SYNAPSES

A synapse is the junction point between two neurons.

However, a nerve impulse can also be transmitted from a sensory receptor cell to a neuron, or from a neuron to a
set of muscles to make them contract, or from a neuron to an endocrine gland to make it secrete a hormone. In
these last two cases, the connection points are called neuromuscular and neuroglandular junctions.

In a typical chemical synapse between two neurons, the neuron from which the nerve impulse arrives is called the
presynaptic neuron. The neuron to which the neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) bind is called the
postsynaptic neuron.

A presynaptic neuron has several

specialized structures that distinguish it
from a postsynaptic neuron.

The terminal button of the presynaptic

neurons axon contains mitochondria as
well as microtubules that transport the
neurotransmitters from the cell body
(where they are produced) to the tip of
the axon.

(click on 2. Axonal Transport)

This terminal button also contains

sphericalvesicles filled
with neurotransmitters. These
neurotransmitters are secreted into the
synaptic gap by a process called
exocytosis, in which the vesicles
membranes fuse with that of the
presynaptic button.

The synaptic gap that the

neurotransmitters have to cross is very
narrowon the order of 0.02 micron.

Across the gap, the neurotransmitters

bind to membrane receptors: large
proteins anchored in the cell membrane
of the post-synaptic neuron. At this
location, under an electron microscope,
you can observe an accumulation of
opaque material which consists of the
cluster of receptors and other signalling
proteins that are essential for chemical
neurotransmission.

Any given neurotransmitter has several sub-types of receptors that are specific to it. It is the presence or absence of
certain of these sub-types that causes a cascade of specific chemical reactions in the postsynaptic neuron. These
reactions result in the excitation or inhibition of this neuron.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS

This section describes a few of the best known neurotransmitters that are involved in many functions in both the
central and the peripheral nervous systems. Apart from acetylcholine, they all belong to the family of amines or
amino acids.

Neurotransmitter Example of Disorder Molecular Structure

Involving It

Acetylcholine is a very Alzheimers disease is

widely distributed excitatory associated with a lack of
neurotransmitter that triggers acetylcholine in certain regions
muscle contraction and of the brain.
stimulates the excretion of certain
hormones. In the central nervous
system, it is involved in
wakefulness, attentiveness,
anger, aggression, sexuality, and
thirst, among other things.

Dopamine is a The loss of dopamine in certain

neurotransmitter involved in parts of the brain causes the
controlling movement and muscle rigidity typical of
posture. It also modulates mood Parkinsons disease.
and plays a central role
in positive
reinforcement and dependency.

GABA (gamma- Some drugs that increase the

aminobutyric acid) is an level of GABA in the brain are
inhibitory neurotransmitter that is used to treat epilepsy and to
very widely distributed in the calm the trembling of people
neurons of the cortex. GABA suffering from Huntingtons
contributes to motor control, disease.
vision, and many other cortical
functions. It also regulates
anxiety.

Glutamate is a major It is also thought to be

excitatory neurotransmitter associated with Alzheimers
that is associated with learning disease, whose first symptoms
and memory. include memory malfunctions.

Norepinephrine is a Norepinephrine plays a role in

neurotransmitter that is mood disorders such as manic
important for attentiveness, depression.
emotions, sleeping, dreaming,
and learning. Norepinephrine is
also released as a hormone into
the blood, where it causes blood
vessels to contract and heart rate
to increase.

Serotonin contributes to Depression, suicide, impulsive

various functions, such as behaviour, and agressiveness
regulating body temperature, all appear to involve certain
sleep, mood, appetite, and pain. imbalances in serotonin.

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Neurotransmitters and their Functions

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that facilitate the transmission of nerve impulses from one
neuron to another neuron or body cell. Some of the important neurotransmitters are discussed
in this article.

The transmission of signals from one neuron to another, across the synapse was earlier thought
to be electrical. In 1921, it was confirmed that neurons mostly communicate by releasing certain
chemicals. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters.

So, neurotransmitters allow the nerve impulses or signals to travel across the synapse. A
synapse is a small gap or junction between two neurons, or a neuron and a muscle cell. The credit
for discovering the chemical transmission of nerve impulses goes to Sir Henry Dale (an English
pharmacologist and physiologist) and Otto Loewi (a German pharmacologist). Both of them
shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1936 for their work on neurotransmitters.

Types of Neurotransmitters:

There are several types of neurotransmitters, and each one of them is responsible for some
specific functions. Neurotransmitters are usually classified as amino acids, peptides, and
monoamines.

The neurotransmitters that fall into the category of amino acids are:

Glutamate
Aspartate
Glycine
 D-serine
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
The most important monoamines or other biogenic amines that are considered as
neurotransmitters are:

Serotonin
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Histamine
Melatonin
A large number of neurotransmitters fall into the category of peptides, of which a few
important ones are:

Beta-endorphin
Opioid peptides
Somatostatin
Calcitonin
Vasopressin
Oxytocin
Glucagon
Apart from these, there are several other important neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine,
dopamine, adenosine, and nitric oxide. So far, about 50 neuroactive peptides have been
discovered.

Sometimes, neurotransmitters are also classified as excitatory and inhibitory. This

classification is based on their actions on the neurons. Excitatory neurotransmitters are those
that excite the neurons and stimulate the brain, while inhibitory neurotransmitters are known
for having a calming effect on the brain.

Neurotransmitters like, GABA and serotonin come under the category of inhibitory
neurotransmitters, while epinephrine and norepinephrine are the excitatory neurotransmitters.
Dopamine on the other hand, can act as an excitatory, as well as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

However, the effect of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic cell depends on the receptors

present in it. For some neurotransmitters, like glutamate, the important receptors have
excitatory properties. On the other hand, most of the important receptors produce an
inhibitory effect for GABA. But there are some neurotransmitters, for which both types of
receptors exist.

Neurotransmitters and the Transmission of Nerve Impulses:

Nerve cells or neurons communicate messages by transmitting nerve impulses. The impulses
travel from one neuron to another neuron or body cell by the movement of the
neurotransmitters. A nerve impulse traveling through the axon (a long, slender projection
arising from the nerve cell) eventually reaches the axon terminal, and then the synaptic knob or
terminal button.

The synaptic knobs are the slightly swollen tips of the branches that arise from an axon. They
contain the neurovesicles, which store and release neurotransmitters. For transmitting
impulses, neurons form a specialized structure, called synapse. It serves as a junction where
impulses or information can flow from one neuron to another.

There are basically three elements of a synapse, a presynaptic membrane of the signal-passing
neuron (usually found in the synaptic knob of an axon), the postsynaptic membrane found in a
dendrite or a target cell, and a synaptic cleft. A synaptic cleft is the space between the
presynaptic and post synaptic membranes.

When an impulse reaches the synaptic knob of the signal-passing or presynaptic neuron,
neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft by the neurovesicles. The
neurotransmitter molecules then diffuse and float across the synaptic cleft, in order to bind to
the receptors embedded in the postsynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter molecules are
then internalized by the postsynaptic cell, and thus the nerve impulse is carried forward.

Important Neurotransmitters & Their Functions:

As mentioned already, about 50 neurotransmitters have been discovered so far. Out of these, a
few of the most important neurotransmitters and their functions are discussed below.

Acetylcholine:
This neurotransmitter was discovered in the year 1921, by Otto Loewi. It is mainly responsible
for stimulating muscles. It activates the motor neurons that control the skeletal muscles. It is
also concerned with regulating the activities in certain areas of the brain, which are associated
with attention, arousal, learning, and memory. People with Alzheimer's disease are usually found
to have a substantially low level of acetylcholine.

Dopamine:
Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that controls voluntary movements of the body, and is
associated with the reward mechanism of the brain. In other words, dopamine regulates the
pleasurable emotions.

Drugs like cocaine, heroin, nicotine, opium, and even alcohol increase the level of this
neurotransmitter. A significantly low level of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease,
while the patients of schizophrenia are usually found to have excess dopamine in the frontal
lobes of their brain.

Serotonin:
Serotonin is an important inhibitory neurotransmitter, which can have a profound effect on
emotion, mood, and anxiety. It is involved in regulating sleep, wakefulness, and eating. It plays a
role in perception as well. The hallucinogenic drugs like LSD actually bind to the serotonin
receptor sites, and thereby block the transmission of nerve impulses, in order to alter sensory
experiences.

A significantly low level of serotonin is believed to be associated with conditions like depression,
suicidal thoughts, and obsessive compulsive disorder. Many antidepressants work by affecting
the level of this neurotransmitter.

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA):

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows down the activities of the neurons, in order
to prevent them from getting over excited. When neurons get over excited, it can lead to
anxiety. GABA can thus help prevent anxiety.

GABA is a non-essential amino acid, that is produced by the body from glutamate. A low level of
GABA can have an association with anxiety disorders. Drugs like Valium work by increasing the
level of this neurotransmitter. Alcohol and barbiturates can also influence GABA receptors.

Glutamate:
Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that was discovered in 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda of
Tokay Imperial University. It is the most commonly found neurotransmitter in the central
nervous system. Glutamate is mainly associated with functions like learning and memory. An
excess of glutamate is however, toxic for the neurons. An excessive production of glutamate
may be related to the disease, known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's
disease.

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine:

Epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) is an excitatory neurotransmitter, that controls
attention, arousal, cognition, and mental focus. Norepinephrine is also an excitatory
neurotransmitter, and it regulates mood and physical and mental arousal. An increased secretion
of norepinephrine raises the heart rate and blood pressure.

Endorphins:
Endorphins are the neurotransmitters that resemble opioid compounds, like opium, morphine,
and heroin in structure. The effects of endorphins on the body are also quite similar to the
effects produced by the opioid compounds. In fact, the name 'endorphin' is actually the short
form for 'endogenous morphine'.

Like opioids, endorphins can reduce pain, stress, and promote calmness and serenity. The opioid
drugs produce similar effects by attaching themselves to the endorphin receptor sites.
Endorphins enable some animals to hibernate by slowing down their rate of metabolism,
respiration, and heart rate.

Melatonin:
It is the hormone produced by the pineal gland that also acts as a neurotransmitter. It basically
controls the sleep-wake cycle. It is also associated with controlling mood and sexual behavior.
The production of melatonin is dependent on light. Light to the retina inhibits the production of
melatonin, while darkness has a stimulating effect on its production.

Nitric Oxide:
It is a gas that acts both as a hormone and neurotransmitter, depending on the specific
requirement. It can cause the blood vessels to dilate, besides preventing the formation of clots.
This in turn, can promote the circulation of blood. Nitric oxide can increase the level of oxygen
in the body, and improve memory, learning, alertness, and concentration. It is also responsible
for causing the smooth gastrointestinal muscles to relax.

To sum up, neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow the nerves to communicate with each
other, and thus, regulate the various functions of the body. A substantially high or low level of
these chemicals can alter the functions of the entire nervous system.

Courtesy: Buzzle.com

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Acetylcholine (Ach)
Affects movement, learning, memory, REM Sleep
Dopamine (DA)
Affects movement, attention, learning, reinforcement, pleasure
Norepihephrine (NE)
Affects eating, alertness, wakefullness
Epinephrine
Affects metabolism of glucose, energy release during exercise.
Serotonin
Affects mood, sleep, appetite, impulsivity, aggression
Glutamate
Active in areas of the brain involved in learning, though and emotion
GABA
Facilitates neural inhibition in the central nervous system (Too much action potential)
Endorphins
Provide relief from pain and feelings of pleasure and well-being