++y)
printf ("%d",y);

Can string together multiple expressions in the for statement by separating

them by commas
for (x=1,y=5;x+y<100;++x)
z=x%y;

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C Programming
 while Loop

The while loop provides a mechanism for repeating C statements while a

condition is true. Its format is

while(control expression){
program statement 1;
program statement 2;

}
The while statement works as follows:

1) Control expression is evaluated (entry condition)

2) If it is FALSE, skip over the loop.
3) If it is TRUE, loop body is executed.
4) Go back to step 1

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C Programming
 while Loop Example

Using a while loop:

i=1; factorial=1;
while (i<=13) {
factorial *= i;
i=i+1;
}

Programmer is responsible for initialization and incrementation. At some

point in the body of the loop, the control expression must be altered in order to
allow the loop to finish. Otherwise: infinite loop.

Will this loop end?

j=15;
while (j--)
;

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C Programming
 do while Loop
The do while statement is a variant of the while statement in which the
conditional test is performed at the bottom of the loop. This guarantees that
the loop is executed at least once.

The syntax of the do while statement is

do
program statement;
while (control expression);

NOTE: Unlike previous loops, do while has a semicolon at the end of

the control expression

The operation of the do while loop is as follows

1) The body of the loop is executed.
2) The control expression is evaluated (exit condition).
3) If it is TRUE, go back to step 1. If it is FALSE, exit loop.
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C Programming
 do while Loop Example

Here is a sample program that reverses an integer with a do while loop:

main() {
int value, r_digit;
printf("Enter the number to be reversed\n");
scanf("%d", &value);
do {
r_digit = value % 10;
printf("%d", r_digit);
value = value / 10;
} while (value != 0);
printf("\n");
}

Enter the number to be reversed

362855
558263

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C Programming
 do while Loop Example: Error Checking

A common use of the do while statement is input error checking. A simple

example is shown here
do {
printf("Input a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
} while (n<=0);

The user will remain in this loop continually being prompted for and entering
integers until a positive one is entered. A sample session using this loop looks
like this

Input a positive integer: -4

Input a positive integer: -34
Input a positive integer: 6

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C Programming
 Decision Making Statements

Introduction to Decision Making Statements

if Statement
if Statement Examples
if-else Statement
if-else Ladder
switch Statement
switch Statement Example
switch Statement Operation
switch Statement Example: Characters
switch Statement Example: Menus
Conditional Operator
Conditional Operator Examples
Logical Operators
Logical Operators Precedence

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C Programming
 Introduction to Decision Making Statements

These commands are used to have a program execute different statements

depending on certain conditions. In a sense, they make a program smarter by
allowing different choices to be made by the program. In C, there are three
decision making commands.

if execute a statement or not

if-else choose to execute one of two statements
switch choose to execute one of a number of statements

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C Programming
 if Statement

The if statement allows branching (decision making) depending upon a

condition. Program code is executed or skipped. The basic syntax is

if (control expression)
program statement;

If the control expression is TRUE, the body of the if is executed. If it is

FALSE, the body of the if is skipped.

There is no then keyword in C!

Because of the way in which floating point types are stored, it makes it less
reliable to compare such types for equality. Avoid trying to compare real
variables for equality, especially if the values are nearly identical.

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C Programming
 if Statement Examples

Theses code fragments illustrate some uses of the if statement

Avoid division by zero

if (x != 0)
y = y/x;

Customize output
if (grade >= 90)
printf("\nCongratulations!");
printf("\nYour grade is "%d",grade);

Nested ifs
if (letter >= 'A')
if (letter <= 'Z')
printf("The letter is a capital \n");

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C Programming
 if-else Statement

Used to decide between two courses of action. The syntax of the if-else
statement is
if (expression)
statement1;
else
statement2;
If the expression is TRUE, statement1 is executed; statement2 is
skipped.
If the expression is FALSE, statement2 is executed; statement1 is
skipped.
Some examples
if (x < y) if (letter == 'e') {
min=x; ++e_count;
else printf(Found an e\n);
min=y; }
else
++other_count;

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C Programming
 if-else Ladder
What if we wanted to extend the task shown in the previous example and not
just counts how many es there are in a piece of text, but also make counts of
the other vowels? This is possible by nesting if-else statements together to
make what is called an if-else ladder. For example, consider the following
code if (letter == 'a')
++a_count;
else if (letter == 'e')
++e_count;
else if (letter == 'i')
++i_count;
else if (letter == 'o')
++o_count;
else if (letter == 'u')
++u_count;
else
++const_count;
As soon as a TRUE control expression is found, the statement associated with
it is executed and the rest of the ladder is bypassed. If no control expressions
are found to be TRUE, the final else statement acts as a default.
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C Programming
 switch Statement
The switch statement is a alternate way of writing a program which employs
an if-else ladder. It is Cs built-in multiple branch decision statement.
The syntax for the switch statement is as follows:

switch (integer expression) {

case constant1:
statement1;
break;
case constant2:
statement2;
break;
...
default:
statement;
}

The keyword break should be included at the end of each case statement. In
general, whenever a break statement is encountered in C, it interrupts the
normal flow of control. In the switch statement, it causes an exit from the
switch. The default clause is optional. The right brace at the end marks the
end of switch statement.
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C Programming
 switch Statement Example

Here is a simple example of a switch statement:

switch(n) {
case 12:
printf("value is 12\n");
break;
case 25:
printf("value is 25\n");
break;
case 03:
printf("value is 03\n");
break;
default:
printf("number is not part of the Xmas date\n");
}

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C Programming
 switch Statement Operation

The switch statement works as follows

1) Integer control expression is evaluated.

2) A match is looked for between this expression value and the case
constants. If a match is found, execute the statements for that case. If a
match is not found, execute the default statement (if present).
3) Terminate switch when a break statement is encountered or by falling out
the end.

Some things to be aware of when using a switch statement:

case constants must be unique (How to decide otherwise?)

case constants must be simple constants (symbolic OK)
switch statement only tests for equality
The control expression can be of type character since characters are
internally treated as integers

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C Programming
 switch Statement Example: Characters

switch(ch) {
case 'a':
++a_count;
break;
case 'b':
++b_count;
break;
case 'c':
case 'C': /* multiple values, same statements */
++c_count;
}

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C Programming
 switch Statement Example: Menus

A common application of the switch statement is to control menu-driven

software:

switch(choice) {
case 'S':
check_spelling(); /* User-written function */
break;
case 'C':
correct_errors(); /* ditto */
break;
case 'D':
display_errors(); /* ditto */
break;
default:
printf("Not a valid option\n");
}

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C Programming
 Conditional Operator

This operator is a shorthand notation for an if-else statement that

performs assignments. The conditional expression operator takes THREE
operands. The two symbols used to denote this operator are the ? and the :.
The first operand is placed before the ?, the second operand between the ? and
the :, and the third after the :. The general syntax is thus

condition ? expression1 : expression2

If the result of condition is TRUE (non-zero), expression1 is

evaluated and the result of the evaluation becomes the value of the entire
expression. If the condition is FALSE (zero), then expression2 is
evaluated and its result is the return value for the entire expression.

Consider the examples on the next page

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C Programming
 Conditional Operator Examples

s = (x<0) ? -1 : x*x;

If x is less than zero, then s=-1. If x is greater than or equal to zero, then
s=x*x.

The following code sets the logical status of the variable even

if (number%2==0)
even=1;
else
even=0;

Identical, shorthand code to perform the same task is

even=(number%2==0) ? 1 : 0;

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C Programming
 Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to create more sophisticated conditional

expressions which can then be used in any of the C looping or decision making
statements that have been discussed. When expressions are combined with a
logical operator, either TRUE (i.e., 1) or FALSE (i.e., 0) is returned.
Operator Symbol Usage Operation
LOGICAL && exp1 && exp2 Requires both exp1 and exp2 to be
AND TRUE to return TRUE. Otherwise, the
logical expression is FALSE.
LOGICAL || exp1 || exp2 Will be TRUE if either (or both) exp1 or
OR exp2 is TRUE. Otherwise, it is FALSE.
LOGICAL ! !exp Negates (changes from TRUE to FALSE
NOT and visa versa) the expression.
In C, short-circuting is often performed. If the value of exp1 determines the
value of the entire logical expression, exp2 is not evaluated. DANGEROUS to
assume short-circuting.
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C Programming
 Logical Operators Precedence

The negation operator, !, has the highest precedence and is always performed
first in a mixed expression. The remaining logical operators have a precedence
below relational operators.

Some typical examples using logical operators:

if (year<1900 && year>1799)

printf("Year in question is in the 19th century\n");

if (ch=='a' || ch=='e' || ch='i' || ch='o' || ch='u')

++vowel_count;

done=0;
while(!done) {

}

78
C Programming
 Array Variables

Introduction to Array Variables

Array Variables Example
Array Elements
Declaring Arrays
Initializing Arrays during Declaration
Using Arrays
Multi-dimensional Arrays
Multi-dimensional Array Illustration
Initializing Multi-dimensional Arrays
Using Multi-dimensional Arrays

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C Programming
 Introduction to Array Variables

Arrays are a data structure which hold multiple values of the same data type.
Arrays are an example of a structured variable in which 1) there are a
number of pieces of data contained in the variable name, and 2) there is an
ordered method for extracting individual data items from the whole.

Consider the case where a programmer needs to keep track of the ID numbers
of people within an organization. Her first approach might be to create a
specific variable for each user. This might look like

int id1 = 101; int id2 = 232; int id3 = 231;

It becomes increasingly more difficult to keep track of the IDs as the number
of personnel increases. Arrays offer a solution to this problem.

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C Programming
 Array Variables Example

An array is a multi-element box, a bit like a filing cabinet, and uses an

indexing system to find each variable stored within it. In C, indexing starts at
zero. Arrays, like other variables in C, must be declared before they can be
used.

The replacement of the previous example using an array looks like this:
int id[3]; /* declaration of array id */
id[0] = 101;
id[1] = 232;
id[2] = 231;

In the first line, we declared an array called id, which has space for three
integer variables. Each piece of data in an array is called an element. Thus,
array id has three elements. After the first line, each element of id is
initialized with an ID number.

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C Programming
 Array Elements

The syntax for an element of an array called a is

a[i]

where i is called the index of the array element. The array element id[1] is
just like any normal integer variable and can be treated as such.

In memory, one can picture the array id like this:

id 101 232 231

id[0] id[1] id[2]

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C Programming
 Declaring Arrays

Arrays may consist of any of the valid data types. Arrays are declared along
with all other variables in the declaration section of the program and the
following syntax is used

type array_name[n];

where n is the number of elements in the array. Some examples are

int final[160];
float distance[66];

During declaration consecutive memory locations are reserved for the array
and all its elements. After the declaration, you cannot assume that the elements
have been initialized to zero. Random junk is at each elements memory
location.

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C Programming
 Initializing Arrays during Declaration

If the declaration of an array is preceded by the word static, then the array can
be initialized at declaration. The initial values are enclosed in braces. e.g.,

static int value[9] = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9};

static float height[5]={6.0,7.3,2.2,3.6,19.8};

Some rules to remember when initializing at declaration

1 If the list of initial elements is shorter than the number of array elements, the
remaining elements are initialized to zero.
2 If a static array is not explicitly initialized at declaration, its elements are
automatically initialized to zero.
3 If a static array is declared without a size specification, its size equals the
length of the initialization list. In the following declaration, a has size 5.

static int a[]={-6,12,18,2,323};

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C Programming
 Using Arrays

Recall that indexing is the method of accessing individual array elements.

Thus grade[89] refers to the 90th element of the grades array. A
common programming error is out-of-bounds array indexing. Consider the
following code:
static float grade[3];
grade[0] = grade[2] + grade[5];
The result of this mistake is unpredictable and machine and compiler
dependent. You have no way of knowing what value will be returned from the
memory location grade[5]. Often run-time errors result, or code crash.
Array variables and for loops often work hand-in-hand since the for loop
offers a convenient way to successively access array elements and perform
some operation with them. Basically, the for loop counter can do double-duty
and act as an index for the array, as in the following summation example:
int total=0,i;
int num[4]={93,94,67,78};
for (i=0; i<4; ++i)
total += num[i];

85
C Programming
 Multi-Dimensional Arrays

Multi-dimensional arrays have two or more index values which are used to
specify a particular element in the array. For this 2D array element,

image[i][j]

the first index value i specifies a row index, while j specifies a column index.
Declaring multi-dimensional arrays is similar to the 1D case:

int a[10]; /* declare 1D array */

float b[3][5]; /* declare 2D array */
double c[6][4][2]; /* declare 3D array */

Note that it is quite easy to allocate a large chunk of consecutive memory

with multi-dimensional arrays. Array c contains 6x4x2=48 doubles.

86
C Programming
 Multi-Dimensional Array Illustration

A useful way to picture a 2D array is as a grid or matrix. Picture array b as

0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
column column column column column

0th row b[0][0] b[0][1] b[0][2] b[0][3] b[0][4]

1st row b[1][0] b[1][1] b[1][2] b[1][3] b[1][4]

2nd row b[2][0] b[2][1] b[2][2] b[2][3] b[2][4]

In C, 2D arrays are stored in memory by row. Which means that first the
0th row is put into its memory locations, the 1st row then takes up the next
memory locations, the 2nd row takes up the next memory locations, and so on.

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C Programming
 Initializing Multi-Dimensional Arrays

This procedure is entirely analogous to that used to initialize 1D arrays at their

declaration. For example, this declaration
static int age[2][3]={4,8,12,19,6,-1};
will fill up the array age as it is stored in memory. That is, the array is
initialized row by row. Thus, the above statement is equivalent to:
age[0][0]=4; age[0][1]=8; age[0][2]=12;
age[1][0]=19; age[1][1]=6; age[1][2]=-1;
As before, if there are fewer initialization values than array elements, the
remainder are initialized to zero.
To make your program more readable, you can explicitly put the values to be
assigned to the same row in inner curly brackets:
static int age[2][3]={{4,8,12},{19,6,-1}};
In addition, if the number of rows is omitted from the actual declaration, it is
set equal to the number of inner brace pairs:
static int age[][3]= ]={{4,8,12},{19,6,-1}};

88
C Programming
 Using Multi-Dimensional Arrays

Again, as with 1D arrays, for loops and multi-dimensional arrays often work
hand-in-hand. In this case, though, loop nests are what is most often used.
Some examples
Summation of array elements

double temp[256][3000],sum=0;
int i,j;
for (i=0; i<256; ++i)
for (j=0; j<3000; ++j)
sum += temp[i][j];
Trace of Matrix

int voxel[512][512][512];
int i,j,k,trace=0;
for (i=0; i<512; ++i)
for (j=0; j<512; ++j)
for (k=0; k<512; ++k)
if (i==j && j==k)
trace += voxel[i][j][k];

89
C Programming
 Strings

Arrays of Characters
Initializing Strings
Copying Strings
String I/O Functions
String Library Functions
Using String Functions
Character I/O Functions
Character Library Functions
Character Functions Example

90
C Programming
 Arrays of Characters

Strings are 1D arrays of characters. Strings must be terminated by the null

character '\0' which is (naturally) called the end-of-string character. Dont
forget to remember to count the end-of-string character when you calculate the
size of a string.
As with all C variables, strings must be declared before they are used. Unlike
1D arrays of other data types, the number of elements set for a string at
declaration is only an upper limit. The actual strings used in the program can
have fewer elements. Consider the following code:
static char name[18] = "Ivanova";
The string called name actually has only 8 elements. They are
'I' 'v' 'a' 'n' 'o' 'v' 'a' '\0'
Notice another interesting feature of this code. String constants marked with
double quotes automatically include the end-of-string character. The curly
braces are not required for string initialization at declaration, but can be used
if desired (but dont forget the end-of-string character).

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C Programming
 Initializing Strings

Initializing a string can be done in three ways: 1) at declaration, 2) by reading

in a value for the string, and 3) by using the strcpy function. Direct
initialization using the assignment operator is invalid. The following code
would produce an error:

char name[34];
name = "Erickson"; /* ILLEGAL */

To read in a value for a string use the %s format identifier:

scanf("%s",name);

Note that the address operator & is not needed for inputting a string variable
(explained later). The end-of-string character will automatically be appended
during the input process.

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C Programming
 Copying Strings

The strcpy function is one of a set of built-in string handling functions

available for the C programmer to use. To use these functions be sure to
include the string.h header file at the beginning of your program. The
syntax of strcpy is
strcpy(string1,string2);

When this function executes, string2 is copied into string1 at the

beginning of string1. The previous contents of string1 are overwritten.

In the following code, strcpy is used for string initialization:

#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main () {
char job[50];
strcpy(job,"Professor");
printf("You are a %s \n",job);
}
You are a Professor
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C Programming
 String I/O Functions
A limitation of using scanf to read in strings is that the input string cannot
contain spaces (or blanks).

These are special functions designed specifically for string I/O. They do not
have the above restriction: input strings may have spaces.
gets(string_name);
puts(string_name);

The gets function reads in a string from the keyboard. When the user hits a
carriage return the string is inputted. The carriage return is not part of the
string and the end-of-string character is automatically appended.

The function puts displays a string on the monitor. It does not print the end-
of-string character, but does output a carriage return at the end of the string.

94
C Programming
 String I/O Sample Program

Here is a program fragment illustrating the use of gets and puts

char phrase[100];
printf("Please enter a sentence\n");
gets(phrase);
puts(phrase);

A session using this code would produce this on the screen

Please enter a sentence

The best lack all conviction, while the worst are passionate.
The best lack all conviction, while the worst are passionate.

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C Programming
 More String Functions

Declared in the string.h file are several more string-related functions that
are free for you to use. Here is a brief table of some of the more popular ones
Function Operation
strcat Appends to a string
strchr Finds first occurrence of a given character
strcmp Compares two strings
strcmpi Compares two, strings, non-case sensitive
strcpy Copies one string to another
strlen Finds length of a string
strncat Appends n characters of string
strncmp Compares n characters of two strings
strncpy Copies n characters of one string to another
strnset Sets n characters of string to a given character
strrchr Finds last occurrence of given character in string
strspn Finds first substring from given character set in string

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C Programming
 More String Functions Continued

Most of the functions on the previous page are self-explanatory. The UNIX
man pages provide a full description of their operation. Take for example,
strcmp which has this syntax

strcmp(string1,string2);

It returns an integer that is less than zero, equal to zero, or greater than zero
depending on whether string1 is less than, equal to, or greater than
string2.

String comparison is done character-pair by character-pair using the ASCII

numerical code

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C Programming
 Examples of String Functions

Here are some examples of string functions in action:

static char s1[]="big sky country";

static char s2[]="blue moon";
static char s3[]="then falls Caesar";

Function Result
strlen(s1) 15 /* e-o-s not counted */
strlen(s2) 9
strcmp(s1,s2) negative number
strcmp(s3,s2) positive number
strcat(s2, tonight) blue moon tonight

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C Programming
 Character I/O Functions

Analogous to the gets and puts functions there are the getchar and
putchar functions specially designed for character I/O. The following
program illustrates their use:
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int n; char lett;
putchar('?');
n=45;
putchar(n-2);
lett=getchar();
putchar(lett);
putchar('\n');
}

A sample session using this code would look like:

?+f
f

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C Programming
 More Character Functions

As with strings, there is a library of functions designed to work with character

variables. The file ctype.h declares additional routines for manipulating
characters. Here is a partial list
Function Operation
isalnum Tests for alphanumeric character
isalpha Tests for alphabetic character
isascii Tests for ASCII character
iscntrl Tests for control character
isdigit Tests for 0 to 9
isgraph Tests for printable character
islower Tests for lowercase character
isprint Tests for printable character
ispunct Tests for punctuation character
isspace Tests for space character
isupper Tests for uppercase character
isxdigit Tests for hexadecimal
toascii Converts character to ASCII code
tolower Converts character to lowercase
toupper Converts character to upper

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C Programming
 Character Functions Example

In the following program, character functions are used to convert a string to all
uppercase characters:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
main() {
char name[80];
int loop;
printf ("Please type in your name\n");
gets(name);
for (loop=0; name[loop] !=0; loop++)
name[loop] = toupper(name[loop]);
printf ("You are %s\n",name);
}

A sample session using this program looks like this:

Please type in your name
Dexter Xavier
You are DEXTER XAVIER

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C Programming
 Math Library Functions

Calculator-class Functions
Using Math Library Functions

102
C Programming
 Calculator-class Library Functions

You may have started to guess that there should be a header file called
math.h which contains declarations of useful calculator-class
mathematical functions. Well there is! Some functions found in math.h are
acos asin atan
cos sin tan
cosh sinh tanh
exp log log10
pow sqrt
ceil floor
erf
gamma
j0 j1 jn
y0 y1 yn

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C Programming
 Using Math Library Functions

The following code fragment uses the Pythagorean theorem c2 = a2 + b2 to

calculate the length of the hypotenuse given the other two sides of a right
triangle:

double c, a, b
c=sqrt(pow(a,2)+pow(b,2));

In some cases, to use the math functions declared in the math.h include file,
the user must explicitly load the math library during compilation. On most
systems the compilation would look like this:

cc myprog.c -lm

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C Programming
 User-defined Functions

Introduction to User-defined Function Prototypes

Functions Recursion
Reasons for Modular Programming Storage Classes
Three Steps Required auto Storage Class
Function Definition extern Storage Class
User-defined Function Example 1 extern Storage Class Example
User-defined Function Example 2 static and register Storage Class
return Statement
return Statement Example
Using Functions
Considerations when Using
Functions
Pass-by-Value
Introduction to Function Prototypes

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C Programming
 Introduction to User-defined Functions

A function in C is a small sub-program that performs a particular task, and

thus supports the concept of modular programming design techniques. In
modular programming the various tasks that your entire program must
accomplish are assigned to individual functions and the main program
basically calls these functions in a certain order.

We have already been exposed to functions. The main body of a C program,

identified by the keyword main, and enclosed by left and right braces is a
function. It is called by the operating system when the program is run, and
when terminated, returns to the operating system. We have also seen examples
of library functions which can be used for I/O, mathematical tasks, and
character/string handling.

But can the programmer define and use their own functions? Absolutely YES!

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C Programming
 Reasons for Modular Programming

There are many good reasons to program in a modular style:

Dont have to repeat the same block of code many times in your code. Make
that code block a function and reference it when needed.
Function portability: useful functions can be used in a number of programs.
Supports the top-down technique for devising a program algorithm. Make an
outline and hierarchy of the steps needed to solve your problem and create a
function for each step.
Easy to debug. Get one function working correctly then move on to the others.
Easy to modify and expand. Just add more functions to extend program
capability
For a large programming project, a specific programmer will code only a
small fraction of the program.
Makes program self-documenting and readable.

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C Programming
 Three Steps Required

In order to use their own functions, the programmer must do three things (not
necessarily in this order):

Define the function

Declare the function
Use the function in the main code.

In the following pages, we examine each of these steps in detail.

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C Programming
 Function Definition

The function definition is the C code that implements what the function does.
Function definitions have the following syntax

return_type function_name (data type variable name list)

{
local declarations; function
function function statements; body
header
}
where the return_type in the function header tells the type of the value
returned by the function (default is int)
where the data type variable name list tells what arguments the
function needs when it is called (and what their types are)
where local declarations in the function body are local constants and
variables the function needs for its calculations.

109
C Programming
 Function Definition Example 1

Here is an example of a function that calculates n!

int factorial (int n) {

int i,product=1;
for (i=2; i<=n; ++i)
product *= i;
return product;
}

110
C Programming
 Function Definition Example 2

Some functions will not actually return a value or need any arguments. For
these functions the keyword void is used. Here is an example:

void write_header(void) {
printf("Navier-Stokes Equations Solver ");
printf("v3.45\n");
printf("Last Modified: ");
printf("12/04/95 - viscous coefficient added\n");
}

The 1st void keyword indicates that no value will be returned.

The 2nd void keyword indicates that no arguments are needed for the
function.

This makes sense because all this function does is print out a header statement.

111
C Programming
 return Statement

A function returns a value to the calling program with the use of the keyword
return, followed by a data variable or constant value. The return statement
can even contain an expression. Some examples
return 3;
return n;
return ++a;
return (a*b);
When a return is encountered the following events occur:
1) execution of the function is terminated and control is passed back to the
calling program, and
2) the function reference evaluates to the value of the return
expression.

If there is no return statement control is passed back when the closing brace
of the function is encountered (falling off the end).

112
C Programming
 return Statement Examples

The data type of the return expression must match that of the declared
return_type for the function.

float add_numbers (float n1, float n2) {

return n1 + n2; /*legal*/
return 6; /*illegal, not the same data type*/
return 6.0; /*legal but stupid */
}

It is possible for a function to have multiple return statements. For example:

double absolute(double x) {
if (x>=0.0)
return x;
else
return -x;
}

113
C Programming
 Using Functions

This is the easiest part! To invoke a function, just type its name in your
program and be sure to supply actual arguments (if necessary). A statement
using our factorial function would look like
number=factorial(9);

To invoke our write_header function, use this statement

write_header();

When your program encounters a function reference, control passes to the

function. When the function is completed, control passes back to the main
program. In addition, if a value was returned, the function reference evaluates
to that return value. In the above example, upon return from the factorial
function the statement
factorial(9) 362880
and that integer is assigned to the variable number.

114
C Programming
 Considerations when using Functions
Some points to keep in mind when referencing functions (your own or a
librarys):

The number of actual arguments in the function reference must match the
number of dummy arguments in the function definition.

The type of the actual arguments in the function reference must match the
type of the dummy arguments in the function definition. (Unless automatic
type conversion occurs).

The actual arguments in the function reference are matched up in-order with
the dummy arguments in the function definition.

The actual arguments are passed by-value to the function. The dummy
arguments in the function are initialized with the present values of the actual
arguments.
Any changes made to a dummy argument inside the function
will NOT affect the corresponding actual argument in the main
program. 115
C Programming
 Pass-by-Value

The independence of actual and dummy arguments is demonstrated in the

following program.
#include <stdio.h>
int compute_sum(int n) {
int sum=0;
for(;n>0;--n)
sum+=n;
printf("Local n in function is %d\n",n);
return sum; }
main() {
int lim=8,sum;
printf ("Main lim (before call) is %d\n",lim);
sum=compute_sum(lim);
printf ("Main lim (after call) is %d\n",lim);
printf ("\nThe sum of integers from 1 to %d is %d\n",lim,sum);
}
Main lim (before call) is 8
Local n in function is 0
Main lim (after call) is 8

The sum of integers from 1 to 8 is 36

116
C Programming
 Introduction to Function Prototypes
Function prototypes are used to declare a function so that it can be used in a
program before the function is actually defined. Consider the program on the
previous page. In some sense, it reads backwards. All the secondary
functions are defined first, and then we see the main program that shows the
major steps in the program. This example program can be rewritten using a
function prototype as follows:
#include <stdio.h>
int compute_sum(int n); /* Function Prototype */
main() {
int lim=8,sum;
printf ("Main lim (before call) is %d\n",lim);
sum=compute_sum(lim);
printf ("Main lim (after call) is %d\n",lim);
printf ("\nThe sum of integers from 1 to %d is %d\n",lim,sum);
}
int compute_sum(int n) {
int sum=0;
for(;n>0;--n)
sum+=n;
printf("Local n in function is %d\n",n);
return sum;
}
117
C Programming
 Function Prototypes
With the function prototype, the program reads in a "natural" order. You know
that a function called compute_sum will be defined later on, and you see its
immediate use in the main program. Perhaps you dont care about the details
of how the sum is computed and you wont need to read the actual function
definition.

As this example shows, a function prototype is simply the function header

from the function definition with a semi-colon attached to the end. The
prototype tells the compiler the number and type of the arguments to the
function and the type of the return value. Function prototypes should be placed
before the start of the main program. The function definitions can then
follow the main program (or, actually be in separate files). In fact, if you look
at one of the include files -- say string.h -- you will see the prototypes for
all the string functions available!

In addition to making code more readable, the use of function prototypes

offers improved type checking between actual and dummy arguments. In
some cases, the type of actual arguments will automatically be coerced to
match the type of the dummy arguments. Prototypes also allow the compiler to
check that the return value is used correctly.
118
C Programming
 Recursion

Recursion is the process in which a function repeatedly calls itself to perform

calculations. Typical applications are in mathematics, sorting trees and lists.
Recursive algorithms are not mandatory; an iterative approach can always be
found which runs significantly faster.

The following function elegantly calculates factorials recursively:

int factorial(int n) {
int result;

if (n<=1)
result=1;
else
result = n * factorial(n-1);

return result;
}

119
C Programming
 Storage Classes

Every variable in C actually has two attributes: its data type and its storage
class. The storage class refers to the manner in which memory is allocated
for the variable. The storage class also determines the scope of the variable,
that is, what parts of a program the variables name has meaning. In C, the
four possible Storage classes are

auto

extern

static

register

120
C Programming
 auto Storage Class

This is the default classification for all variables declared within a function
body [including main()] .

Automatic variables are truly local.

They exist and their names have meaning only while the function is being
executed.

They are unknown to other functions.

When the function is exited, the values of automatic variables are not retained.

They are normally implemented on a stack.

They are recreated each time the function is called.

121
C Programming
 extern Storage Class

In contrast, extern variables are global.

If a variable is declared at the beginning of a program outside all functions

[including main()] it is classified as an external by default.

External variables can be accessed and changed by any function in the

program.

Their storage is in permanent memory, and thus never disappear or need to be

recreated.

What is the advantage of using global variables?

It is a method of transmitting information between functions in a program
without using arguments.

122
C Programming
 extern Storage Class Example

The following program illustrates the global nature of extern variables:

#include <stdio.h>
int a=4,b=5,c=6; /* default extern */
int sum(void); int prod(void);
main() {
printf ("The sum is %d\n",sum());
printf ("The product is %d\n",prod());
}
int sum(void) {
return (a+b+c); }
int prod(void) {
return (a*b*c); }
The sum is 15
The product is 120
There are two disadvantages of global variables versus arguments. First, the
function is much less portable to other programs. Second, is the concept of
local dominance. If a local variable has the same name as a global variable,
only the local variable is changed while in the function. Once the function is
exited, the global variable has the same value as when the function started.
123
C Programming
 static and register Storage Class

static Storage Class

A static variable is a local variable that retains its latest value when a
function is recalled. Its scope is still local in that it will only be recognized in
its own function. Basically, static variables are created and initialized once
during the first reference to the function. With clever programming, one can
use static variables to enable a function to do different things depending on
how many times it has been called. (Consider a function that counts the
number of times it has been called).

register Storage Class

It is often true that the time bottleneck in computer calculations is the time it
takes to fetch a variable from memory and store its value in a register where
the CPU can perform some calculation with it. So for performance reasons, it
is sometimes advantageous to store variables directly in registers. This strategy
is most often used with loop counter variables, as shown below.
register int i;
for (i=0; i<n; ++i)
...

124
C Programming
 Formatted Input and Output

Formatted Output
char and int Formatted Output Example
f Format Identifier
e Format Identifier
Real Formatted Output Example
s Format Identifier
Strings Formatted Output Example
Formatted Input
Formatted Input Examples

125
C Programming
 Formatted Output

Can you control the appearance of your output on the screen? Or do you have
to accept the default formatting provided by the C compiler? It turns out you
can format your output in a number of ways.
You can control how many columns will be used to output the contents of a
particular variable by specifying the field width. The desired field width is
inserted in the format specifier after the % and before the letter code indicating
the data type. Thus, the format specifier %5d is interpreted as use 5 columns to
display the integer. Further examples:

%3c display the character in 3 columns

%13x display the hexadecimal integer in 13 columns
Within the field, the argument value is right-adjusted and padded with
blanks. If left adjustment is preferred use the syntax %-3c. If you wish to pad
with zeros use the syntax %04d.
Nice Feature:
If the value to be printed out takes up more columns than the specified field
width, the field is automatically expanded.

126
C Programming
 char and int Formatted Output Example

This program and it output demonstrate various-sized field widths and their
variants.

#include <stdio.h>
main() {
char lett='w';
int i=1,j=29;
printf ("%c\n",lett); w
printf ("%4c\n",lett); w
printf ("%-3c\n",lett); w
printf ("%d\n",i); 1
printf ("%d\n",j); 29
printf ("%10d\n",j); 29
printf ("%010d\n",j); 0000000029
printf ("%-010d\n",j); 29
printf ("%2o\n",j); 35
printf ("%2x\n",j); 1d
}

127
C Programming
 f Format Identifier

For floating-point values, in addition to specifying the field width, the number
of decimal places can also be set. A sample format specifier would look like
this
%10.4f

field number of
width decimal places

Note that a period separates the two numbers in the format specifier. Dont
forget to count the column needed for the decimal point when calculating the
field width. We can use the above format identifier as follows:

printf("%10.4f",4.0/3.0); ----1.3333

where - indicates the blank character.

128
C Programming
 e Format Identifier

When using the e format identifier, the second number after the decimal point
determines how many significant figures (SF) will be displayed. For example
printf("%10.4e",4.0/3.0); _1.333e+10

number of significant figures

Note that only 4 significant figures are shown. Remember that now the field
size must include the actual numerical digits as well as columns for .,e,
and +00 in the exponent.
It is possible to print out as many SFs as you desire. But it only makes sense to
print out as many SFs as match the precision of the data type. The following
table shows a rough guideline:

Data Type # Mantissa bits Precision (#SF)

float 16 ~7
double 32 ~16
long double 64 ~21
129
C Programming
 Real Formatted Output Example
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
float x=333.123456;
double y=333.1234567890123456;

printf ("%f\n",x); 333.123444

printf ("%.1f\n",x); 333.1
printf ("%20.3f\n",x); 333.123
printf ("%-20.3f\n",x); 333.123
printf ("%020.3f\n",x); 0000000000000333.123
printf ("%f\n",y); 333.123457
printf ("%.9f\n",y); 333.123456789
printf ("%.20f\n",y); 333.12345678901232304270
printf ("%20.4e\n",y); 3.331e+02
}

130
C Programming
 s Format Identifier

For strings, the field length specifier works as before and will automatically
expand if the string size is bigger than the specification. A more sophisticated
string format specifier looks like this

%6.3s

field width maximum number of characters printed

where the value after the decimal point specifies the maximum number of
characters printed.

For example;

printf(%3.4s\n","Sheridan"); Sher

131
C Programming
 Strings Formatted Output Example
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
static char s[]="an evil presence";

printf ("%s\n",s); an evil presence

printf ("%7s\n",s); an evil presence
printf ("%20s\n",s); an evil presence
printf ("%-20s\n",s); an evil presence
printf ("%.5s\n",s); an ev
printf ("%.12s\n",s); an evil pres
printf ("%15.12s\n",s); an evil pres
printf ("%-15.12s\n",s); an evil pres
printf ("%3.12s\n",s); an evil pres
}

132
C Programming
 Formatted Input

Modifications can be made to the control string of the scanf function which
enables more sophisticated input. The formatting features that can be inserted
into the control string are

Ordinary characters (not just format identifiers) can appear in the scanf
control string. They must exactly match corresponding characters in the input.
These normal characters will not be read in as input.

An asterisk can be put after the % symbol in an input format specifier to

suppress the input.

As with formatted output, a field width can be specified for inputting values.
The field width specifies the number of columns used to gather the input.

133
C Programming
 Formatted Input Examples
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int m,n,o;
scanf("%d : %d : %d",&m,&n,&o);
printf("%d \n %d \n %d\n",m,n,o);
}
10 : 15 : 17
10
15
17

#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int i; char lett; char word[15];
scanf("%d , %*s %c %5s",&i,&lett,word);
printf("%d \n %s \n %s\n",i,lett,word);
}
45 , ignore_this C read_this
45
C
read_
134
C Programming
 Pointers

Pointer Uses Pointers and Arrays

Memory Addressing Pointers and Arrays Figure
The Address Operator Pointers and Arrays Examples
Pointer Variables Arrays as Function Arguments
Pointer Arithmetic Arrays as Function Arguments
Indirection Operator Example
Call-by-Reference Arguments Pointers and Character Strings
Tripling Function Alternate Definition of a String
Swap Function

135
C Programming
 Pointer Uses

Pointers are an intimate part of C and separate it from more traditional

programming languages. Pointers make C more powerful allowing a wide
variety of tasks to be accomplished. Pointers enable programmers to

effectively represent sophisticated data structures [later chapter]

change values of actual arguments passed to functions (call-by-reference)
work with memory which has been dynamically allocated [later chapter]
more concisely and efficiently deal with arrays
represent strings in a different manner

On the other hand, pointers are usually difficult for new C programmers to
comprehend and use. If you remember the following simple statement,
working with pointers should be less painful

POINTERS CONTAIN MEMORY ADDRESSES, NOT DATA VALUES!

136
C Programming
 Memory Addressing

POINTERS CONTAIN MEMORY ADDRESSES, NOT DATA VALUES!

When you declare a simple variable, say

int i;

a memory location with a certain address is set aside for any values that will be
placed in i. We thus have the following picture:

memory FFD2 ? i variable name

location

After the statement i=35; the location corresponding to i will be filled

FFD2 35 i

137
C Programming
 The Address Operator

You can find out the memory address of a variable by simply using the
address operator &. Here is an example of its use:

&v

The above expression should be read as address of v, and it returns the

memory address of the variable v.

Consider the artificial example shown on the previous page, &i would be the
memory address FFD2

As will be shown, when using pointers the programmer never needs to know
actual value of any memory address. Only that a pointer variable contains a
memory address.

138
C Programming
 Pointer Variables

A pointer is a C variable that contains memory addresses. Like all other C

variables, pointers must be declared before they are used. The syntax for
pointer declaration is as follows:
int *p;
double* offset; /* Both forms legal */
Note that the prefix * defines the variable to be a pointer. In the above
example, p is the type pointer to integer and offset is the type pointer
to double.
Once a pointer has been declared, it can be assigned an address. This is
commonly done with the address operator. For example,
int *p;
int count;
p=&count;
After this assignment, we say that p is pointing to the variable count. The
pointer p contains the memory address of the variable count.

139
C Programming
 Pointer Arithmetic

A limited amount of pointer arithmetic is possible. The "unit" for the

arithmetic is the size of the variable being pointed to in bytes. Thus,
incrementing a pointer-to-an-int variable automatically adds to the pointer
address the number of bytes used to hold an int (on that machine).

Programmer can use addition, subtraction and multiplication with a

pointer and an integer as operands
Pointers can be incremented and decremented.
In addition, different pointers can be assigned to each other

Some examples,

int *p, *q;

p=p+2; /* p increased by 2 int memory sizes */
q=p;

140
C Programming
 Indirection Operator

The indirection operator, * , can be considered as the complement to the

address operator. It returns the contents of the address stored in a pointer
variable. It is used as follows:
*p
The above expression is read as contents of p. What is returned is the value
stored at the memory address p.
Consider the sample code:
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
int a=1,b=78,*ip;
ip=&a;
b=*ip; /* equivalent to b=a */
printf("The value of b is %d\n",b); }
The value of b is 1

Note that b is assigned the value of a but it is done indirectly; by using a

pointer to a.

141
C Programming
 Memory Point-of-View

The following diagrams illustrate what occurred in memory while our sample
program (previous slide) was run:

1 a 78 b

ip 1 a 78 b

ip 1 a 1 b

142
C Programming
 Call-by-Reference Arguments

We learned earlier that if a variable in the main program is used as an actual

argument in a function reference, its value wont be changed no matter what is
done to the corresponding dummy argument in the function.

What if we would like the function to change the main variables

contents?

To do this we use pointers as dummy arguments in functions and indirect

operations in the function body. (The actual arguments must then be
addresses)

Since the actual argument variable and the corresponding dummy

pointer refer to the same memory location, changing the contents of the
dummy pointer will- by necessity- change the contents of the actual
argument variable.

143
C Programming
 Tripling Function

An example of call-by-reference is a tripling function designed to triple the

value of a variable in the main program. Here is the program and function:

#include <stdio.h>

void triple_value(float *fp);

main() {
float x=43.15;
triple_value(&x);
printf(x is now %0.4f\n",x);
}

void triple_value(float *fp) {

*fp = *fp * 3.0;
}
x is now 129.4500

144
C Programming
 Swap Function

The classic example of call-by-reference is a swap function designed to

exchange the values of two variables in the main program. Here is a typical
swapping program:
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int *p,int *q);

main() {
int i=3,j=9876;
swap(&i,&j);
printf("After swap, i=%d j=%d\n",i,j);
}

void swap(int *p,int *q) {

int temp;
temp=*p;
*p=*q;
*q=temp;
}
After swap, i=9876 j=3

145
C Programming
 Pointers and Arrays

Although this may seem strange at first, in C an array name contains an

address. In fact, it is the base address of all the consecutive memory locations
that make up the entire array.

We have actually seen this fact before: when using scanf to input a character
array called name the statement looked like

scanf("%s",name); NOT scanf("%s",&name);

Given this fact, we can use pointer arithmetic to access array elements.
Adding one to the array name can move a pointer to the next array element,
add another one and the pointer moves to the element after that, and so on
In this manner the entire array can be indirectly accessed with a pointer
variable.

146
C Programming
 Pointers and Arrays Figure

Given the following array declaration

int a[467];

The following two statements do the exact same thing:

a[5]=56;
*(a+5)=56;

Here is a possible layout in memory:

a 133268 a[0]
a+1 133272 a[1]
a+2 133276 a[2]
a+3 133280 a[3]
a+4 133284 a[4]
a+5 133288 a[5]

147
C Programming
 Pointers and Arrays Examples

The next examples show how to sum up all the elements of a 1D array using
different approaches:
Normal way (element notation)
int a[100],i,*p,sum=0;

for(i=0; i<100; ++i)

sum +=a[i];
Alternate way (use addresses)
int a[100],i,*p,sum=0;

for(i=0; i<100; ++i)

sum += *(a+i);

Yet another way (use a pointer)

int a[100],i,*p,sum=0;

for(p=a; p<&a[100]; ++p)

sum += *p;

148
C Programming
 Arrays as Function Arguments

When you are writing functions that work on arrays, it is efficient to use
pointers as dummy arguments. Once the function has the base address of the
array, it can use pointer arithmetic to indirectly work with all the array
elements. The alternative is to use global array variables or -- more horribly --
pass all the array elements into the function.

Consider the following function designed to take the sum of elements in a 1D

array of doubles:
double sum(double *dp, int n) {
int i; double res=0.0;
for(i=0; i<n; ++i)
res += *(dp+i);
return res;
}

Note that all the sum function needed was a starting address in the array
and the number of elements to be summed together (n). A compact argument
list.

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C Programming
 Arrays as Function Arguments Example

Considering the previous example

double sum(double *dp, int n) {
int i; double res=0.0;
for(i=0; i<n; ++i)
res += *(dp+i);
return res;
}

In the main program, the sum function could be used in any of these ways:

double position[150],length;

length=sum(position,150); /* sum entire array */

length=sum(position,75); /* sum first half */
length=sum(&position[10],10);/* sum from element
10 to element 19 */

150
C Programming
 Pointers and Character Strings

As strange as this sounds, a string constant -- such as Happy Thanksgiving --

is treated by the compiler as an address (Just like we saw with an array name).
The value of the string constant address is the base address of the character
array. In other words, the address of the first character in the string.

Thus, we can use pointers to work with character strings, in a similar

manner that we used pointers to work with normal arrays. This is
demonstrated in the following code:
#include <stdio.h>

main() {
char *cp;
cp="Civil War"; /* Now this is legal */
printf("%c\n",*cp);
printf("%c\n",*(cp+6));
}
C
W

151
C Programming
 Alternate Definition of a String

Another example illustrates easy string input using pointers:

#include <stdio.h>

main() {
char *name;
printf("Who are you?\n");
scanf("%s",name);
printf("Hi %s welcome to the party, pal\n",name);
}
Who are you?
Seymour
Hi Seymour welcome to the party, pal

152
C Programming
 Structures

Introduction to Structures
Structure Variable Declaration
Structure Members
Initializing Structure Members
Array of Structures
Structures within Structures
Initializing Structures within Structures
Pointers to Structures
Structure Pointer Operator

153
C Programming
 Introduction to Structures

A structure is a variable in which different types of data can be stored

together in one variable name. Consider the data a teacher might need for a
student: Name, Class, GPA, test scores, final score, and final course grade. A
structure data type called student can hold all this information:

struct student {
char name[45];
keyword char class;
float gpa;
structure
data type name int test[3]; member name & type
int final;
char grade;
}; /* Easy to forget this semicolon */

The above is a declaration of a new data type called student. It is not a

variable declaration, but a type declaration.

154
C Programming
 Structure Variable Declaration
To actually declare a structure variable, the standard syntax is used:

struct student Lisa, Bart, Homer;

You can declare a structure type and variables simultaneously. Consider the
following structure representing playing cards.

struct playing_card {
int number;
char *suit;
} card1,card2,card3;

Notice that in both the structure type declaration and the structure variable
declaration the keyword struct must precede the meaningful name you
chose for the structure type.

155
C Programming
 Structure Members

The different variable types stored in a structure are called its members. To
access a given member the dot notation is use. The dot is officially called
the member access operator. Say we wanted to initialize the structure card1
to the two of hearts. It would be done this way:
card1.number = 2;
card1.suit = "Hearts";
Once you know how to name of a member, it can be treated the same as any
other variable of that type. For example the following code:
card2.number = card1.number + 5;
would make card2 the seven of some suit.
Structure variables can also be assigned to each other, just like with other
variable types:
card3 = card1;
would fill in the card3 number member with 2 and the suit member with
Hearts. In other words, each member of card3 gets assigned the value of
the corresponding member of card1.

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C Programming
 Initializing Structure Members

Structure members can be initialized at declaration. This is similar to the

initialization of arrays; the initial values are simply listed inside a pair of braces,
with each value separated by a comma. The structure declaration is preceded by the
keyword static
static struct student Lisa =
{"Simpson",'S',3.95,100,87,92,96,'A'};
The same member names can appear in different structures. This will be no
confusion to the compiler because when the member name is used it is prefixed by
the name of the structure variable. For example:
struct fruit {
char *name;
int calories; } snack;
struct vegetable {
char *name;
int calories; } dinner_course;
snack.name="banana";
dinner_course.name="broccoli";

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C Programming
 Array of Structures

What data type are allowed to be structure members? Anything goes: basic
types, arrays, strings, pointers, even other structures. You can even make an
array of structures.
Consider the program on the next few pages which uses an array of structures
to make a deck of cards and deal out a poker hand.
#include <stdio.h>

struct playing_card {
int number;
char *suit;
};
struct playing_card deck[52];

void make_deck(void);
void show_card(int n);
main() {
make_deck();
show_card(5);
show_card(37);
show_card(26);
show_card(51);
show_card(19); 158
} C Programming
 Array of Structures

void make_deck(void) {
int k;
for(k=0; k<52; ++k) {
if (k>=0 && k<13) {
deck[k].suit="Hearts";
deck[k].number=k%13+2; }
if (k>=13 && k<26) {
deck[k].suit="Diamonds";
deck[k].number=k%13+2; }
if (k>=26 && k<39) {
deck[k].suit="Spades";
deck[k].number=k%13+2; }
if (k>=39 && k<52) {
deck[k].suit="Clubs";
deck[k].number=k%13+2; }
}
}

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C Programming
 Array of Structures
void show_card(int n) {
switch(deck[n].number) {
case 11:
printf("%c of %s\n",'J',deck[n].suit);
break;
case 12:
printf("%c of %s\n",'Q',deck[n].suit);
break;
case 13:
printf("%c of %s\n",'K',deck[n].suit);
break;
case 14:
printf("%c of %s\n",'A',deck[n].suit);
break;
default:
printf("%c of %s\n",deck[n].number,deck[n].suit);
}
}
7 of Hearts
K of Spades
2 of Spades
A of Clubs
8 of Diamonds
160
C Programming
 Structures within Structures
As mentioned earlier, structures can have as members other structures. Say
you wanted to make a structure that contained both date and time information.
One way to accomplish this would be to combine two separate structures; one
for the date and one for the time. For example,
struct date {
int month;
int day;
int year;
};
struct time {
int hour;
int min;
int sec;
};
struct date_time {
struct date today;
struct time now;
};
This declares a structure whose elements consist of two other previously
declared structures.

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C Programming
 Initializing Structures within Structures

Initialization could be done as follows,

static struct date_time veteran = {{11,11,1918},{11,11,11}};

which sets the today element of the structure veteran to the eleventh of
November, 1918. The now element of the structure is initialized to eleven
hours, eleven minutes, eleven seconds. Each item within the structure can be
referenced if desired. The dot notation will be used twice. For example,

++veteran.now.sec;
if (veteran.today.month == 12)
printf("Wrong month! \n");

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C Programming
 Pointers to Structures

One can have pointer variable that contain the address of a structure variable,
just like with the basic data types. Structure pointers are declared and used in
the same manner as simple pointers:

struct playing_card *card_pointer,down_card;

card_pointer=&down_card;
(*card_pointer).number=8;
(*card_pointer).suit="Clubs";

The above code has indirectly initialized the structure down_card to the
Eight of Clubs through the use of the pointer card_pointer.

The type of the variable card_pointer is pointer to a playing_card

structure.

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C Programming
 Pointers to Structures: ->

In C, there is a special operator -> which is used as a shorthand when working

with pointers to structures. It is officially called the structure pointer
operator. Its syntax is as follows:
*(struct_ptr).member is the same as struct_ptr->member
Thus, the last two lines of the previous example could also have been written
as:
card_pointer->number=8;
card_pointer->suit="Clubs";

Question: What is the value of *(card_pointer->suit+2)?

Answer: *( *(card_pointer).suit + 2)
*( Clubs + 2) = u

As with arrays, use structure pointers as dummy arguments for functions

working with structures. This is efficient, since only an address is passed and
can also enable the call-by-reference technique.

164
C Programming
 Unions

Introduction to Unions
Unions and Memory
Unions Example

165
C Programming
 Introduction to Unions

Unions are C variables whose syntax look similar to structures, but act in a
completely different manner. A union is a variable that can take on different
data types in different situations. The union syntax is:
union tag_name {
type1 member1;
type2 member2;

};
For example, the following code declares a union data type called intfloat
and a union variable called proteus:
union intfloat {
float f;
int i;
};

union intfloat proteus;

166
C Programming
 Unions and Memory

Once a union variable has been declared, the amount of memory reserved is
just enough to be able to represent the largest member. (Unlike a structure
where memory is reserved for all members).

In the previous example, 4 bytes are set aside for the variable proteus since
a float will take up 4 bytes and an int only 2 (on some machines).

Data actually stored in a unions memory can be the data associated with any
of its members. But only one member of a union can contain valid data at a
given point in the program.

It is the users responsibility to keep track of which type of data has most
recently been stored in the union variable.

167
C Programming
 Unions Example

The following code illustrates the chameleon-like nature of the union variable
proteus defined on the previous page.
#include <stdio.h>
main() {
union intfloat {
float f;
int i;
} proteus;
proteus.i=4444 /* Statement 1 */
printf(i:%12d f:%16.10e\n,proteus.i,proteus.f);
proteus.f=4444.0; /* Statement 2 */
printf(i:%12d f:%16.10e\n,proteus.i,proteus.f);
}
i: 4444 f:6.2273703755e-42
i: 1166792216 f:4.440000000e+03

After Statement 1, data stored in proteus is an integer the the float member
is full of junk.
After Statement 2, the data stored in proteus is a float, and the integer
value is meaningless.

168
C Programming
 File Input and Output

Introduction to File Input and Output

Declaring FILE Variables
Opening a Disk File for I/O
Reading and Writing to Disk Files
Closing a Disk File
Additional File I/O Functions
COMPLETE File I/O Program

169
C Programming
 Introduction to File Input and Output

So far, all the output (formatted or not) in this course has been written out to
what is called standard output (which is traditionally the monitor). Similarly
all input has come from standard input (commonly assigned to the
keyboard). A C programmer can also read data directly from files and write
directly to files. To work with a file, the following steps must be taken:

1 Declare a variable to be of type pointer-to-FILE.

2 Connect the internal FILE variable with an actual data file on your hard
disk. This association of a FILE variable with a file name is done with the
fopen() function.

3 Perform I/O with the actual files using fprint() and fscanf()
functions. (All you have learned still works).

4 Break the connection between the internal FILE variable and actual disk
file. This disassociation is done with the fclose() function.

170
C Programming
 Declaring FILE variables

Declarations of the file functions highlighted on the previous page must be

included into your program. This is done in the standard manner by having

#include <stdio.h>

at the beginning of your program.

The first step is using files in C programs is to declare a file variable. This
variable must be of type FILE (which is a predefined type in C) and it is a
pointer variable. For example, the following statement

FILE *in_file;

declares the variable in_file to be a pointer to type FILE.

171
C Programming
 Opening a Disk File for I/O

Before using a FILE variable, it must be associated with a specific file name.
The fopen() function performs this association and takes two arguments:
1) the pathname of the disk file
2) the access mode which indicates how the file is to be used.
The following statement

in_file = fopen("myfile.dat","r");

connects the local variable in_file to the disk file myfile.dat for read
access. Thus, myfile.dat will only be read from. Two other access modes
are also useful:

w indicating write-mode
a indicating append_mode

172
C Programming
 Reading and Writing to Disk Files

The functions fprintf and fscanf are provided by C to perform the

analogous operations of the printf and scanf functions but on a file.

These functions take an additional (first) argument which is the FILE pointer
that identifies the file to which data is to be written to or read from. Thus the
statement,

fscanf(in_file,"%f%d",&x,&m);

will input -- from the file myfile.dat -- real and integer values into the
variables x and m respectively.

173
C Programming
 Closing a Disk File

The fclose function in a sense does the opposite of what the fopen does: it
tells the system that we no longer need access to the file. This allows the
operating system to cleanup any resources or buffers associated with the file.

The syntax for file closing is simply

fclose(in_file);

174
C Programming
 Additional File I/O Functions
Many of the specialized I/O functions for characters and strings that we have
described in this course have analogs which can be used for file I/O. Here is a
list of these functions
Function Result
fgets file string input
fputs file string output
getc(file_ptr) file character input
putc(file_ptr) file character output
Another useful function for file I/O is feof() which tests for the end-of-file
condition. feof takes one argument -- the FILE pointer -- and returns a
nonzero integer value (TRUE) if an attempt has been made to read past the end
of a file. It returns zero (FALSE) otherwise. A sample use:

while( !feof(in_file) ) {

printf (Still have lines of data\n");
}

175
C Programming
 Sample File I/O Program

The program on the next few pages illustrates the use of file I/O functions. It is
an inventory program that reads from the following file
lima beans
1.20
10
5
thunder tea
2.76
5
10
Greaters ice-cream
3.47
5
5
boneless chicken
4.58
12
10
which contains stock information for a store. The program will output those
items which need to be reordered because their number-on-hand is below a
certain limit
176
C Programming
 Sample File I/O Program: main
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <string.h>

struct goods {
char name[20];
float price;
int quantity;
int reorder;
};

FILE *stock_list;

void processfile(void);
void getrecord(struct goods *recptr);
void printrecord(struct goods record);

main() {
char filename[40];
printf("Example Goods Re-Order File Program\n");
printf("Enter database file \n");
scanf("%s",filename);
stock_list = fopen(filename, "r");
processfile();
} 177
C Programming
 Sample File I/O Program: processfile

void processfile(void) {
struct goods record;
while (!feof(stock_list)) {
getrecord(&record);
if (record.quantity <= record.reorder)
printrecord(record);
}
}

178
C Programming
 Sample File I/O Program: getrecord

void getrecord(struct goods *recptr) {

int loop=0,number,toolow;
char buffer[40],ch;
float cost;

ch=fgetc(stock_list); /* Input string character

while (ch!='\n') { by character */
buffer[loop++]=ch;
ch=fgetc(stock_list);
}
buffer[loop]=0;
strcpy(recptr->name,buffer);

fscanf(stock_list,"%f",&cost);
recptr->price = cost;
fscanf(stock_list,"%d",&number);
recptr->quantity = number;
fscanf(stock_list,"%d",&toolow);
recptr->reorder = toolow;
}

179
C Programming
 Sample File I/O Program: printrecord

void printrecord (struct goods record) {

printf("\nProduct name \t%s\n",record.name);
printf("Product price \t%f\n",record.price);
printf("Product quantity \t%d\n",record.quantity);
printf("Product reorder level \t%d\n",record.reorder);
}

180
C Programming
 Sample File I/O Program: sample session

Example Goods Re-Order File Program

Enter database file food.dat

Product name thunder tea

Product price 2.76
Product quantity 5
Product reorder level 10

Product name Greaters ice-cream

Product price 3.47
Product quantity 5
Product reorder level 5

181
C Programming
 Dynamic Memory Allocation

Introduction to Dynamic Memory Allocation

Dynamic Memory Allocation: calloc
Dynamic Memory Allocation: free

182
C Programming
 Introduction to Dynamic Memory Allocation

A common programming problem is knowing how large to make arrays when

they are declared. Consider a grading program used by a professor which
keeps track of student information (using structures). We want his program to
be general-purpose so we need to make arrays large enough to handle the
biggest possible class size:
struct student course[600];
But when a certain upper-level class has only seven students, this approach can
be inelegant and extremely wasteful of memory especially if the student
structure is quite large itself.
Thus, it is desirable to create correct-sized array variables at runtime. The
C programming language allows users to dynamically allocate and deallocate
memory when required. The functions that accomplish this are calloc()
which allocates memory to a variable, sizeof(), which determines how
much memory a specified variable occupies, and free(), which deallocates
the memory assigned to a variable.

183
C Programming
 Dynamic Memory Allocation: sizeof

The sizeof() auxillary function returns the memory size (in bytes) of a
requested variable type. This call should be used in conjunction with the
calloc() function call, so that the correct amount of memory on that
machine is allocated. Consider the following code fragment:

struct time {
int hour;
int min;
int sec;
};
int x;
x=sizeof(struct time);

x now contains how many bytes are taken up by a time structure (which
turns out to be 12 on many machines). sizeof can also be used to determine
the memory size of basic data type variables as well. For example, it is valid to
write sizeof(double).

184
C Programming
 Dynamic Memory Allocation: calloc

The calloc function is used to allocate storage to a variable while the

program is running. The function takes two arguments that specify the number
of elements to be reserved, and the size of each element in bytes (obtained
from sizeof). The function returns a pointer to the beginning of the
allocated storage area in memory. The storage area is also initialized to zeros.
struct time *appt;
appt = (struct time *) calloc(100,sizeof(struct time));
The (prefix code) (struct time *) is a type cast operator which converts
the pointer returned from calloc to a pointer to a structure of type time. The
above function call will allocate just enough memory for one hundred time
structures, and appt will point to the first in the array. Now the array of time
structures can be used, just like a statically declared array:
appt[5].hour=10;
appt[5].min=30;
appt[5].sec=0;

185
C Programming
 Dynamic Memory Allocation: free

When the variables are no longer required, the space which was allocated to
them by calloc should be returned to the system. This is done by,

free(appt);

186
C Programming
 Command-Line Arguments

Introduction to Command-Line Arguments

Command-Line Arguments Example
Command-Line Arguments: Interactive Session
String-to-Number Conversion

187
C Programming
 Introduction to Command-Line Arguments

In every program seen so far, the main function has had no dummy arguments
between its parentheses. The main function is allowed to have dummy
arguments and they match up with command-line arguments used when the
program is run.

The two dummy arguments to the main function are called argc and argv.

argc contains the number of command-line arguments passed to the main

program (The program name is also counted.)

argv[] is an array of pointers-to-char, each element of which points

to a passed command-line argument. (Consider this an array of strings.)

188
C Programming
 Command-Line Arguments Example

A simple example follows, which checks to see if only a single argument is

supplied on the command line when the program is invoked
#include <stdio.h>
main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
if (argc == 2)
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
else if (argc > 2)
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
else
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}

Note that *argv[0] is the program name itself, which means that
*argv[1] is a string containing the first actual argument supplied, and
*argv[n] is the last argument string. If no arguments are supplied, argc
will be one. Thus for n arguments, argc will be equal to n+1.

189
C Programming
 Command-Line Arguments: Sample Session

A sample session using the previous example follows:

#include <stdio.h>
main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
if (argc == 2)
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
else if (argc > 2)
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
else
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}
$ a.out
One argument expected.
$ a.out help
The argument supplied is help
$ a.out help verbose
Too many arguments supplied.

190
C Programming
 String-to-Number Conversion
Lets say one the command line arguments is the string 200. In your
program, you (probably) want to use this command line argument as the
integer 200.
To perform the conversion, a useful function is sscanf, a member of the
scanf family of functions. sscanf allows reading input from a string.
The syntax for sscanf is
sscanf(input string, control string, address list);
Consider this sample program (convert.c) and a demonstration of using it:
#include <stdio.h>
void main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
int limit;
printf(First command line arg is %s\n,argv[1];
sscanf(argv[1],%d,&limit);
limit += 100;
printf(Integer limit is now %d\n,limit);
}
$ cc o convert convert.c
$ convert 200
First command line arg is 200
Integer limit is now 300
191
C Programming
 Software Engineering

Structured Programming
Inheriting Weaknesses
Top-down With C
Example: Dithering Pallets
Makefiles
Platform independent packages

192
C Programming
 Structured Programming

Popular during the 1970s and into the 80s

To solve a large problem, break the problem into several pieces
Work on each piece separately
Treat each piece as a new problem which can itself be broken down into
smaller problems
Eventually, pieces can be solved directly, without further decomposition
This approach is called top-down programming, code-centric
Linear Solution Better Solution
Main() M1()
{
S1; {
S2; S1;
S3; S2;
S4;
S5; Main() S3;
S6; { }
} M1();
M2();
} M2()
{
S4;
S5;
S6;
}
193
C Programming
 Inheriting Weaknesses

It deals almost entirely with the instructions

Data structures for a program was as least as important as the design of
subroutines and control structures
Doesnt give adequate consideration to the data that the program manipulates
Difficult to reuse work done for other projects
Tends to produce a design that is unique to a particular problem
The ability to use a large chunk of code from another program is unlikely
Reusable code is very desirable

194
C Programming
 Top-down with C

Up to now, main() and subroutines() included in one file

Decompose this problem into smaller functions
Combine similar routines in one file
Examine the compile line which includes multiple source files

195
C Programming
 Example: Dithering Pallets

Convert an image to line-printer art

Display the image in the shell window using the ascii character set
Images are assumed to be PNM format
The ascii, PNM image files have the following format, line by line
Format key word, here "P2", 'P' meaning PNM, and '2' meaning
greyscale
Comment line
Two integers, describing the width and height of the image.
One integer, the maximum value of the color range
Each line that follows is the color value of each of the width x height pixels
Analysis of the routines needed
Main(): coordinates the execution of the application
GetMem(): allocate memory for the image
ReadImage(): read image from file
WriteImage(): write image to window, STDOUT
FillDither (): creates the dither color pallet
CnvrtImage(): convert the color information to a character

196
C Programming
 Example: Dithering Pallets

Header file, dither.h

System include files
#include <stdio.h>
Declare functions
int ReadImage(char *, struct PixelData *, int, int, int);
Strong prototyping
Declares data types used by all procedures

struct PixelData {
int greyval;
char dithval;
};
Declare macros and static variables
#define minval(x, y) (x < y) ? x : y
Functions grouped in four files
img_dither.c
main procedure
convert.c
void CnvrtImage(struct PixelData *d, char *pal, int n, int w, int h, int max )
Take the PixelData structure, palette, passed by reference
Take the width, height, and maxval, passed by value

197
C Programming
 Example: Dithering Pallets

Functions grouped in four files (contd)

make_pal.c
void FillDither (char *mydither, int num)
Pass by reference the color palette
Pass by value the size of the palette
io_image.c
Note variables passed by reference and passed by value
struct PixelData * GetMem(char *fn, int *width, int *height, int *maxval)
int ReadImage(char *fn, struct PixelData *d, int width, int height, int maxval)
void WriteImage(char * fn, struct PixelData *d, int width, int height)

198
C Programming
 Example: Dithering Pallets

Compile command
Previous exercises main() and subroutines in one file
Link to math library
-lm, shorthand for libm.so or libm.a
For many functions use man pages, man sqrt
Compiler looks in standard locations
/usr/lib
/usr/local/lib
Can direct to special purpose libraries
-L/myown/libraries/
Compiler looks in the directory path for linked library

199
C Programming
 Example: Dithering Pallets

Compile command (contd)

Default locations for header files
#include <stdio.h>
Standard locations /usr/include, /usr/local/include
Use I/special/include to point to alternate directory
Default executable named a.out
Redirect executable name with -o flag
Optimize the exectable
Flags include g, -O3, -O, etc.
Use man gcc
Size of executable file effected
Compile image dithering program
gcc -g -o imgdither make_pal.c convert.c io_image.c img_dither.c
Order of the listing of the source files important
Files to the right dependent on procedures defined in files to the left
Compare size of executable file with different optimization flags

200
C Programming
 Example: Dithering Pallets

Running the program

One argument required, name of the pnm image filename
Should reply a Usage comment
Depending on the PATH environment variable setting
./imgdither Zep2.pnm
Note the different aspect ratios

201
C Programming
 Makefiles

Compiling source code files can be tedious

Makefiles are special format files
Build and manage projects with the Unix make utility
Allows you to specify which files are created from which others
Then run appropriate commands to update the created files

202
C Programming
 Platform independent packages

Cmake
Cross-platform, open-source make system
Used to control the software compilation process
uses simple platform and compiler independent configuration files
Generates native makefiles and workspaces
Can be used in the compiler environment of your choice
Used in projects like VTK and Paraview
Imake
imake is a Makefile-generator
Easier to develop software portably for multiple systems
Makefiles are inherently non-portable
Instead of writing a Makefile, you write an Imakefile
machine-independent description of what targets you want to build
Both are not too widely used

203
C Programming
 Platform independent packages

Gnu autoconf
Extensible package of m4 macros
Produces shell scripts
automatically configure software source code packages.
Can adapt the packages to many kinds of UNIX-like systems without manual user
intervention
Autoconf creates a configuration script for a package
A template file lists the operating system features that the package can use
In the form of m4 macro calls.
GNU m4 is an implementation of the traditional UNIX macro processor
It is mostly SVR4 compatible
Becoming more popular

204
C Programming
 Operator Precedence Table

Description Represented by
1 Parenthesis () []
1 Structure Access . ->
2 Unary ! ++ -- - * &
3 Multiply, Divide, Modulus * / %
4 Add, Subtract + -
5 Shift Right, Left >> <<
6 Greater, Less Than, etc. > < => <=
7 Equal, Not Equal == !=
8 Bitwise AND &
9 Bitwise Exclusive OR ^
10 Bitwise OR |
11 Logical AND &&
12 Logical OR ||
13 Conditional Expression ? :
14 Assignment = += -= etc
15 Comma ,

205
C Programming
 Problem Set

1) Write a program that sets the length and width of a rectangle to 13.5 and
5.375. Your program should then calculate and output the area and
perimeter of the rectangle.
2) Write a program that works with two Cartesian points (3.4,12.3) and
(5.6,15.0). Compute the slope of the straight line between these two points
and their midpoint. Output your results. (If you need help with any math
formulae, just ask your instructor).
3) Write a program that converts a temperature of 35 Celsius to degrees
Fahrenheit. The conversion equation is:
TF = (9.0/5.0)Tc + 32
4) Write a program that sets up variables to hold the distance of a job
commute in miles, the cars fuel efficiency in mpg, and the price of
gasoline. Set the distance to 5.5 miles, the mpg to 20.0 miles/gallon and the
cost of gas to be $1.78 a gallon. Your program should then calculate and
output the total cost of the commute.

206
C Programming
5) Write a program that will calculate the final exam grade a student must
achieve in order to get a certain percentage of the total course points. You may
assume that the student has already taken three exams worth 100 points. The
final exam is worth 200 points. Your program should read in the scores on the
first three exams and the percentage the student is shooting for. Your program
should then calculate and print out the final exam score needed to achieve that
percentage.
6) Print a table of values for F where F = xy-1 and x has values 1, 2, ,9 and y
has values 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, ,2.5.
7) The numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, where each number after the second is
equal to the sum of the two numbers before it, are are called Fibonacci
numbers. Write a program that will print the first 50 Fibonacci numbers.
(Some Fibonacci numbers can be quite large )
8) Write a program that will calculate interest on an initial deposit. Your
program should read in the beginning balance and an annual interest rate and
print out how much money you would have each year for a run of twenty
years.
207
C Programming
9) Write a program that reads in three integers i, j, k. Determine if the integers
are in ascending order (i <= j <= k) or descending order (i >= j >= k) or in
neither order. Print an appropriate message.
10) Write a program to read in the coefficients A, B, C of a quadratic equation
Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
and solve it. If the roots are positive or zero, print the values. If the roots are
complex, compute the real and imaginary parts as two real numbers and print
these with appropriate formatting.
11) Write a program that calculates the approximate square root of a number x by
repeating the following formula:
Next Guess = 0.5 (Last Guess + x / Last Guess)
Use an initial guess of 1.0. You will know when your approximation is good
enough by comparing the Next Guess with the Last Guess. If the difference
between them is <0.000001, you stop your iteration: you have calculated the
approximate square root.

208
C Programming
12) Write a program that will determine the amount of change to return to a
customer.Your program should read in the price of the object and the amount
of money the customer gives. If the amount tendered equals the price, thank
the customer for the exact change. If not, let the customer know if he needs to
pay more or if he will get change back. In either case, your program should
break down the difference into dollars, half-dollars, quarters, dimes, nickels,
and pennies.
13) Write a program that will guess the number the user is thinking of between 1
and 10000. The program should print out a guess which is always the mid-
point of the range of numbers remaining. Hence, the first prompt the computer
will ask is if the number is equal to, above, or below 5000. The player should
press E for equal, A for above, or B for below. The program should read in
the response and repeat its prompt with the new guess. For example, if the
number was above 5000, the computer would repeat the question with a guess
of 7500. The process continues until the computer guesses the number. Once
the number is guessed, the computer should ask if the user wants to play again
and act appropriately.
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C Programming
14) Write a program which will input a 2D array of integers and summarize the
frequency of occurrence of each of the ten digits. For example, the following
array:
8 0 0
7 5 0
1 2 3
9 0 0
would produce the following results:
Digit Occurrences Digit Occurrences
0 5 5 1
1 1 6 0
2 1 7 1
3 0 8 1
4 0 9 1

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C Programming
15) Write a program to compute the transpose on a double 2D matrix.
16) Write a program that will input a 3X3 array of integers and determine if it is a
magic square. Magic squares have a special property: the values in each
row, in each column, and in each diagonal add up to the same number.
17) Write a program that normalizes the float values in a 3D array to values
between 0.0 and 1.0.
18) Write a program that inputs a piece of text and analyzes its characters. Your
program should:
Determine which character has the highest ASCII code
Determine which character has the lowest ASCII code
Determine which character(s) occurred most often in text and how many times
they appeared
Count the number of times certain special characters appeared:
Punctuation symbols
Upper-case letters
Lower-case letters
Vowels (either case)
Numerical digits 211
C Programming
19) Write a program in which an input string is checked to see if it is a palindrome
(reads the same backwards as forwards, i.e., MADAM).
20) Write a program that will input a character string and output the same
character string but without any blanks or punctuation symbols.
21) Write a program that will read in a value of x and compute the value of the
Gaussian function at that value
2
(1/2) e x /2
Check out your function in the main program.
22) Write a function total that will convert its three arguments representing hours,
minutes, and seconds to all seconds. Write a prototype for total and use it in a
main program.
23) Write a function range that receives an integer array with 50 elements and
calculates the maximum and minimum values (which should be represented as
global variables). Check out the function range with sample data in a main
program.

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C Programming
24) Write a program in which the total, average, and standard deviation of a float
array X with 100 data values are calculated. The total, average, and standard
deviation should each be calculated in a separate function.
25) Write a program to print the following pattern on the screen:
*
***
*****
***
*
26) Write a program to read in the diameter of a circle. Compute the radius,
circumference and area of the circle. Print the calculated values in the
following format:
PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE WITH DIAMETER XXXX.XXX
(1) RADIUS = XXXX.XXX
(2) CIRCUMFERENCE = XXXX.XXX
(3) AREA = XXXX.XXX 213
C Programming
27) Write a program that uses loops to produce the following formatted output:
2 4 6 8 10
3 6 9 12 15
4 8 12 16 20
5 10 15 20 25
28) Using pointers, write a function that will copy the first half of one string into
another.
29) Extend the deck of cards program shown in the handouts so that it deals out
eight poker hands and ranks them. (You will need to use a random-number
function to randomly generate cards from the deck.)
30) Using structures, write a program that will keep track of the electoral votes by
state won by a candidate in a presidential election. The structures should
contain the state name, number of electoral votes, and what party won the
state. The user should be able to find out the following from the program:

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C Programming
 How many total votes a certain party has
How that total breaks down by state
How many votes are still needed to win (270 needed to win)
Here are the number of electoral votes for each state: Alabama9, Alaska3,
Arizona8, Arkansas6, California54, Colorado8, Connecticut8,
Delaware3, District of Columbus3, Florida25, Georgia13, Hawaii
4, Idaho4, Illinois22, Indiana-12, Iowa7, Kansas6, Kentucky8,
Louisiana9, Maine4, Maryland10, Massachusetts12, Michigan18,
Minnesota10, Mississippi7, Missouri11, Montana3, Nebraska5,
Nevada4, New Hampshire4, New Jersey15, New Mexico5, New
York33, North Carolina14, North Dakota3, Ohio21, Oklahoma8,
Oregon7, Pennsylvania23, Rhode Island4, South Carolina8, South
Dakota3, Tennessee11, Texas32, Utah5, Vermont3, Virginia13,
Washington11, West Virginia5, Wisconsin11, Wyoming3
To simulate the election, have the user enter in a state name and what party won it,
and check the tallies. Keep providing input until we have a President.
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C Programming
31) Assume that a data file called points.dat contains a set of coordinates. The
first line of the file contains the number of data coordinates in the file and each
of the remaining lines contain the x and y data values of one of the data points.
Write a program that will read in the data points and make a new file called
polar.dat that prints the coordinates in polar form instead of rectangular
form. The following are the conversion equations:
r = (x2 + y2)1/2
= atan(y/x)
32) Write an inventory program that uses the goods structure defined in the main
handout. Prompt the user to enter the number of items to be stored in the
warehouse and then dynamically allocate an array of goods structures that is
exactly that size. Initialize the goods array with your own choices.
33) Write a program to accept a number of integer arguments on the command line
and print out the max, min, sum, and average of the numbers passed.

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C Programming