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Optimized extraction of dimension stone

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Article in Environmental Earth Sciences August 2011

DOI: 10.1007/s12665-010-0825-7

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Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924
DOI 10.1007/s12665-010-0825-7

SPECIAL ISSUE

Optimized extraction of dimension stone blocks

S. Mosch D. Nikolayew O. Ewiak

S. Siegesmund

Received: 5 July 2010 / Accepted: 29 October 2010 / Published online: 30 November 2010
 The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract The profitable production of dimension stone Introduction

mainly depends on the extractable block size. The regu-
larity and volume of the blocks are of critical importance, The term optimization implies improving a process that has
and are controlled by the three-dimensional pattern of the specifically defined goals. For this, it is necessary to con-
discontinuity system. Therefore, optimization of block size sider all the processes and modify them to achieve the best
has to be the aim when quarrying for natural stone. This is possible results. The main factors which increase the
mainly connected to the quantification of joints and frac- profitability of a dimension stone quarry are block size
tures, i.e., their spacing and orientation. The problem of optimization and the focus on high quality raw materials as
finding unfractured blocks within arbitrarily oriented and well as the avoidance of unnecessary waste and overbur-
distributed planes can be solved effectively by a numerical den. In this context the volumes as well as the geometry
algorithm. The main effects of joint orientations on block and the distribution of expected raw blocks is essential.
sizes and shapes will be presented in this article. Quanti- Initial prediction of the relative part sizes will help to
fication of unfractured blocks with the aim of optimization optimize the building stone production. Therefore, joints
is illustrated by detailed studies on several quarries. The and fractures are among the most important geological
algorithm used in this study can be applied as a powerful structures, and its assessment is one of the most important
tool in the planning of a quarry and the future exploitation tasks during exploration and the ongoing quarrying
of dimension stone. Application of the described approach is process.
demonstrated on practical examples of quarrying natural The genesis of joint- and fracture-systems can be mul-
stones, namely, sandstone, granite, rhyolite, etc. Block quar- tifaceted and be traced back to orogenic, and epirogenic
rying can be optimized by using the new 3D-BlockExpert processes, as well as shrinkage caused by cooling or des-
approach. The quantification of unfractured rock masses is iccation. As a discontinuity in a deposit, all surfaces such
also shown to contribute to a more ecological protection and as faults, joints, cracks, fissures, or bedding planes has to
the sustainable use of natural resources. be taken into account. The formation of separated indi-
vidual blocks in a compact rock, the so-called in situ blocks
Keywords Production of dimension stones  Joints and (Lu and Latham 1999), is linked to the intersection of these
fractures  Block sizes  Optimization discontinuities. Intrinsic structure characteristics such as
quartz- or calcite-veins are also considered, if it can be
foreseen that these vein tracings will open during further
S. Mosch (&)  O. Ewiak  S. Siegesmund
processing. Furthermore, the discontinuity system might
Department of Structural Geology and Geodynamics,
Geoscience Center of the University of Gottingen, impair the quality of a raw block even with mineralized
Gottingen, Germany fissures, since the individual decor of a rock can be
e-mail: [email protected] interrupted.
Both the orientation and the respective distances of
D. Nikolayew
Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics, Joint Institute discontinuities have a significant influence on the pro-
for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Moscow, Russia spective shapes and volumes of primary blocks. In general,

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1912 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

wider distances result in large-sized blocks, if the orien- Methodological background

tation of discontinuities does not diverge decisively from
orthogonality. When the geologic or tectonic situation Data acquisition
results in acute and irregular blocks, a more cost-intensive
and time-consuming process occurs, since these blocks Exact data acquisition is essential, both for the exploration
must be resized to manageable dimensions for processing. of new deposits and the ongoing maintenance of active
If only one or more parameters, distances or dip angles are quarries. Consequently, the analysis of a discontinuity
varying intensely, the extracted material can be utilized for system in a deposit has to comprise the localization,
low-value goods like gravel or paving stones (see Smith mapping and evaluation of joints, bedding planes, fault
1999). zones, etc.
Quarried raw blocks must generally meet certain criteria Data collection is based on different methods, which are
to fulfil the technical and economical requirements of a adapted to the individual quarry situation. For further
modern cutting inventory. The best conditions prevail if the details of discontinuity analyses see e.g., Smith (1999),
raw block sizes range between 6 and 8 m3 (Primavori Priest (1993), Hoffmann and Siegesmund (2007a, b), or
1999). The maximum dimension of the blocks conforms to Mosch (2009). Furthermore, different geophysical methods
the weight, when considering the safety issues of the are available such as Georadar. But the various methods
transport and the handling of blocks during further pro- usually require a higher technical and financial expendi-
cessing. Minimum volumes for natural stone blocks ture. Therefore, the mapping of joint space intervals can be
determined for export are around 16 m3, whereas standard done by making direct longitudinal measurements at the
dimensions range between 2.0 9 1.0 9 0.5 and 3.0 9 outcrop or in the quarry. The orientation of the joint sur-
2.0 9 1.0 m (United Nations 1976). The dimensions of a faces is generally taken with a field compass. The funda-
raw block are also a significant factor for the processing mental problem is the recognition of the correct surfaces,
with respect to the decor of a stone. While the width is where in some cases very fine crack structures only become
finally responsible for the number of slabs that can be visible after surface wetting.
obtained from a block, its height and the length deter- In an ideal situation, the mapping of the joint system
mine the size of each of those slabs. In this context, should be performed on vertical quarry walls. By the so-
intensively decorated rocks that show e.g., folding, the called window sampling or scanline sampling tech-
broad side of a raw block has to show the corresponding nique (ISRM 1978; Priest 1993), measuring lines have to
decor. be sited on the quarry wall in a vertical and horizontal
In many deposits, however, ideal conditions do not orientation, enabling the acquisition of two joint sets
prevail, so that blocks must be formatted to a processing- (Fig. 1: wall 1, joint sets A, C). To create a complete
friendly geometry. A beneficial situation for dimensional picture of the joint system, another measurement needs to
stone mining is, for example, when the fragmentation be taken at right angles to the previous wall (Fig. 1: wall 2,
into rectangular blocks is defined by a natural orthogonal joint set B). A clear restriction that can appear is the ter-
fracture system. But in many cases, deposits of natural mination behavior of the joint. Joints, whose strike can be
building stone are affected by a distinct variability of the
orientation of joints, leading to irregular, often acute-
angled blocks, whereby each block then needs individual
cutting. In the Finnish granite industry, for example,
the yield of sellable stone products ranges from 5 to
10% of the total volume of rock excavated (Prissang
et al. 2007).
The problem of mutually orthogonal fracture patterns
was considered by Weber et al. (2001) and Weber and
Lepper (2002). More recent articles (Koch-Moeck and
Germann 2007; Prissang et al. 2006, 2007) are also devoted
to this problem. However, there is no general analytical
solution, but for most three-dimensional cases an effective
numerical solution will be presented in this article. The
computer program 3D-BlockExpert developed in this study
models the three-dimensional fragmentation of a deposit,
Fig. 1 Representative sketch in an area designated for excavation
based on the investigation of the tectonic elements, dip showing the vertical and horizontal measuring lines on two quarry
angles, and dip directions. walls intersecting joint sets A, B, and C

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Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924 1913

followed along a section of the wall, can disappear after a the quarry shows a considerable heterogeneous distribution
few centimeters into the depth of the rock and completely of joints, where some aspects show a stronger fragmenta-
discontinue or change orientation. Thus, the window tion of the rocks.
sampling may either register too small or too large dis- Evaluating the data by the use of histograms is a good
tances between the joints. For assessing the area of the rock way of representing the frequency distributions of the
to be excavated, it may be useful to thoroughly clean the distances between joints (see Singewald 1992). Simulta-
rock body, so that the traces of the joints in the wall can neously, when taking the mean of the joint distances into
be followed. This would complete the overall three- consideration, the volume calculation of a so-called aver-
dimensional picture of the rock body under consideration age block (x  y  z V; Singewald 1992) is possible.
for excavation. When making a general assessment of a deposit, this
parameter is especially applicable in the area of sedimen-
Representation and application possibilities tary stratiform deposits. If the joint structure deviates from
an orthogonal geometry, or if one or more joint sets show a
The use of isoline diagrams like Schmidt Nets to depict pronounced scattering, then only estimations can be made
data obtained from the mapping of discontinuities like whether a specific domain in the quarry is suitable for the
joints and joint sets in oriented space has proven to be a excavation of raw blocks. The quarry section showing a
valuable tool. Figure 2 shows the orientation of different greater variation in the strike and dip of the joints exhibits a
joint and fracture systems developed in the same quarry. In tighter joint spacing (Fig. 2e, f). Thus, it is more suitable
Fig. 2c, two steep joint sets are visible whose strike for excavation of crushed rock. The tight joint system
direction is almost perpendicular to each other. This joint becomes really evident when the spacing is measured along
system results in an almost uniform dissection of the rock a horizontal line. Along a measuring distance of 30 m, 60%
body exhibiting relatively rectangular blocks. The fracture of the joint intervals are below 0.5 m. Consequently, a
system shown in Fig. 2d also exhibits a preferred orienta- complete inspection of the orientation and joint space
tion, but joints striking in an EW direction exhibit a distribution is possible within the discontinuity structure,
stronger variation. Here a third joint system is developed and by evaluating the general degree of dissection in a rock
leading to a stronger dissection of the rock body. Overall body make estimates for the excavation of stone blocks.

Fig. 2 Quarry sections of the

Lobejuner Qtz-Porphyry
(Germany): a in-active
dimension stone quarry and
b active quarry for grit and
gravel. Density distribution
diagrams (c, d) depict the
orientation of joints leading to
the expected shapes of in situ
blocks (green and red line
equals the orientation of each
quarry wall). The distribution
of joint distances (e, f) shows
a stronger fragmentation in
the quarry for grit and gravel

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1914 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

of the same size. Due to the integration of primary data into

this mathematical model, the description of its three-
dimensional segmentation is possible. An iterative process,
which is based on a numerical algorithm, assigns one color
to these voxels that build up one singular in situ block.
After the tessellation is modelled, the volumes of each
region can be easily calculated.
Based on this mathematical modelling, the software can
create two-dimensional sections parallel to each surface of
the treated rock body as a first step in evaluating a quarry
(Fig. 4). The number of sections for each direction depends
on the chosen number of voxels. Simultaneously, the voxel
Fig. 3 Characteristic data input for the software 3D-BlockExpert for
describing joint planes using three points localized in a coordinate
size defines the resolution of the created model. Field
system (after Mosch 2009) studies have shown that a resolution of 12 cm (edge length
of one voxel) is sufficient to describe natural joint or
The software 3D-BlockExpert fracture planes for the goal of dimension stone quarrying.
For practical purposes, it can be argued that this is a more
To visualize the fragmentation of a rock body due to its adequate description than in the case of a mathematical
segmentation by discontinuities, the software known as object such as planes, which have zero volume. Moreover,
3D-BlockExpert has been developed (Nikolayew et al. computing time is very closely connected to the size or
2007; Siegesmund et al. 2007; Mosch et al. 2009). The number of voxels under consideration. The time increases
computer program is able to evaluate data on the spatial as a cube to voxel edge length. So, for primary evaluation
distribution of joints and provides information dealing with and volume estimation in the field, a small number of
the distribution of in situ blocks, as well as their volumes voxels is preferred.
and shapes. A joint is considered to be a plane, which can Besides these two-dimensional sections the program
be described mathematically with three points localized in creates a data set, which can be translated into a three-
a coordinate system (Fig. 3). The necessary measurements dimensional model. Moreover, with the software Intel
can easily be carried out in a quarry or in the early stage of Array Viewer a multivariable modelling of the segmented
exploration, following the window sampling or scan- body with a free choice of section as well as a free rotation
line sampling technique (ISRM 1978; Priest 1993). The of the whole model can be viewed in all directions of space
software regards the treated area of a quarry as being a (Fig. 4). Thus, the user is able to examine the quarry sit-
parallelepiped, i.e., a geometric body composed of three uation from all possible perspectives, and also to get an
pairs of parallelograms, each pair in two parallel layers. idea about the distribution of in situ blocks and to estimate
The body is divided into cells or voxels (volumetric pixel) its shapes.

Fig. 4 Possible outcomes for

3D-BlockExpert showing
two-dimensional sections
(middle) as well as three-
dimensional models
(right side) of a characteristic
block (compare with Fig. 3)

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Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924 1915

Results of modelling with 3D-BlockExpert each direction, so one voxel corresponds to a volume of
roughly 2 dm3. The model comprises 20 joints, which were
Field study: Lobejuner Qtz-Porphyry, Rhyolite, partly constructed based on orientation measurements and
Germany geometric extrapolation.
The resulting model shows a partly orthogonal character
This example deals with the Lobejuner Qtz-Porphyry, of the joint system, although some joint planes show ori-
a rhyolite body near Halle (Saale) in Saxony-Anhalt entation deviations (Fig. 6). For this reason, the modelled
(Germany). The rock mass is partly quarried for dimension rock mass comprises a small number of in situ blocks with
blocks. Generally, the quarry is characterized by a joint an acute-angled shape as well. Based on the model, the
system, which clearly shows visible changes in relatively average volume of the blocks is roughly 0.5 m3 after
short distances (compare with Fig. 2). The variations removing the voxels attributed to joint planes and little
include orientation changes, varying numbers of joint sets, rock volumes \100 voxels, which matches the theoreti-
and variations in spacing. The examined former quarrying cally calculated average. The largest blocks in the mod-
area is characterized by a joint system, which consists of elled rock mass have a volume [2 m3 and are located on
three main joint sets. The first set is comprised of (sub-) the SSW side of the rock mass. Summarizing, the relatively
horizontal joints cutting the rock at an average spacing of small block volumes and the partly non-orthogonal
0.52 0.31 m. These planes usually are irregular or geometry, which would cause material losses during for-
undulating. The other two sets roughly strike NNE and matting of dimension blocks, disqualify the rock mass for
ESE. They are characterized by steep dipping planes, quarrying of large dimension blocks. Due to the low
which show a large continuity in parts but can also be spacing in all three joint sets, there is no way of optimizing
restricted to individual layers. The sets intersect each other the yield in this case.
at roughly 90 and show an average spacing of
0.82 0.54 m. The roughly orthogonal character of the Field study: Bucher Sandstone, Germany
joint system causes more or less rectangular in situ block
shapes. However, the low spacing and high joint density Massive sandstone deposits are characterized frequently by
causes relatively small block volumes. Based on the a more or less orthogonal joint pattern. In some quarries the
spacing distribution and the approach of Palmstrom (1995) joint system enables the extraction of orthogonal raw
an average block volume of 0.4 m3 has been calculated. blocks without using e.g., drilling machines or explosives.
The average joint density in the examined rock mass is as For dimension stone purposes a more complicated situation
high as 4.3 joints per m3 and thus, according to Sousa is given in the deposit of the fine- to medium-grained
(2010), too high for the exploitation of large volume Bucher Sandstone. Here the joint pattern is characterized
blocks. by at least two different sets of joints. One is clearly NS
For this reason, it is highly important to locate areas striking with dip angles of more than 80 (Fig. 7). These
with lower joint density, and thus higher block volumes. steeply dipping joints are cut by a second set of joints,
For modelling the joint system with 3D-BlockExpert a which show a higher variability in both, first of all strike as
body of 7 9 6 9 4 m was chosen (Fig. 5). After data well as dip angle. In the actual quarry situation there was a
acquisition in the field, the first steps were reconstructing lack of subhorizontal joints. Only in the upper part one can
the joint pattern and defining the planes for the model input see single joints with estimated dip angles of around 10
file. The voxel size chosen for the model was 12.5 cm in 15. In total the rock body exhibits a heterogeneous

Fig. 5 a In-active quarry

section of the Lobejuner Qtz-
Porphyry (rhyolite; Germany):
the joint pattern is characterized
by a more or less homogeneous
and orthogonal orientation of
joint sets (compare with Fig. 2).
b Two-dimensional front view
of the quarry section
in a modelled with
3D-BlockExpert

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1916 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

Fig. 6 a Three-dimensional
model of the quarry section of
the Lobejuner Qtz-Porphyry
shown in Fig. 5. b Due to the
multifaceted possibilities of
rotation and section choice, the
largest in situ block can be
detected in the lower right back
part of the treated rock mass

Fig. 7 Quarry of Bucher Sandstone (Germany): the joint analyses

show that an NS striking and steep dipping system of joints is cut by
a more heterogeneous set of joints

fragmentation, which leads to problems in the extraction

process.
In detail it becomes clear, that the actual wall of the
quarry does not really fit the orientation of the joint pattern,
which can be easily shown by using two-dimensional
sections modelled with 3D-BlockExpert. For this reason a
segment of the actual wall was determined in detail
(Fig. 8). Here, the traces of the drilling processes are
clearly visible showing an additional but avoidable frag- Fig. 8 Quarry of Bucher Sandstone (Germany): modelled section of
a possible quarry bottom, which can be expected with an ongoing
mentation of the in situ blocks. The direction of the
extraction process. An additional fragmentation of in situ blocks is
excavation front must be changed to optimize the dimen- clearly visible in detail due to the use of drilling machines. To fit the
sional stone to waste rock ratio. quarry direction to the best possible joint pattern, a suitable rotation
The quarry was examined a second time. The general should be carried out
joint pattern for a newly opened of the quarry is more or
less similar to the previous observation. The strike of the concerning the joint distribution in all directions of space,
main joints has rotated only a few degrees in an EW which could be brought together into a three-dimensional
direction and the more heterogeneous sets of joints is less model (Fig. 9). In connection with the two-dimensional
distinct. Due to the removal of the sedimentary covering section of the expected quarry bottom, it becomes clear that
(compare with Fig. 7), it was possible to collect data especially the southern part of the treated body exhibits a

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Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924 1917

Fig. 9 Quarry of Bucher

Sandstone (Germany):
characteristic three-dimensional
model of the upper section of
the quarry showing the
heterogeneous fragmentation of
the treated block in the southern
part. The two-dimensional
section of the expected quarry
bottom parallel to the actual
quarry wall explains the need
for changing the excavation
front

strong and heterogeneous fragmentation. Moreover, this placement depth of the slab can have a positive impact on
part is also cross-cut by two distinct subhorizontal joints, the amount of waste material produced. The rotation cor-
which were described above. However, the actual wall responds to the longitudinal axis of the raw block. The
mainly shows drilled surfaces. To summarize, the change theoretically usable parts of the raw blocks are compared,
of the extraction front can lead to a greater exploitation of which is given by the bearing of the longitudinal axis at
raw blocks. right angles to the excavation direction (Fig. 11a), and
parallel to the excavation direction (Fig. 11b) for the fol-
Modelling for optimization of final block cutting lowing extraction steps. In the second case, the length of
the raw block is defined by the size of the extracted slab.
Rock bodies that are essentially compact, homogeneous Hence, the maneuverability is the solely limiting factor for
and have widely spaced joints show similar possibilities for the detached sections. To counteract this, a reduction in the
optimization. This only occurs when a few discontinuities terrace height should be done.
like distinctly colored veins or similar irregular structures At this point sections parallel to the extraction front can
are present. If these elements do not conform to the char- be helpful. The respective sections are chosen in such a
acteristic rock ornamentation, a significant amount of way that the front and backside of the potential slab can be
material loss can result, which may continue up to the rendered, where the thickness represents a dimension in the
cutting of the raw block (Fig. 10). final raw block. The form of the resulting in situ blocks can
Figure 11 shows a schematic representation of a quarry be constructed from these simple geometric relationships,
that is pervaded by such bands. In this situation the whereby the primary rock waste can be estimated from the

Fig. 10 Theoretical waste

material resulting from the
formatting and cutting of raw
blocks from a simple cleaved
slab

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1918 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

Fig. 11 Schematic
representation of a homogenous
and compact rock body that is
pervaded by a few irregular
discontinuities. Adjusting the
size of the extracted slabs and
the arrangement of the
recovered raw blocks can have a
positive effect on the quality of
the stone-waste material
balance. Different colors
designate the excavation
direction for the following
successive steps. Orientation of
the longitudinal side of the raw
block: a in the excavation
direction and b at right angles to
the excavation direction. The
fraction of completely usable
raw blocks is given in percent

resulting perpendicular parting of the side surfaces. As a example, further steps of manufacture are planned or the
consequence, it is possible to fill in the best surface area requirements of the market can be aimed for. The pre-
utilization with regards to the actual usable material in two requisite for such an optimal utilization is that the regarded
dimensions. area is free of defects. Areas that show, for example, a clear
In Fig. 12 such an optimization of formatting a raw change in color or something similar have to be excluded,
block is depicted. From a multitude of possibilities three especially when the stone does not meet the defined stan-
examples are singled out. However, it becomes clear that a dards. One problem that can occur is when rock varieties
corresponding displacement of the arranged raw blocks as contain ornamentations defined by specific structural ele-
well as the possible number can also influence the neces- ments, and thus requires a particular orientation of the raw
sary cutting work. Economic factors also have to be taken block in the extracted slab.
into consideration. The highest block number can be real-
ized with arrangement possibility C. However, the for-
matting is connected to a very high labor input (relative Discussion
cutting length) in contrast to the arrangement possibility B.
In this case, the expected price segment of the rock has to The goal in the excavation of dimension stones is to pro-
be taken into account, and the additional earnings have to duce rectangular-shaped raw blocks for further use in the
be balanced against the cost overruns for production. stone industry. In many cases, it is not possible to extract
Through a corresponding evaluation of successively such corresponding blocks with the requisite perpendicu-
extracted slabs, additional prognostic information can be larity because of deviations in the joint system. This is why
obtained concerning the number and volume of raw blocks a worldwide average of around 50% (Montani 2003)
in the excavating section. Besides the direct planning of overburden is produced from the excavation and formatting
excavation, the process can be viewed as a tool, where for of the in situ blocks. Frequently this value lies much

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Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924 1919

Fig. 12 Detection of large

volume in situ blocks and the
optimization of raw block
production (block size:
3 9 2 9 1.8 m) by utilizing the
model generated with data from
the joint system analysis in the
software 3D-BlockExpert. For
optimal surface area utilization
three examples from a large
number of possibilities are
presented (granite; San Antonio,
Sardinia)

higher, whereby the demand for the quality of a rock and Stone deposits are a complex three-dimensional rock
its marketability or rather its premium price segment takes body, and the model presented above deviates from a
precedence. When removal rates of 80% or more occur in natural example. This means that an orientation of the
excavating gray colored granites, for example, the profit- joints, such as those illustrated in Fig. 13 may only be
ability of a deposit must be called into question. aligned vertically with exception in some cases. Thus, a
The model in Fig. 13 shows in an exemplary way how further decrease in the production rate results, based upon
changes in a system of orthogonal discontinuities occur, the angular deviation of the defined planes in an in situ
when accompanied by a rotation in one or both joint system block.
groups. A comparison of the joint spacing distribution The impact of the angular deviations described above
leads to the same results in all the three cases. Furthermore, becomes very apparent in the Negro Grapesa qtz-bt diorite
an increase in material loss occurs, and that a simultaneous quarry in Spain (Fig. 14a). The rose diagram (Fig. 14b)
decrease in the average block size can be documented shows a relatively heterogeneously strike distribution of
(Mosch 2009). Excavating a dissected stone deposit in this the joints. Two distinct preferred orientations can be dis-
way leads to lower earnings, which has been demonstrated tinguished that dissect each other at an angle between 60
by a comparative evaluation in magmatic deposits from and 70 (Fig. 14c). The excavation wall or floor of the
Thailand (Hoffmann and Siegesmund 2007a, b). quarry only follows to a minor degree the general trend of

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1920 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

Fig. 13 Increase of cutting

(overburden) remains with
decreasing average block size
due to the joint system deviating
from orthogonality where the
spacing pattern remains equal.
The characteristic joint density
distributions depict the
orientations of each joint pattern

Fig. 14 Impact of a non-

orthogonal joint structure:
a quarry of commercial grade
Negro Grapesa (qtz-bt-diorite,
Spain), b excavation horizon
with accompanying joint
orientation rose diagram and
sketch depicting the measured
joints (black line) as well as the
wire-cut sections, c acute-
angled cutting of joints on the
excavating horizon, d executed
cut at an acute angle to the
NESW striking joint, and
e mine tailings with a large
number of non-rectangular
leftover blocks. See text for
explanation

the joints, which is probably due to the heterogeneity of (Fig. 14d). As a consequence, the overburden contains
their distribution. Many parts of the quarry walls show many acute-angled leftover pieces, which are produced by
small and large scale outbursts at the corner intersections as the drilling of the in situ blocks (Fig. 14e). For block
a result of this heterogeneity. Moreover, between the joint excavation it is essential that stone deposits exhibit an
planes and the cutting direction acute angles are observable appropriate distribution of joints, when at least one

123
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924 1921

direction of a natural joint surface in a rock can be utilized tectonic conditions. In sandstones, for example, a phe-
for production. nomenon that frequently occurs is a wave-like course of the
Another aspect for dimension stone utilization is the bedding, which results in strong changes in the bedding
homogeneity of the joint surfaces and their distribution, thickness. Similar observations can be seen in the joints of
along with the distribution of the joint spaces and the granitic rock bodies. Thus, caution is required when mak-
orientation of the discontinuities. Marbles or other meta- ing an assessment of the joint spacing distribution.
morphic rock deposits are especially characterized by Through a heterogeneous formation of the joint struc-
heterogeneous joint. Figure 15 shows an example of the ture, however, it becomes clear that a two-dimensional
joint distribution at the excavation wall in a quarry from section of a deposit has limited significance when it is
the Spanish marble province Macael (Mosch 2009). In this based solely on the distribution of joint spaces. Another
quarry section, joints with two main strike directions are example where the complexity of the joint system and its
recognized (Fig. 15b). The joint structure almost matches impact to the economical value of a deposit are clearly
the orientation of the quarry wall. However, the presence visible is the quarry La Cantera Kinzigita in Argentina
of acute angularity is also a problem. Due to strong (Fig. 16a, Mosch 2009). This quarry is dedicated to the
fluctuations in the dips of the joints, the output for well- extraction of Azul Tango, a cdr-gt gneiss. When regarding
dimensioned raw blocks with a specified form is consider- the fracture system, both the strike direction and dipping
ably diminished. The dips show a relatively even distribution angles of the joint and fracture planes show an obvious
and cover a spectrum ranging from 5 to 88. The entire variability. The density distribution of the orientation data
NNESSW striking joint system shows a small variation in shows a preferred EW strike direction and steeply dipping
the dip and must be placed somewhat steeper. Because of the joint planes (Fig. 16b). In spite of a larger variation in
excavation wall orientation and the strong dip variation in strike, two main joint sets could be identified. These sets
the joint sets that are hardly observable, an estimation of the intersect each other at angles between 60 and 70. The
possible quarry output is strongly limited. In this case, an spacing data display a closely spaced joint system with an
additional wall parallel the NWSE striking joint system average spacing of about 1 m in all spatial directions
would have to be made accessible. (Fig. 16c). Based on the joint spacing, an average block
When considerable deviations occur in the orthogonal volume of approximately 0.9 m3 has been calculated. From
structure or the joints show strongly fluctuating dip direc- all the data an extensive and unsteady joint and fracture
tions, applying histograms should be done with caution for system has been deduced. The heterogeneous character of
the assessment of the joint spacing distribution. Especially the joint system finally led to the closing of the quarry.
in this case, the choice of the measuring line can have an Both exploitation and formatting of dimension blocks
influence on the relative frequency distribution (Fig. 15a). has been achieved by the use of drillings and explosives.
This can also result in deviations when calculating the The examination of several parts of the stopping levels
average volume of a block (Mosch 2009). showed that the quarrying strategy has been poorly or even
In general, the results from a discontinuity analysis may not at all adjusted to the local geological conditions.
show certain variations dependent on the lithology or the Without regarding the local joint system, the vertical

Fig. 15 a Sketch of the joint

system pattern on a quarry wall
(Blanco Macael, marble, Spain),
b diagrams depicting the joint
distribution in the above quarry,
and c joint space mapping along
various traverses (orange-
below, grey-above,
corresponding to the sketch in
a that result in different average
surface measurements. See text
for explanation

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1922 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

Fig. 16 a Quarry La Cantera

Kinzigita (Azul Tango,
cdr-gt-gneiss, Province of
Cordoba, Argentina). The
b orientation data and c the
spacing data depict a closely
spaced joint system without a
preferred orientation

drillings broke through joint faces and possibly damaged system with some dips reaching greater than 80 (joint set
large-sized in situ blocks. Damages have been visible on B), as well as being frequently healed by tourmaline
many raw dimension blocks in the stock. Defects ranged mineralization (Fig. 17b). Overall these healed joints are of
from healed joints to open joint planes or grave deviations low stability, whereby potential joints can open during the
from orthogonal geometries. In spite of this, the yield has process of excavation. This healed joint system is cut along
been about 1020%. strike by another approximately 90 joint set C, whose
The more reasonable way would have been a selective average dip is about 50 to the NNW. Like the horizontal
exploitation concentrating on individual large volume joints, these joints exhibit a low mechanical coherence, and
blocks. A basic prerequisite for this would have been the can be detached by the use of a few drill holes at intervals
recognition of the preferred joint orientation and the par- of around 1.5 m and the gentle application of well-placed
allel adjustment of the exploitation faces to the main strike explosive charges. In general, this produces a joint struc-
direction (approximately 100280). In addition, all faces ture in which two main joint sets are almost perpendicular
should have been cleared of waste to allow for a better to each other (joint sets A and B), and a diagonal system
overview of the run of joints and fractures. Each quarrying (joint set C) that cuts both.
step should have been planned according to the charac- The first step of an extraction is completed by the
teristics of the joint system, which requires a constant placement of tightly spaced core holes, which are drilled
detailed analysis of the joint and fracture system to locate perpendicular to the diagonal joint. Only one layer is
individual large volume blocks in the rock mass. These drilled through. In the second step, joint set C will be pried
blocks should be uncovered gently by using the existent open along the mapped part of the quarry at a length of
joints of the rock mass. Regarding the high quality and around 40 m. At the same time the mineralized joints of
value of the material, a higher amount of waste material joint set B can open. The mining floor is defined by the
connected to the extraction of defect-free large volume horizontal bedding joints (joint set B). This produces non-
blocks could have been eventually acceptable. rectangular formats in the in situ blocks, which then has a
Excavation of dimension stones can be achieved, how- part of the waste material removed creating a squaring of
ever, when an ideal coordination of the mining procedure the block. Based on the tectonic conditions in the Baren-
takes the elements of the joint system structure into burg Quarry, this can not be avoided by a change in the
account. This situation has been ideally implemented in the mining procedure.
Barenburg Quarry (Switzerland) by the extraction of the
commercial grade Verde Andeer (Fig. 17). In this gneiss
complex, two main joint sets occur next to horizontally Summary
aligned joints (joint set A), which are not represented in the
discontinuity analysis due to the distinct orientation and The complexity of a joint system can clearly generate
equally spaced joint intervals. This is an ENE striking joint problems concerning the opening of a quarry and defining

123
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924 1923

Fig. 17 Quarrying of the Verde

Andeer Orthogneiss
(Switzerland): a joint
distribution in the eastern part of
the Barenburg Quarry (Toscano
AG) and b joints healed by
tourmaline mineralization
acting as potential fractures. See
text for further information

the direction of ongoing mining (Primavori 1999). Hence, block. The actual exploitable material can be quantified by
the new approach to characterize and quantify unfractured the removal of the overburden when drilling perpendicular to
rock masses for optimization of its use for dimension stone the wedge faces. Afterward the remaining quality stone can
production is an outstanding method for the processing of be filled out (in two dimensions) with respect to the best
joints in all spatial orientations. And furthermore, as a computer-assisted surface exploitation. In the optimization
means for depicting two- and three-dimensional represen- example, three excellent cases are singled out from a wide
tations of a dissected rock body, which is based upon variety of possibilities. However, a dislocation in the
detailed mapping of the discontinuity system. The respec- arrangement of the blocks can clearly influence the possible
tive volume of the in situ blocks can be calculated simul- number of raw blocks as well as the necessary cutting work.
taneously with the modelling of the stone deposit as well as At the same time careful consideration has to be given to the
estimating the resulting geometries. The best possible economic factors. The highest block number can be realized
course for the quarrying is when the extraction is aligned by arrangement C, however, the formatting is connected to a
with the joints, so that unnecessary cuts do not cause a higher labor input (cutting length). In such a case the con-
further dissection of the rock body. Thus, it is possible to sideration between more production costs and possible
detect areas that are not minable, whereby greater amounts increased profits is mandatory. By evaluating the succession
of waste material can be avoided. of extracted slabs, additional predictions can be made in
In terms of profitability of a dimension stone quarry, the regards to the number and volume of raw blocks that can be
arrangement at the extraction wall is of importance for produced in future locations from the quarry. With the
directly adapting the planning steps at the running excava- support of the actual excavation plan a tool can be devel-
tion site. This is significant for the slab thickness or the oped, whereby further steps in the manufacturing process are
quarry wall height, which is dependent on the given geo- planned, or selective extraction is done in reaction to the
logical as well as tectonic relationships in a deposit. Using needs of the market.
the natural breakage of the stone lowers the time-consuming In summary, a systematic and detailed map of the joint
and cost-intensive process of splitting the stone by drilling or structure in a quarry enables one to:
saw cutting. Even this aspect can be achieved with the new
estimate the possible uses of the stone deposit
approach by using the software 3D-BlockExpert when
detect areas which are not suitable for use and
considering the possible extraction variations. The so-called
concentrate on areas where high quality resources occur
differential view of the two sections describes the spatial
optimize and adapt the extraction process
construction of a potential slab as seen in a two-dimensional
and optimize the formatting process of the raw blocks.
representation. Cutting planes with a specific spacing are
chosen that describe the front and back of the extracted slab, By paying attention to the spacing distribution and the
which are made to match the final dimensions of the raw orientation of the joints that occur one can:

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1924 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:19111924

achieve a positive influence between the relationship of Mosch S, Nikolayev D, Ewiak O, Siegesmund S (2009) Optimierung
the overburden to the usable stone der Werksteingewinnung mit 3D-BlockExpert. Steinbruch Sand-
grube 5:811
optimize the block exploitation, and thus, positively Nikolayew D, Siegesmund S, Mosch S, Hoffmann A (2007) Modell-
influence the profitability of the quarry based prediction of unfractured rock masses. Z dt Ges Geowiss
and increase the effective production and utilization of 158(3):483490
the natural stone resources. Palmstrom A (1995) RMia rock mass characterisation system for
rock engineering purposes. Ph.D thesis of the University of Oslo,
In addition to the economic components, unnecessary Norway
Priest SD (1993) Discontinuity analysis for rock engineering.
environmental damages that accompany an uncontrolled
Chapman and Hall, London, p 473
exploitation or the effects of expanding the quarry can be Primavori P (1999) Planet stone. Giorgio 7th Edition S.A.S., Verona,
avoided. Therefore, a contribution can be made toward p 326
ecological protection and the sustainable use of natural Prissang R, Hella P, Lehtimaki T, Saksa P, Nummela J, Vuento A
(2006) Lokalisierung ungestorter Blocke in groeren Gesteinsm-
resources.
assen. In: Dominik W, Roehling H-G, Stackebrandt W, Schroe-
der J-H, Uhlmann O (Hrsg) GeoBerlin 2006. 3D-Geologieeine
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the neue Chance fur die Nutzung und den Schutz des Untergrundes,
Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which per- Berlin, 24. Oktober 2006. Schriftenreihe der Deutschen
mits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any Gesellschaft fur Geowissenschaften 50, Abstract p 60
medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. Prissang R, Hella P, Lehtimaki T, Saksa P, Nummela J, Vuento A
(2007) Lokalisierung ungestorter Blocke in groeren Gesteinsm-
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