CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework

This chapter is reviews the related literature which contains a description

on theories and studies which have been before. In this part, the researcher gives

the underlying theories that will be used to analyze the data.

2.1.1 Conversation Analysis

Conversation analysis is the study of talk in interaction. Litoseliti (2010)

stated that conversation analysis is to understand how turn taking within a stretch

of talk is negotiated between participants, in order to produce some form of social

action.It is more focus on production and interpretation of talk in interaction that

is oriented by the participant themselves.

This study is used to reveal two things in treating the transition between

speaker and listener during their talk in interaction. The first is the next turn,

which is the place where speakers display their understanding of the prior turns

completion. It concerns with next speakers understanding of the type of utterance

produced by prior speaker. The second concern with the next speakers

understanding of the prior turns content(Hutchby &Wooffitt, 1998). As explained

above, it shows that conversation analysis concerns how talk is produced and the

participants' understanding of what they are actually doing in their talk.

Therefore, conversation analysis is used to understand how talk is

organized in a social setting. It focuses on talk in interaction between two or more

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participants that take the turn. A turn begins when the first speaker speaks before

the next speaker speaks. In this case, the first speaker creates or maintains a turn

for the next speaker. Then, the next speaker must understand or make sense about

the first speakers intent. So, conversation analysis is used to know how

participants understand and respond to one another in their turns at talk.

2.1.2 Conversational Talk

Talk is a social activity, it consists of participants who consider of the

context in a conversation. The participants must be able to develop a feeling about

what they can (or cannot say) until they can reach the goal in their conversation.

Usually, in an interaction the participants do not only talk about the ordinary

conversation, but also talk about institutional interaction.

Ordinary conversation is the casual interaction in which the human

routinely engage on a daily basis (Hutchby & Woffitt, 1998). Contrast,

institutional interaction happens in a workplace setting. In this case, the

participants are oriented to a particular task or goal. For example, call to

emergency service or delivery of a medical diagnosis. Moreover, it involves

special and particular constraints on what one or both of the participants will treat

as allowable contributions to the business at hand. ( Levinson cited in Drew and

Heritage, 1992).

In institutional talk the participants speak in a particular order. In this

case, the participants speak to carry on the specific goal and orient to their

institutional identities for example: doctor and patient, teacher and student, host

and guest. Institutional interaction has a limitation context, the participants can

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not freeing produce their utterances or carry on a personal relationship between

the individual like in ordinary conversation. For instance, in talk show, the host

may have some idea to make the guest connect to the hosts turn. It is designed to

get the goal in the program and it can be concerned with a limited range of topic

in talk show.

2.1.3 Talk Show

Talk show is a radio or television program in which usually well known

people talk about something or are interviewed ( Merriam Webster online, nd ). It

is a program that includes a conversational discussion on some of events in

different aspects: political, social, economical, educational, etc. It takes place in a

conversational media setting and the topic focus on the theme that is created in the

program. The purpose of a talk show is to give useful information as well as to

entertain.

Talk show has several major formats such as Lifestyle, Daytime show, and

Late night show. Lifestyle usually talks about health, fashion and food. Second is

daytime show, in this show mostly concerns about current issues, such as social

conflict and lifes experience. Third is Late night show, it is a kind of comedy

oriented talk and variety show in the late night (Danileiko, 2005)

On a talk show involves of spontaneous conversation between the

participants, including the host and guest. The host as a maintainer for the

program and the guest give a response from the hosts turn. In this case, the host

has a power in talk show because he or she can give a reaction at any moment

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about the subject matter. Supported by Hutchby (2006) stated that hosts action is

targeted to the audience which can provide an audible reaction in return.

Moreover, in talk show has many topics because there were so many

things that will be discussed by the host during conversation. The host usually has

some lists of topic that want to ask for the guest. The topic is subjects which are

talked in the conversation. Wardhaugh (1986) stated, a conversation usually

covers a number of topics and involves shifts from one topic to another, and

sometimes also a mix of topics. It means that the topic is important because it

helps the existence of the conversation. So the host may be able to present a

different kind of topics to make the program interesting.

2.1.4 Turn Taking

Turn taking is a fundamental study in a conversation. One of the basic

facts of the conversation is that the roles of speaker and listener change, which is

called turn taking, that is how the interlocutors change and manage their talks

whether becoming a speaker or listener in a conversation (Coulthard,1985).

Stenstrm (1994) stated, turn is everything the current speaker says before the

next speaker takes over. A turn in conversation is treated as the speech that a

participant in communication utters before another participant begins to speak.

Then a turn ends when somebody else claims the floor (Taeboda,2006).

Sack et.al, (1974) stated that the system of turn taking are (a) when the

current speaker selects the next speaker, the next speaker has the right and, at the

same time, is obliged to take the next turn; (b) if the current speaker does not

select the next speaker, any one of the participants has the right to become the

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next speaker. This could be regarded as self-selection; and (c) if neither the

current speaker selects the next speaker nor any of the participants become the

next speaker, the current speaker may resume his/her turn

As explained above, turn taking is the changing role of the speaker and the

listener. It begins by the first speakers speak. In this case,the speakers take a

chance to speak or they try to keep their turn or give a chance to the next speaker

to take the turn. Then, the turn taking stops when there is nothing to say.

2.1.5 Turn Taking Strategies

In a conversation, the participants must have an ability to manage their

role in order to make their conversation go smoothly. In fact, some of them can

not do it well. Sometimes the listener may fail to get the message from the speaker

or the listener take the turn without waiting for the speaker finish his/ her speak.

So, it can make overlapping turns or the speaker may lose the thread.

To prevent these problems, the participants must consider some strategies

to know the rules and signals in conversation. Stenstrm (1994) stated, there are

three basic strategies in turn taking system. The strategies consist of taking the

turn, holding the turn and yielding the turn.

2.1.5.1 Taking the Turn

This strategy is useful when the participants want to take a chance to speak

in conversation. In taking the turn, the next speaker can continue the topic from

the previous speaker or may deliver their own ideas. In this case, the speakers

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also can show their feeling such as showing their agreement or disagreement.

Stenstrm divides taking the turn into starting up, taking over and interrupting.

a.) Starting up

Starting up is used to someone who initiates the talk first. Starting to talk

can be a difficult thing. Sometimes, a speaker has not a good preparation at the

beginning of the conversation. Starting up can involve a hesitant start and clean

start. A hesitant start most speakers do not give up the turn at once but take

advantage by using filled pauses (ex: m, :m) and verbal fillers (ex: well, I mean,

you know). This strategy is used when the speakers take the turn without being

fully prepared. The speakers show that they want to say something and they need

more time to put in into the word, for example:

B: Well, :m I mean that :m your idea is very nice

It shows that the speaker intends to say something but needs more time to

put it into words by using Verbal filler (well) and filled pauses (:m)

On the other hand, if the speakers often prepare before they will take the

turn, usually word well come up at the beginning of the utterance and it makes a

clean start, for example:

A: Well what does he say - stick an initial label on the back

It shows that speaker tries to attract the attention of the listener at the

beginning of the conversation, in order to keep the conversation.

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b.) Taking Over

The speaker who responds the previous speaker said, it called as taking

over and it is connected by an Uptakes or links. Uptakes are started with an

appealer ( ex: you know) which will be continued with uptake ( ex: yeah, oh, well,

ah, no, yes) by the next speaker. Uptake strategy happened when the next speaker

acknowledges receipt of what the previous said and evaluate it before going on. In

addition, uptakes do not always come after appealer but it can be produced

without appealer, for example:

A: But I got a telegram last :m. Friday . Saying that there was trouble
afoot you know

B: Yeah, trouble a leg anyway

From the example above, the speaker A uses you know to give the turn

to listener B. Then the listener B directly answer the speaker A said,

Uptakes without appealer

A: nobody knows about this secret

B: Oh thats right

It shows that the speaker B uses an uptake Oh without appealer from

speaker.

There is one more strategy for taking over by using Links ( and, but,

because). In this case the speaker uses conjunction and which connect sentences

and clauses, for example :

A: You met her

B: No No

A: because she is unusual---

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(the speaker A uses link in order to inform the previous speaker by using

conjunction because)

c.) Interrupting

Interrupting happens when one person initiates talk while another person is

already talking. Furthermore, interruption is divided into alerts and

metacomments. Alerts ( ex: hey, listen, look) is used to attract the other peoples

attention. Usually in doing alerts, the speaker tends to be louder than the others

and produce with a higher pitch, for example:

A: oh well thats very good if you can fool him just for an instant *

B: *LISTEN if * you feel like a FILM tomorrow night MIKE

(B interrupt A by using high pitch, so that A can not continue his/ her

talking)

The second is metacomments (ex: can I just tell, let me just, may I halt

you) also can be used in interrupting others, but it is particularly common in

formal situation and politely, for example :

A: m but more important than that.*since its really a matter of

nomenclature*

B:*could I halt you there* could I halt you there and answer that point
first

(The speaker B interrupts the previous speaker politely)

2.1.5.2 Holding the turn

Holding the turn means carry on talking. It is used when the speakers still

want to hold the chance to speak, but they difficult to plan what to say and they

speak at the same time. They may have to stop talking and start re planning half-

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way through the turn. There are four devices to help the speaker avoid a

breakdown and take over, such as filled pauses and/or verbal fillers, silent pauses,

repetition and new start.

a.) Filled pauses and/or verbal fillers

Filled pauses and/or verbal fillers can usually be taken to indicate that the

speaker has no intention to yield the turn but is actually planning what to say next.

But in the holding the turn, the speaker should not make a pause too long because

it can makes the next speaker chance to speak. So, it must be done in short time,

for example :

A: . And all this way done : - - by - - kind of letting - : - - . well really

by just : - - sort of - starting from nothing

( it shows that the speaker is trying to think what he/ she is going to say

and it is only used in the short time)

b.) Silent pause

A silent pause can act as a turn holder. It is a sign that tries to keep the

listener until the current speaker finish talking. It is a very long pause than filled

pauses, for example:

B: and SUDDENLY (0.4) the more brilliant people APPEAR

The speaker uses silent pauses (0.4) to hold the turn. he / she needs a few

time to think of what will he/she says

c.) Lexical repetition

The lexical repetition can involve single words, it is the repetitions of

lexical (word), for example :

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A: .. cos I mean it doesnt make any difference if if if if if if youve got

five thousand quid. five thousand quid is no good to you if everything.
Cost fifty per cent more than it did.

Furthermore, it can also consist of clause partial, for example:

A: . And he said well how old do you think this child is you see --- and I
didnt have a clue. You see it was a it was a. it was it was an Asian child
between the age of. It was standing up so therefore it was thirteen months.
to four years

Besides single words and clause partials, a lexical repetition can have the

combinations of both of them in a single turn, for example :

A: an awful lot of it is a loy more English than England --- I mean they
you know they they they they say vest meaning undergarment

In the last example it shows that the speaker (A) wants to hold the turn by

repeating the word. The speaker repeats the clause I mean and you know which

both of them have the same meaning.

d.) New start

New start is used if the speakers can not continue the conversation then

they can make a new start, for example:

A: but I feel somehow. The sheer fact of not having to have , to have. This
really sort of its for one thing it does nark me that

( It shows that the speaker cannot use his/ her ideas by using lexical

repetition, silent way, filled pause and verbal fillers, and the only way is to start

all over again)

Sometimes, the people forget about what exactly they have to say after

they talking for a few minutes. They try to put his thoughts into words by means

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of repetition, pauses and verbal fillers before they finally realize that the only way

out of the troublesome situation is to start all over again.

2.1.5.3 Yielding the turn

In the last strategy of turn taking is yielding the turn. In this term, the

previous speaker gives the chance to the next speaker without much protesting

because the speaker wants to hear for response. Furthermore, there are several

ways to yield the turn to others, such as by prompting, appealing, and giving up.

a.) Prompting

In prompting, the participants act prompt the other participant to respond

more strongly than others. Prompting consist of apologizing, greeting, inviting,

offering, questioning and requesting, for example:

A: Hi , Jane!

B: Hi

A: Would you like to come to my birthday party, please?

B: Yes, Id love to

(In this case, B is complied to respond A since an invitation always

requires an answer).

b.) Appealing

Appealing means a turn which gives an explicit signal to the listener in

order to give feedback such as: question tag, all right, right, ok, you know, you

see, for example:

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A: You have done your homework, right?

B: Yes, I have

( the speaker A uses utterance right in order to B gives a response

directly).

c.) Giving up

In giving up strategy, the speakers realize that they do not have anything

more to say and they give the chance to others by making a long pause. This

strategy will push the listeners to take their turn, for example:

A: And they sort of hand it over to the police who dispose of it in the way
they think fit (0.3)

B: Its like Ella and Henrys flick knife.

(The speaker A uses a pause to indicate that he finishes his/her turn)

2.1.6 Gesture

Communication is not only produced by verbal, but it also produced by

nonverbal. In the process of verbal communication, the message is delivered by

using utterances. Whereas, in nonverbal communication the participants use

gesture to communicate each other, such as: move their hand, their head, their

arms or their whole body. Supported by Duncan (1972) stated that in a

communication, there are signals that speaker and hearer send to each other in

order indicate their state with regard to the turn. The signals have the important

role in direct communication. The one of the signals is gesture.

Gesture is a body movement that appears to contribute to the meaning of

an utterance. It can help the listeners get an understanding about the speakerss

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say,such as pointing gestures are regarded as indicating an object, a location, or a

direction a place. Supported by Alibali et al. (2000) stated that the action of

gesturing helps speakers to organize spatial information and in this way, gesture

plays a role in conceptualizing the message to be verbalized

According to McNeill (Cited in Tellier, 2000) there are four categories of

gestures: iconic, metaphoric, deictic and beats.

Iconic gesture represent images in the shapes of objects or people. For

instance, someone holding a steering wheel while saying drive while showing a

width with both hands open and facing.

Metaphoric gesture emphasis in abstract concepts rather than concrete

objects. If the speaker holds one cup in his hands and then he says the word

concept for instance, it is a metaphoric gesture because the cup acts as a

symbolic image for the idea of a concept.

Deictics gesture refer to things by pointing with the hand, the finger, the

chin, etc. They can be either concrete pointing to someone, something or

somewhere, like when one says your glasses are here on the table while point

towards the table and the glasses. But it can also be abstract pointing when

referring to something/someone absent or a place or even a moment in time, like

for instance, one points to the right to mean China or in their back to refer to the

past. Deictics can be shaped by cultural characteristics as geographical and time

references differ between languages and cultures

Beats is the movements that have no semantic connection to the speech

they accompany. They rather stress important words or phrases. A typical beat

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would be a flick of the finger or of the hand, it has two movements phases-in/out,

up/down, etc.

2.2 Review of Related Studies

Several researchers have studied about turn taking in other fields, for

instance: Emita christanti (2011) as the student of Petra Christian university. She

investigated about the turn taking strategies used in social and political talks of

Apa kabar Indonesia malam show. In her research, she used three kinds of turn

taking strategies that is proposed by Stenstrom (1994) as the theory. She used

descriptive quantitative method in performing her studied. Moreover, she was

curious about the types and frequencies of turn taking strategies. She found out

that taking the turn is the highest strategy in both social and political talks.

Holding the turn is much higher in political talks because the participants are

eager to hold the turn as long as possible and yielding the turn is much higher in

social talks.

Tanti Puspitorini (2006) as the student of Airlangga University had done a

research about turn taking organization in the theory of English literature class. In

her research, she was curious about the differences between the modified turn

taking rules in the classroom setting and the general turn taking rules proposed by

Sacks et al. And the significant features of those modified turn taking rules. She

used qualitative method in her research. She also found that the differences

between the general turn taking rules and the modified turn taking rules

concerning the different participants and settings. In the classroom talks there is

an unequal power speech exchange among participants. This is because the

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lecturer has a privileged role in controlling the turn taking. The significant

features are mostly found in the lecturer's turns because she has high permutability

of turn taking. While in the students' turns, they have no right to permutate the

turn taking, they mostly use self-selection to respond the lecturer's turns. The

unique cases mostly found in the lecturer's turns are the occurrence of the

overlaps.

Puspita Ayuningtyas Prawesti (2006) as the student of Airlangga

University had done research about the organization of turn taking in

criminal sessions based on Sack et.al theory. She was curious about the technical

differences between the general turn taking rules proposed by Sacks et.al and the

modified ones in criminal sessions. She used qualitative method in her research.

She also found out that there is an unequal power of speech exchange mechanism

between participants because there are two participants (judge and the prosecutor)

who serve as the turn permutators but the other participants defendant and witness

do not have such authority to distribute the turns. Furthermore, the possibilities of

a judge's turn are higher than those of a prosecutor's turn are. In addition, both

turn distributors attempt to minimize pause. Additionally, prosecutors always

utilize objection to do self-selection. Last, in criminal sessions, there are many

occurrences of overlapping talks, interruptions, and violations of the turn taking

rules. Every violation is treated seriously by both turn distributors and most of

violations done by judges are compromised.

I used these research as my previous studies because it had given me a lot

of information about turn taking. There are some similarities and some

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differences. The similarities are: Tanti (2006), Puspita (2006) and Emita (2011)

have the same topic with my research. Moreover, Tanti (2006), Puspita (2006) use

the same method and my research also uses the same theory with Emita (2011).

While the differences between previous studies and my research are: Emita (2011)

uses descriptive quantitative method and analyses about the turn taking strategies

used in social and political talks of Apa kabar Indonesia malam show. Tanti

(2006) analyses about turn taking organization in the theory of English literature

class based on Sack et.al theory. And Puspita (2006) analyses about the

organization of turn taking in criminal sessions based on Sack et.al theory.

Different from my research, I uses The Ellen DeGeneres show as my object and

Stenstrm theory. Moreover, my research also uses different statement of

problems and finding with their research. This research is hoped to enrich the

information about turn taking strategies and it is also hoped to fulfill the

information that has not been analyzed by the previous studies.

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