Digital Logic and Computer Design M. MORRIS MANOPREFACE 1_ BINARY SYSTEMS 1 12 13 1d 15 1.6 a7 18 19 Digital Computers and Digital Systems Binary Numbers 4 Number Base Conversions 6 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers 9 Complements 10 Signed Binary Numbers 14 Binary Codes 17 Binary Storage and Registers. 25 Binary Logic 28 References 32 Problems 33 2_BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES 2 22 23 Basic Definitions 36 Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra 38 Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra 1 x 36iv Contents 24 Boolean Functions 45 245 Canonical and Standard Forms 246 Other Logic Operations 56 2-7 Digital Logie Gates. 58 28 Integrated Circuits 62 References 69 Problems 69 3_ SIMPLIFICATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS 2 31 The Map Method. 72 32 Two- and Three-Variable Maps 73 3-3. Four-Variable Map 78 3-4 Five-Variable Map 82 3-5 Product of Sums Simplification 84 3.6 NAND and NOR Implementation 88 37 Other Two-Level Implementations 94 3-8 Don't-Care Conditions 98 39 The Tabulation Method 107 3-10 Determination of Prime fmplicants 101 3411 Selection of Prime Implicants 106 342 Concluding Remarks 108 References 110 Problems 1 4 _COMBINATIONAL LOGIC 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Introduction 114 Design Procedure 115 Adders 116 Subtractors 127 Code Conversion 124 Analysis Procedure 126 Multilevel NAND Circuits Multilevel NOR Circuits 138 114Contents ov. 49 Exclusive-OR Functions 142 References 148 Problems 149 5_MSI AND PLD COMPONENTS 152 5-1 Introduction 152 5-2 Binary Adder and Subtractor 154 5:3. Decimal Adder 160 54 Magnitude Comparator 163 5:5 Decoders and Encoders 166 $6 — Multiplexers 173 5-7 Read-Only Memory (ROM) 180 5-8 Programmable Logic Array (PLA) 187 5-9 Programmable Array Logic (PAL) 192 References 197 Problems 197 & SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC 202 6-1 Introduction 202 62 Flip-Flops 204 63 Triggering of Flip-Flops 210 64 Analysis of Clocked Sequential Circuits. 218 6S State Reduction and Assignment 228 6-6 Flip-Flop Excitation Tables 231 67 Design Procedure 236 6-8 Design of Counters 247 References 251 Problems 251 7_REGISTERS, COUNTERS, AND THE MEMORY UNIT 257 TA 72 Introduction Registers 257 258vi Contents 7-3 Shift Registers 264 7-4 — Ripple Counters 272 7-§ Synchronous Counters 277 7-6 Timing Sequences 285 7-7 Random-Aveess Memory (RAM) 289 78 — Memory Decoding 293 7-9 Eror-Correcting Codes 299 References 302 Problems 303 8 ALGORITHMIC STATE MACHINES (ASM) _ 307 8-1 Introduction 307 82 ASMChat 309 83 Timing Considerations 312 84 Control Implementation 317 85 Design with Multiplexers 323 86 PLAControl 330 References 936 Problems 337 9 ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC 341 9-1 Introduction 347 9-2 Analysis Procedure 343 9-3 Circuits with Latches 352 9.4 Design Procedure 359 9-5 Reduction of State and Flow Tables 366 9.6 — Race-Free State Assignment 374 9-7 Hazards 379 9-8 Design Example 385 References 391 Problems 392Contents vil 10_DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 399 10-1 Introduction 399 10-2 Special Characteristics 407 10-3 Bipolar-Transistor Characteristics 10-4 RTL and DTL Circuits 409 10-5 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) 10-6 — Emmitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) 10-7 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) 10-8 Complementary MOS (CMOS) 10-9 CMOS Transmission Gate Circuits References 433 Problems 434 11_ LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS 436 11-0 Introduction to Experiments 11-1 Binary and Decimal Numbers 441 11-2 Digital Logic Gates 444 11-3 Simplification of Boolean Functions 11-4 Combinational Circuits 447 US Code Converters 449 11-6 Design with Multiplexers 11-7 Adders and Subtractors 452 11-8 Flip-Flops 455 11-9 Sequential Circuits 458 11-10 Counters 459 M11 Shift Registers 461 1-12 Serial Addition 464 1-13 Memory Unit 465 11-14 Lamp Handball 467 11-15 Clock-Pulse Generator 471 11-16 Parallel Adder 473 N17 Binary Multiple 475 11-18 Asynchronous Sequential Cvill Contents 12_ STANDARD GRAPHIC SYMBOLS 479, Rt Rectangular-Shape Symbols. 479 12-2 Qualifying Symbols. 482 12-3 Dependency Notation 484 12-4 Symbols for Combinational Elements 486 12-5 Symbols for Flip-Flops 489 12-6 Symbols for Registers 491 12-7. Symbols for Counters 494 12-8 Symbol forRAM 496 References 497 Problems 497 APPENDIX: ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 499 INDEX 512Digital Design is concerned with the design of digital electronic circuits, The subject is also known by other names such as logic design, digital logic, switching circuits, and digital systems. Digital circuits arc employed in the design of systems such as digital Computers, control systems, data communications, and many other applications that re~ quire electronic digital hardware. This book presents the basic tools for the design of digital circuits and provides methods and procedures suitable for a variety of digital de- sign applications. ‘Many features of the second edition remain the same as those of the first edition. ‘The material is still organized in the same manner. The fist five chapters cover combi- national circuits. The next three chapters deal with synchronous clocked sequential cit- cuits. Asynchronous scquential circuits are introduced next. The last three chapters deal with various aspects of commercially available integrated circuits ‘The second edition, however, offers several improvements over the first edition. Many sections have been rewritten to clarify the presentation. Chapters 1 through 7 and Chapter 10 have been revised by adding new up-to-date material and deleting ob- solete subjects. New problems have been formulated for the first seven chapters, These replace the problem set from the first edition, Three new experiments have been added in Chapter 11. Chapter 12, a new chapter, presents the IEEE standard graphic symbols for logic elements ‘The following is a brief description of the subjects that are covered in each chapter with an emphasis on the revisions that were made in the second edition.Pretace Chapter 1 presents the various binary systems suitable for representing information in digital systems. The binary number system is explained and binary codes are illus- trated. A new section has been added on signed binary numbers. ‘Chapter 2 introduces the basic postulates of Boolean algebra and shows the correla tion between Boolean expressions and their corresponding logic diagrams. All possible logic operations for two variables are investigated and from that, the most useful logic gates used in the design of digital systems are determined, The characteristies of inte grated circuit gates are mentioned in this chapter but a more detailed analysis of the electronic circuits of the gates is done in Chapter 11. ‘Chapter 3 covers the map and tabulation methods for simplifying Boolean expres- sions, The map method is also used to simplify digital circuits constructed with AND- ‘OR, NAND, or NOR gates. All other possible two-level gate circuits are considered and their method of implementation is summarized in tabular form for easy reference ‘Chapter 4 outlines the formal procedures for the analysis and design of combina- tional circuits. Some basic components used in the design of digital systems, such as adders and code converters, are introduced as design examples. The sections on multi- level NAND and NOR implementation have been revised to show a simpler procedure for converting AND-OR diagrams to NAND or NOR diagrams. Chapter 5 presents various medium scale integration (MSI) circuits and pro- grammable logic device (PLD) components. Frequently used digital logic functions such as parallel adders and subtractors, decoders, encoders, and multiplexers, are ex: plained, and their use in the design of combinational circuits is illustrated with exam- ples. In addition to the programmable read only memory (PROM) and programmable logic array (PLA) the book now shows the internal construction of the programmable array logic (PAL). These three PLD components are extensively used in the design and implementation of complex digital circuits ‘Chapter 6 outlines the formal procedares for the analysis and design of clocked syn- chronous sequential circuits. The gate structure of several types of flip-lops is pre~ sented together with a discussion on the difference between pulse level and pulse tran- sition triggering. Specific examples are used to show the derivation of the state table fand state diagram when analyzing a sequential circuit. A number of design examples are presented with added emphasis on sequential circuits that use D-type flip-flops. ‘Chapter 7 presents various sequential digital components such as registers, shift registers, and counters, These digital components are the basic building blocks from ‘which more complex digital systems are constructed. ‘The sections on the random ac- ‘cess memory (RAM) have been completely revised and a new section deals with the Hamming error correcting code. Chapter 8 presents the algorithmic state machine (ASM) method of digital design. ‘The ASM chart is a special flow chart suitable for describing both sequential and paral Jel operations with digital hardware. A number of design cxamples demonstrate the use of the ASM chart in the design of state machines, Chapter 9 presents formal procedures for the analysis and design of asynchronous sequential circuits. Methods are outlined to show how an asynchronous sequential ciPreface xt cuit can be implemented as a combinational circuit with feedback. An alternate imple- ‘mentation is also described that uses SR latches as the storage elements in an asyn- chronous sequential circuit. Chapter 10 presents the most common integrated circuit digital logic families. The electronic circuits of the common gate in each family is analyzed using electrical circuit theory. A basic knowledge of electronic circuits is necessary to fully understand the ‘material in this chapter. Two new sections are included in the second edition. One sec- tion shows how to evaluate the numerical values of four electrical characteristics of a ‘gute. The other section introduces the CMOS transmission gate and gives a few exam- piles of its usefulness in the construction of digital circuits. Chapter 11 outlines 18 experiments that can be performed in the laboratory with hardware that is readily and inexpensively available commercially. These experiments use standard integrated circuits of the TTL type. The operation of the integrated cis cuits is explained by referring to diagrams in previous chapters where similar compo- nents are originally introduced. Each experiment is presented informally rather than in 4 step-by-step fashion so that the student is expected to produce the details of the cir- cuit diagram and formulate a procedure for checking the operation of the circuit in the Iaborator Chapter 12 presents the standard graphic symbols for logic functions recommended by ANSI/IEEE standard 91-1984. These graphic symbols have been developed for SSI and MSI components so that the user can recognize each function from the unique ‘graphic symbol assigned to it. The best time to learn the standard symbols is while learning about digital systems. Chapter 12 shows the standard graphic symbols of all the integrated circuits used in the laboratory experiments of Chapter 11. The various digital componets that are represented throughout the book are similar to commercial MSI circuits. However, the text does not mention specific integrated cit- cuits except in Chapters 11 and 12, The practical application of digital design will be ‘enhanced by doing the suggested experiments in Chapter 11 while studying the theory presented in the tex. Each chapter in the book has a list of references and a set of problems. Answers to ‘most of the problems appear in the Appendix to aid the student and to help the inde- pendent reader. A solutions manual is available forthe instructor from the publisher. M. Morris ManoBinary Systems 1-1_DIGITAL COMPUTERS AND DIGITAL SYSTEMS Digital computers have made possible many scientific, industrial, and commercial ed- vances that would have been unattainable otherwise. Our space program would have been impossible without real-time, continuous computer monitoring, and many busi- ‘ness enterprises function efficiently only with the aid of automatic data processing. ‘Computers are used in scientific calculations, commercial and business data processing, air waffic control, space guidance, the educational field, and many other areas. The ‘most striking property of a digital computer is its generality. It can follow a sequence of instructions, called a program, that operates on given data. The user can specify and change programs andior data according 10 the specific need. As a result of this, flexibility, general-purpose digital computers can perform a wide variety of informa- tion-processing tasks. ‘The general-purpose digital computer is the best-known example of a digital system. Other examples include telephone switching exchanges, digital voltmeters, digital counters, electronic calculators, and digital displays. Characteristic of a digital system is its manipulation of discrete elements of information. Such discrete elements may be electric impulses, the decimal digits, the letters of an alphabet, arithmetic operations, punctuation marks, or any other set of meaningful symbols. The juxtaposition of dis crete elements of information represents a quantity of information. For example, the letters d, 0, and g form the word dog. The digits 237 form a number. ‘Thus, a sequence of discrete clements forms a language, that is, a discipline that conveys information, Early digital computers were used mostly for numerical computations. In this case, the2 Chapter 1 Binary Systeme discrete elements used are the digits. From this application, the term digital computer has emerged. A more appropriate name for a digital computer would be a “discrete in- formation-processing system. Discrete elements of information are represented in a digital system by physical quantities called signals. Electrical signals such as voltages and currents are the most common, The signals in all present-day electronic digital systems have only two dis- crete values and are said to be binary. The digital-system designer is restricted to the use of binary signals because of the lower reliability of many-valued electronic circuits. In other words, a circuit with ten states, using one discrete voltage value for each state, can be designed, but it would possess a very low reliability of operation. In contrast, & transistor circuit that is either on or off has two possible signal values and can be con- structed to be extremely reliable. Because of this physical restriction of components, ‘and because human logic tends to be binary, digital systems that are constrained to take discrete values are further constrained to take binary valves. Discrete quantities of information arise cither from the nature of the process ot may be quantized from a continuous process. For example, a payroll schedule is an inher- ently discrete process that contains employee names. social security numbers, weekly salaries, income taxes, ete. An employee's paycheck is processed using discrete data values such as letters of the alphabet (names), digits (salary), and special symbols such as §. On the other hand, a research scientist may observe a continuous process but record only specific quantities in tabular form. The scientist is thus quantizing his con- tinuous data, Each number in his table is a discrete clement of information, Many physical systems can be described mathematically by differential equations ‘whose solutions as a function of time give the complete mathematical behavior of the process. An analog computer performs a direct simulation of a physical system, Each section of the computer is the analog of some particular portion of the process under study. The variables in the analog computer are represented by continuous signals, us ally electric voltages that vary with time. The signal variables are considered analogous to those of the process and behave in the same manner. Thus, measurements of the ‘analog voltage can be substituted for variables of the process. The term analog signal is sometimes substituted for continuous signal because “analog computer” has come 10 mean a computer that manipulates continuous variables. To simulate a physical process in a digital computer. the quantities must be quan- ized. When the variables of the process are presented by real-time continuous signals, the Jatter are quantized by an analog-to-digital conversion device. A physical system whose behavior is described by mathematical equations is simulated in a digital com- puter by means of numerical methods. When the problem to be processed is inherently dis rete, as in commercial applications, the digital computer manipulates the variables their natural form. A block diagram of the digital computer is shown in Fig. 1-1. The memory unit stores programs as well as input, output, and intermediate data. The processor unit per- forms arithmetic and other data-processing tasks as specified by a program. ‘The con- tol unit supervises the flow of information between the various units. The control unit retrieves the instructions, one by one, from the program that is stored in memory. ForSection 1-1 Digital Computers and Digital Systems 3. Control ‘nit memory unit control FIGURE 1-1 Block diagram of a cial computer each instruction, the control unit informs the processor to execute the operation specified by the instruction. Both program and data are stored in memory. The control ‘unit supervises the program instructions, and the processor manipulates the data as specified by the program. ‘The program and data prepared by the user are transferred into the memory unit by means of an input device such as a Keyboard. An output device, such as a printer, re~ ceives the result of the computations and the printed results are presented to the user. ‘The input and output devices are special digital systems driven by electromechanical parts and controlled by electronic digital circuits. ‘An electronic calculator isa digital system similar to a digital computer, with the in- put device being a keyboard and the output device a numerical display. Instructions are entered in the calculator by means of the function keys, such as plus and minus. Data are entered through the mumeric keys. Results are displayed directly in numeric form. Some calculators come close to resembling a digital computer by having printing capa- bilities and programmable facilities. A digital computer. however, is a more powerful device than a calculator. A digital compiter can accommodate many other input and ‘output devices; it can perform not only arithmetic computations, but logical operations as well and can be programmed to make decisions based on internal and external con- ditions. ‘A digital computer is an interconnection of digital modules. To understand the oper- ation of each digital module, it is necessary to have a basic knowledge of digital sys- tems and their general behavior. The first four chapters of the book introduce the basic tools of digital design such as binary numbers and codes, Boolean algebra, and the bas ic building blocks from which electronic digital circuits are constructed. Chapters 5 and 7 present the basic components found in the processor unit of a digital computer.4 Chapter1 Binary systems ‘The operational characteristics of the memory unit are explained at the end of Chapter 7. The design of the control unit is discussed in Chapter 8 using the basic principles of sequential circuits from Chapter 6. thas already been mentioned that a digital computer manipulates discrete elements of information and that these elements are represented in the binary form. Operands used for calculations may be expressed in the binary number system, Other discrete ele ‘ments, including the decimal digits, are represented in binary codes. Data processing is carried out by means of binary logic elements using binary signals. Quantities are stored in binary storage elements. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the vari- ‘ous binary concepts as a frame of reference for further detailed study in the succeeding chapters, 1-2 BINARY NUMBERS ‘A decimal number such as 7392 represents a quantity equal to 7 thousands plus 3 hun- dreds. plus 9 tens, plus 2 units. The thousands, hundreds, etc. are powers of 10 implied by the position of the coefficients. To be more exact, 7392 should be written as 7% 1 43x 10 +9 x 10° +2 x 10" However, the convention is to write only the coefficients and from their position de- duce the necessary powers of 10. In general, a number with a decimal point is repre- sented by a series of coefficients as follows: The a, coefficients are one of the ten digits (0, 1, 2, . . . , 9), and the subscript value j ives the place value and, hence, the power of 10 by which the coefficient must be mul- tiplied 10'as + 10*as + 1a + Was + 10'ay + 10%ae + 10% ay + 1a + 10a» ‘The decimal number system is said to be of base, or radix, 10 because it uses ten digits land the coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10. The binary system is a different number system, The coefficients of the binary numbers system have two possible val- ues: 0 and 1. Each coefticient a, is multiplied by 2. For example, the decimal equiva- Jent of the binary number 1010.11 is 26.75, as shown from the multiplication of the coefficients by powers of 2 Px EX POX PHIXPHOK MHD DELI = 26.75 In general, a number expressed in base-r system has coefficients multiplied by powers ofr: ae PE aR bab aor ay Farr tagrt+-. taSection 12 Binary Numbers 5 ‘The coefficients a, range in value from 0 tor ~ 1. To distinguish between numbers of different bases, we enclose the coefficients in parentheses and write a subscript equal to the base used (except sometimes for decimal numbers, where the content makes it ob- vious that itis decimal). An example of a base-5 number is (4021.2)6 = 4 x SHOX PF HIXS FLX SHIXS) = (S11) Note that coefficient values for base 5 can be only 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. It is customary to borrow the needed r digits for the coefficients from the decimal system when the base of the number is less than 10. The letters of the alphabet are used {0 supplement the ten decimal digits when the base of the number is greater than 10. For example, in the hexadecimal (base 16) number system, the first ten digits are bor- rowed from the decimal system. The letters A, B,C, D, E, and F are used for i 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15, respectively. An example of a hexadecimal number is (BOSP)g = 11 x 16° + 6 X 16 +5 X 16 + 15 = (46687) ‘The first 16 numbers in the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems are listed in Table 1-1 TABLE 1-1 Numbers with Different Bates Decimal ‘inary ‘Octar Hexadecal (ase 10) (bese 2) (ase 8) (ase 16) 00 ‘0000 00 0 ol 001 o1 1 a 010 a 2 0 oon 03, 3 4 0100 08 4 0s 101 0s 5 06 o110 06 6 o7 oun a 7 08 1000 10 8 8 1001 un 9 10 1010 2 A UL 101 B B 2 1100 4 c B noL 15 D 4 io. 16 E 15 nu n F Arithmetic operations with numbers in base r follow the same rules as for decimal numbers. When other than the famitiar base 10 is used, one must be careful to use only the r allowable digits. Examples of addition, subtraction, and multiplication of two bi- nary numbers are as follows:6 Chapter 1 Binary systems augend: 101101 minuend: ‘101101 multiplicand: 1011 addend: +1011] —subtrahend: —100111 multiplier: x 101 sum: 1010100 difference: 000110 loi 0000 lou product; M011 ‘The sum of two binary numbers calculated by the same rules as in decimal, except that the digits of the sum in any significant position can be only 0 or 1. Any carry ob- tained in a given significant position is used by the pair of digits one significant position higher. The subtraction is slightly more complicated. The rules are still the same as in dlecimal, except that the borrow in a given significant position adds 2 to a minuend digit, (A borrow in the decimal system adds 10 to a minuend digit.) Multiplication is very simple. The multiplier digits are always 1 or 0, Therefore, the partial products are equal either to the muitipicand or to 0. A binary number can be converted to decimal by forming the sum of the powers of 2 Of thove coefficients whose value is |. For example (1010.01 12 = 2 + 2! #272 +2 = (10.375ho ‘The binary number has four 1°s and the decimal equivalent is found from the sum of four powers of 2. Similarly, a number expressed in base r can be converted to its deci- mal equivalent by multiplying each coefficient with the corresponding power of r and adding. The following is an example of octal-to-decimal conversion: (630.4), = 6 X B+ 3X K+ 4X84 = AOKS)o ‘The conversion from decimal to binary or to any other base-r system is more con- venient if the number is separated into an integer part and a fraction part and the conversion of each part done separately. The conversion of an integer fromm decimal to binary is best explained by example. Convert decimal 41 to binary. Fist, 41 is divided by 2 to give an integer quotient of 20 and a remainder of}. The quotient is again divided by 210 give a new quotient and remainder. This process is continued until the integer quotient becomes 0. The coef Jfcionts ofthe desired binary number are obtained from the remainders as follows:Section 1-3 Number Base Conversions 7 Integer quedo emsinder Coeficant Hom 4 1 7 Be + o wes + o Gere eri 2 Be 4 + o Bee eee 1 I answer: (4110 = (asasarasa.ao)s = (101001)s The arithmetic process can be manipulated more conveniently as follows: Integer Remainder 4 20 10 1 0 0 1 0 1 enn 101001 = answer . ‘The conversion from decimal integers to any base-r system is similar to the exam- pile, except that division is done by r instead of 2. Example Convert decimal 153 to octal. The required base r is 8. First, 153 is divided by 8 to 4-2 give an integer quotient of 19 and a remainder of 1. Then 19 is divided by 8 to give an integer quotient of 2 and a remainder of 3. Finally, 2 is divided by 8 to give a quotient ‘of 0 and a remainder of 2. This process can be conveniently manipulated as follows: 153 19a 2|3 012 Le = 23s .B chapter t Example 13, Example 1-4 Binary Systems ‘The conversion of a decimal fraction to binary is accomplished by a method similar to that used for integers, However, multiplication is used instead of division, and in- tegers are accumulated instead of remainders. Again, the method is best explained by example Convert (0.6875) to binary. First, 0.6875 is multiplied by 2 to give an integer and fraction. The new fraction is multiplied by 2 to give a new integer and a new fraction. This process is continued until the fraction becomes 0 or until the number of digits have sufficient accuracy. The coefficients of the binary number are obtained from the integers as follows: 0.6875 x 2 * 0.3750 0.3750 x 2 + 0.7500 0.7500 x 2 + 0.5000 0.5000 x 2 + 0.0000 Answer: (0.6875)i0 = (0.2 ya 20-244): = (0.1011) . To convert a decimal fraction to @ number expressed in base r, a similar procedure is used. Multiplication is by r instead of 2, and the coefficients found from the integers may range in value from 0 to r ~ 1 instead of 0 and 1 Convert (0.513) to octal 0.513 x 8 = 4.104 0.104 x 8 = 0.832 0.832 x 8 = 6.656 0.656 x 8 = 5.248 0.248 x 8 = 1.984 0.984 x 8 = 7.872 ‘The answer, to seven significant figures, is obtained from the integer part of the prod- ucts: (0.513)io = (0.406517... Je . ‘The conversion of decimal numbers with both integer and fraction parts is done by ‘converting the integer and fraction separately and then combining the two answers. Us- ing the results of Examples 1-1 and 1-3, we obtain