GRAMMAR

ABBOTT.
 .<

HOW TO PAESE
HOW TO PARSE
to of
Attempt ^pplg tljc principles

TO

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
WITH APPENDIXES
ON

ANALYSIS, SPELLING, AND PUNCTUATION.

r,v THK

RKV. KDWIN A. ABBOTT, D.I).,

Head Master of the City of London Schuo'.

F/F77/ THOUSAND.

(AMES CAMPBELL A SON,

 !
according to the Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one
thousand eight hundred and seventy-six, by JAMES CAMPBELL & SON, in the
Office of the Minister of Agriculture.

rRINTBD AVD BOUND BY

HITNTBR, ROSR AND CO.
IOBOMTO,
 PllEPACE.
THE First Part of this book is intended for
pupils so
'.vaneed a < t< be able to distinguish the Parts of
i. Tlu- author's object has been to teach elemen-
tary English Grammar as simply as is consistent with
the honest recognition of difficulties, and not to accu-
mulate masses of information that might be of use to
_:iiers, but must be useless to English boys.
Ihave been accused, by a very friendly and favour-
" unkindness "
reviewer, of in completely ignoring
tin- "Article" in
my introductory treatise How to Tell
the Parts of Speech. It has occurred to me, in con-
nee, to prefix to this work a Glossary of Gram-
matical Terms many of them, let us hope, obsolete or
Here the pupil may now and then refresh
. t .

his m.-miiry as to the meaning of Article, Genitive,

,
A<-ru#itive, Case, Proper Noun, Conjugation,
'
ami tin- like ; and by this means he will be
Jibli- to satisfy himself that many of these terms, when
to the (irammar of his native tongue, an-
applied
Molutdj superfluous or erroneous. It is al.-u pr..!.-
abl- that ready access to a Glossary, explaining ety-
ii-ally (.'unli'mif, JnfLcfia/t, Apostrophe, Climax,
may in many cases be of positive
,' benefit
-jM-cially \vi-itten to illustrate the
'I'h

Ivi-d s(uii- laluiur but;

coii-I am
vinced tint tin- lalM.ur was \\vll sp-nt. A pupil cannol
n HOW TO PARSE.
be regarded as thoroughly tested in his knowledge of
grammatical rules till he has applied them to con-
nected narrative. As long as he is tested in nothing but
short sentences, you can never feel sure that his accu-
racy is not merely mechanical.

Paragraphs 1 82 are of a much simpler character

than those that follow and the pupil should be well
;

drilled in them before passing onward. The grammar-

lessons of three or four months may be very well spent
in teaching boys how to select the Subjects and Objects
of the different Verbs in a Sentence, and a month or
two more may well be to Relative Sentences.
given
Indeed, if the majority 01 a class of boys, between 11
and 12 years old, can, after six months' training in
"
grammar, parse "jay in :

" The was

jay that robbed the other birds
"
of their feathers
afterwards punished for robbing them

I should, myself, think the six months spent to very

good purpose.
Paragraphs 82 162 are decidedly more difficult, and
constitute work for a higher class. The chapter on the
Subjunctive Mood is put last, out of its place, owing to
the extreme difficulty of the subject.
The chapter on Irregularities, Paragraphs 191 230,
is of a different nature from the former
part of the book.
It is intended to prepare the
pupil for Part II., and is
an attempt to apply the principles of scholarship to the
explanation of the irregularities of English Grammar.
These principles are few, and capable of brief enunci-
ation, viz., (1) that every irregularity is a deviation from
a "regula" or rule; (2) that there must be some attract-
ing force to produce this deviation ; (3) that this
attracting force is generally one of three causes, of which
"
the confusion of two constructions "
is by far the most
common. Simple and brief though they are, these prin-
ciples require, as every teacher knows, careful and con-
stant inculcation before the
pupil is imbued with them.
But when the pupil has once mastered them, he has
the key to unlock any idiomatic irregularity, in any
 PKEFACE. vn

language always provided that he is well acquainted

with the particular language in its regular expressions.
Not much space is given to Analysis but perhaps as ;

much as the subject deserves. If this subject is to be

taught at all and there is much in it that constitutes a
useful mental exercise it ought; in the opinion of the

author, to be disencumbered of its present technicalities,

and to be taught more logically. For example, in most
treatises on Analysis, it is assumed that, in such a
sentence as :

" hand
Feeling the man's in my pocket I turned suddenly
round,"
"
the words " feeling the man's hand are an Adjective
"
Phrase, or Enlargement of the Subject." But nothing
surely ought to be more obvious than that (whatever
the grammatical construction may be) "feeling" here
means " when, or because I felt," and is nearly the same
as " on feeling
"
so that the words in question form
;

really an Adverbial, and not an Adjectival Phrase.

It is almost startling that this
Adjectival error should
have l>een gravely inculcated for a generation in the
M in the worst, treatises on English Grammar.
My the servile imitation of Latin Grammar the
ruin of all good English teaching has been at work
so many other cases, assimilating the English
;

to the Latin Active Participle, and ignoring the extent

t<> whi'-h the English
Participle ha.s been merged in the
Engli-h Verbal Noun.
1

'reasons, in the Chapter on Analysis, several

changes have been introduced with the view of dis-
ig tf-hni.'alities and the terms I'hrase, Clause
:

sentence, are rigidly used according 1< their defini-

a
-,try an.l also Par. 239.)
In tin- "Hints .'n
Sj. riling," Paragraph* 266 291,
an attempt has 1.,-t-n made to give explanations, or

''95.
"

under.
viil HOW TO PARSE.

suggestions of possible explanations, of a

few among
the thousand anomalies that strew this wilderness and
despair of teachers. The author has at least succeeded
(Par. 263) in impressing upon himself,
what he never
"
could remember before, the right spelling of succeed,"
"proceed," and "exceed." Whether others
will derive
the same benefit from the explanation is perhaps
doubtful ; but the mere fact that an explanation exists
is a just cause for thanksgiving. Mr. Laurie's useful
Manual of Spelling has been of great service in the com-
position of this chapter. "
Part II. I., is explained by its title, Diffi-
Chapter
culties and in Modern English." It is
Irregularities
intended for the higher (not for the highest) classes in
our first-grade schools. Here I must acknowledge very
large obligations to Matzner's two volumes on English
Syntax. Adopting his arrangement, I have selected
from these two volumes every difficulty that appeared
likely to be a difficulty to an English boy I believe I
may add, in many cases, to an English man as distinct
from a foreigner. A few examples from Campbell,
Scott, and Byron have been quoted from Matzm-r,
unverified ; but in such the reader is alwavs
cases,
warned bv a The
vast majority of tne
foot-note.

examples have been modified or re- written to illustrate

the difficulty under consideration, or they are the fruits
of my own reading.
In this part of the workit has been of course neces-

sary to illustrate modern English by older English of

different periods and here, while again acknowledging
:

my obligations to Matzner, I must also add the name

of Dr. Morris, whose elaborate Historical Outlines of
English Accidence a book that, the more you study it,
impresses you the more with the feeling that much is
left to study have been laid under large contribu-
tions for this part of
my work, and more especially for
the Appendix on the " Growth of the English language/1
Here I have also to acknowledge the invaluable assist-
ance of Mr. Skeat, who was kind enough to correct
the proof-sheets of the Appendix, and from whose
 PREFACE. be

edition of the Gospel of St. Mark

1
I derived great
"
help in obtaining an insight into the Period of Confu-
sion" in early English. I have had the less hesitation in
occasionally referring to statements and examples about
early English found in the Shakespearian Grammar,
because all of these were supervised and many of them
originated by Mr. Skeat, but for whose kindness and
learning I should scarcely have ventured on ground of
which it may be said, no less than of the field of
criticism, that

"Fools rush in where angels fear to tread."

The chapter on Poetical Constructions will, T hope,

b< found as useful as any in the book. It is an attempt
to draw out in grammatical detail the principles of
y as laid down by Professor Seeley and myself in
>sh Lessons for English People, and to lead the
pupil to see the reason and the beauty of "poetical
irregularities."
In the Appendix on the
^
"Growth of the English
uage," 1 have ventured so far to differ from Dr.
" Periods of the
Morris, in his account of the English
Ljmjjuage," as to assign a separate period to the sixteenth
century, and also to give names to the several periods.
I do not think boys will find it easy to remember the
periods without epithets of a rather more picturesque
nature than ordinal numbers. I have also added some
remarks on the Elizabethan period.
A
few t.-iliK-rt of the
Early Forms are added
in the
Appendix with the view of illustrating remarks scat-
through the book. But no attempt has been
i

made to i_'j\s. a ny complete

system of Accidence. To
try to do this completely, in the face of Dr. Morris's
would have been superfluous and to do it :

imperfectly, iii the way in which it has been done in

v Grammars, under the title of
"Etymology,"
1
T'. .
'
to St. Mark, in Au^lo-NaTon aii'l Nnrthum-
tli,- S.yii<lirs of the
ir.Hsl.yth >keat, M.A. Cambridge
Doighton, Dell, & Co. i
x HOW TO PARS 2.
would have been worse than superfluous, mystifying
English children by telling them what, when they
know what well enough already, and need only to be
toH why. But to tell the why of English Accidence
requires and it is useless disguising the fact a great
deal of knowledge in the teacher and not a little in
the pupil. If it is to be done at allj it should be done
thoroughly, with the aid of such a book as Dr. Morris's,
and by pupils old enough to appreciate it.
Consequently, though the pupil will find "strong"
and " weak" verbs denned in the Glossary, he will see
no lists of them in the book. Lists of irregular plurals
will also be missing ; the teacher will k>ok in vain for
focus, foci; datum, data; nebula, nebula. The only
apparent sacrifice to the mania for "learning something
by heart" is this, that the modern verb will be found
"conjugated" in the Appendix to Part II. But this
has been done, not to give the pupil something to learn
by heart, but to enable him to compare the old verb
with the new at a glance. Throughout the book, the
author has endeavoured to keep in view the main object
of a teacher teaching English grammar to English
children, viz., to teach, not so much what as why.
The division of the book into parts, the first of
which is from the second, might
differently arranged
cause some difficulty in referring, were it not that a
full Alphabetical Index is inserted at the end an
appendage that, in the Author's opinion, may fairly
claim to be accepted as a compensation, in a book of
tli is kind, for many faults of non-arrangement or
mis- arrangement.
In passing the book through the press I have derived
most valuable assistance from the two gentlemen whose
names I had occasion to mention in the preface to How
to Tell the Parts of Speech, viz., Mr. G. S. Brocking-

ton, one of the Assistant Masters of King Edward's

School, Birmingham, and Mr. T. W. Chambers, B.A.,
Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, one
of the Assistant Masters of the City of London School,
whose sound judgment and practical experience have
 PHEJfAVE. xi

frequently induced me to modify or even re-cast large

I must also mention two
portions of the First Part.
others among my colleagues, Mr. T. Todd, and Mr.
James Pirie, M.A., whose criticism and corrections have
been of very invat service.
Lastly, while expressing my obligations to the admir-
able " Shakespeare Lexicon," compiled by Dr. Schmidt,
and published by Messrs, Williams & Norgate, I may
be also permitted, coming nearer home, to say that I
liave gained much help and many from
apt examples
the inspection of the proof-sheets ot a Complete Con-
cordance to the Poetical Works of Pope, compiled by my
father, and now in course of publication.
 CONTENTS. 1

PART I.

ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS .

RULES AND DEFINITIONS

CHAPTER I.

SUBJECT AND OBJECT 1

CHAPTER II.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 17

CHAPTERS III. AND IV.

USES AND INFLECTIONS :

I. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Ac 28

II. V.rbs 45

r all detailed reference the reader la referred to the AJphabetioal

Index at the end of the book.
xiv HOW TO PA11SL.

CHAPTER V.

THE INDIRECT OBJECT, &C 88

CHAPTER VI.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 112

CHAPTER VII.

IRREGULARITIES 127

APPENDIX I.

THE ANOMALIES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . . . 148

APPENDIX II.

THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 153

SCHEME OF ANALYSIS . 172

APPENDIX III.

HINTS ON SPELLING 174

APPENDIX IV.

HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 185

SCHEME OF PARSING . .195

 XV

PART IL

DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH.

CHAPTER 1.

PROSE 199

CHAPTER II.

POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS 281

APPENDIX.
ON THE GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE . . 293

ALPHABETICAL INDEX , . 327

 ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY
OF

GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
FEW of the terms explained below are used by the author,
and many of them are misused or badly constructed,
" " e.g.
article-, "accusative." But, as they are used in many
grammatical treatises, it has been thought desirable to ex-
plain them, especially as an explanation is sometimes the best
of proving them to bo superfluous or erroneous, when
applied to English Grammar.
The References, when not otherwise stated, are to tho
Paragraphs in How to Parse.
The meaning given opposite to each word is the Etymological
meaning. For a fuller or more accurate definition the pupil is
referred to the Paragraph mentioned in each case.

Ablative \ Case [L. ab., ) by itself, apart from (drawn

"from;" lalus, "carried"]. away from) the circum-
The name for a Latin case stances in which it exists.
denoting, other
among Accent fL. ad, "to;" cantus,
things, ablation, or carry- "song ]. Perhaps origin-
ing away from. ally a sing-song, or modula-
Absolute (Construction) [L. tion of the voice, added to a
from ;">;<-," loosed"]. syllable. Now used of stress
A cnn^ ruction in w i c ^ a laid on a syllable.
Noun, Participle, &c., is Accidence [L. accident
used apart, i.e. looted from, "befall"]. That part of
ordinary Grammatical grammar which treats of
:
nets (Par. 135). the changes that befall
Abstract (Noun) [L. dbs, wor
"fr> iwn"]. Accusative (Case).
8 Tho
name of an attraction, :
the Direct
i.e. of something considered live Inflexion. Po-
"
Qiiiiitili.an i. 5, 41 :
frequontisRimp in vcrbo, quia plurlma huie
1
;
rook original meant (1)
(2; oo-vviri/.n Th.: Latins took it in I
fl).

b
xviii ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF
sibly the Romans regarded names of the first two let
the object as being in front ters in Greek.
of the agent, like an accused Anacolouthon [Gr. a-,
person confronted with the "not;" acolouthon, "follow-
prosecutor. ing"]. A break
the in
Active (Voice). The form Grammatical sequence, or
of a Verb that usually de- follmcing.
notes acting or doing. Analysis [Gr. ana, "back;"
Adjective [L. ad, "to;" lusis, "loosing"]. Unloos-
jact, "cast or put"]. A ing anything (e.g. a Sen-
word put to a Noun. tence) back into its con-
Aphreresis [Gr. ap, "from;" stituent parts. Hence an
hairesis, "taking J. Taking analytical period in a lan-
a letter or syllable from the guage. See Par. 656.
beginning of a word. Anomaly.. A Greek-formed
Adjunct [L. ad, "to ;" junct, word meaning " uneven-
"joined"]. A word gram- ness," "irregularity."
matically joined to another Antecedent [L. ante, "be-
word. fore
" " "
; going ].
cedent,
Adverb " to "
h[L.
ad, verb. (a) That part of a sentence
" word or ;

A which expresses a condition

"Verb"].
word generally joined to a (167). So called because
Verb (45). the condition must go before
Adversative [L. adversus, its consequence. See con-
"opposite"]. An epithet sequent (2). (b) Also used for
applied to Conjunctions that the Noun that goes fforc
" a Relative Pronoun.
(like but") express oppo-
sition. Anti-climax. The opposite
Affix [L. ad, "to;" fix, of a climax. A sentence in

"fixed"]. A
syllable or which the meaning sinks in
letter fixed to the end of a importance, instead of
word. at the close.
Agreement. The change Antithesis [ Gr.
made in the inflections of "against;" Metis, "pla-
words so that they may cing"]. The placivg of
suit or agree with one word against word, by way
another in a sentence. (78). of contrast. 1
Alexandrine. A rhyming Apodosis [Gr. apodosit, "a
verse of twelve Iambic syl- paying back "]. A Greek
lables, said to be so called name for the "Consequent."
from its being used in an The condition was regarded
old French Poem on Alex- by the Greeks as demanding
ander the Great. itsconsequence, as a sort of
Alphabet [Gr. alfJia, beta; debt, to be paid in return
"a," "b"]. The list of for the fulfilment of the con-
letters, so called from the dition.

Set- Ifi.'-w to Write Clearly, Par. 41.

 GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
Apostrophe [Gr. apo, tences are not bound to-

"from;" strophe, "turn- gether.

ing"]. A mark shewing Attribute. A quality attri-
a vowel is omitted, so called buted to a person or thing.
because it is turnf.il away Auxiliary (Verbs) [L. aux-
from the ne^t consonant. ilia-, "to help"]. Verbs
l

Appellative [L. appella, that are used as helpers or

"call to."] Another name companions to other Verbs
for the Vocative or calling (95).
use of a noun. Paragraph Bathos [Gr. batJws, "depth"].
32. A ludicrous
fall to a
Apposition [L. ad, "near;" depth, a descent from
i.e.

"placed"]. Thepla-
. the elevated to the mean in
of one noun or pro- writing or speech.
2

noun near another, for the Cardinal (Numbers) [L.

purpose of explanation cardin-, "hinge."]. That
(137). on which anything hinges
Archaism ardtaio.v, or turns: hence, "import-
" ancient [Gr. An ancient " A
"]. ant," principal."
word or expression. name given to those more
Article [L. arliculus, "a immrtant forms of Numeral
little joint or limb"]. A Adjectives from which the
name(a)correctlygivenbythe Ordinal forms are derived.
(J reeks to their "article" Case [L. Casus, "falling"].
use it served as a joint The Latin translation of the
uniting words to-
several Greek term for the uses of
gether (6) then loosely used
: a Noun. The Greeks re-
by the Latins (as was natural garded the subjective form
seeing they had no "article") as "erect" and the other
of any short word whether forms as more or less fal-
,
Conjunction, or Pro- I in >l
away from it. Hence
noun (c) foolishly
;
intro- the terms "oblique," "de-
duced into English, and cline" kc.
" "
once used to denote the Clause [L. claus-, "shut"],
and " a." A number of words shut up
" to " within limits. In this book
Aspirate [L. ad, ;

breathe"]. The the word is used of a sen-

stro: tence preceded by a Con-
Asyndeton [dr. a, "not;" junction, the sentence and
" bound to- >n togettier being
gether "]. The omission of a Clause (239).
1

motions, BO that sen- Climax [Gr. climax, "lad-

In Rhr-ioric, the apnttrophe is the turning awali frrm one's audience
Tlic old name for the (ir.Tiiiiiintir.il
ajwtrnj.hc was nj^^trnj-hus .- and this would !> useful to distinguish it
t'-nn
See Par. 40, Hovo to Writt Clrarly.

b 2
XX ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF
dcr"]. The arrangement Compound (Sentence) [L
' ' '
of a sentence like a ladder con, or com, together ;
so that the meaning rises ki
" A
sentence
pon- place "].
force to the last. 1 made up of a number of Co-
Cognate
" (Object)
" "[L.
Co-, ordinate sentences placed to-
together ;
nat- born "]. gether (247).
The name given to an Concord. The name given
object that denotes some- to syntactical agreement be-
thing akin to (bom together tween words, e.g. between
with) the action denoted by Verb and Subject.
the Verb (125). " to-
Conjugation [cow,
Colon [Gr. "limb"].
colon, gether;" jugatio "joining"].
The stop marking a limb off A number of Verbs joined
or member of a sentence. together in one class. 2
Comma [Gr. comma, a "sec- Conjunction " to-
[L. con,
"
tion "]. The stop marking gether junct-," joined" ].
;

oft' a section of a sentence A word that joins two

(294-308). sentences together.
Common (Noun). A name Consequent. The name
that is common to a class given to that part of a
and not peculiar or proper Sentence which expresses
to an individual. the consequence of the ful-
Comparative (Degree). The filment of a condition. Seo
form of an Adjective denot- A ntecedent, and Paragraph
ing that a quality exists in 167.
a greater degree in some <
Consonant [L. con, "to-
thing than in some other gether;" sonant-, "sound-
with which it is compared. ing"]. Letters (such
Complementary [L.comple-, that can only be sounded to-
"till
up"]. That which gether with a vowel.
completes or Jills up (97, Continuous (State). The
106). name given to an action
Complete (State). A name (whether Past, Present, or
given to an action (whether Future) that is, was, or will
Past, Present, or Future) be continuing or incomplete
that was, is, or will be (72).
complete (72). Copula [L. copula, "bond"].
Complex (Sentence) [L. con- The word " is," so called be-
" "
cause it binds or connects
together plic-, "fold"].
;

A sentence that is folded Subject and Predicate in

together, or involved. Hence Logic.
a sentence containing one Correlatives. Words that
or more Subordinate sen- are related together or
tences (250). mutually related, e.g.
1 See Par. 39, How
Write Clearly.
to
9 Hence to conjitgatc a Verb is to repeat the inflections belonging to
the class or conjugation. But the Romans used decline and not con-
jugate in this sense (Madvig).
 GRAMMATICAL TJMMS.
"' are the Subjects or Objects
"or;"
"either," nh," '

"and;" "when," "then." of Verbs.

Dative [L. datir, 1 "that Diaeresis [Gr. diairesis,
separation "]. The mark
'
which has arisen from '

giving"]. The Latin name for placed over one of two

the Indirect Objective case vowels to shew that each is
used after Verbs of y>i"j to be pronounced separately
e.g. in "aerial."
Declension. The bending or Diphthong [Gr. di," twice;"
wion of the Obli< j "sound"]. Two
plithongos,
Oblique below) cases from vowel sounds pronounced as
the Subjective form, which one.
was regarded as "erect." Direct (Object). The Noun
led to the! that denotes what is re-
men t of the cases of a Noun. \
garded as the direct object of
Definite (Article). A n;un> the action of a Verb. 2
given to the Adjective "the" Ellipsis [Gr. elleipsis,
from the fact that "the" "omission']. The omission
es its Noun. See of words (said to be "under-
"
stood i.e. implied) in a
Definition [L. !,, "from:" Sentence.
"marked out," Emphasis [Gr. empJtaino,
"bounded"! That which "I make clear"]. Stress
'.< out tin Ion mlnries of of the voice laid on par-
anything so as to distinguish ticular words or syllables in
ill other things, order to make the meaning
a mere " descrip- dear.
" on "
tion/' Epigram [Gr.
" epi, ;

Decree (of comparison) [L. gramma, writing "]. A

I
writing on a monument.
forms expressing the Hence a short poem. Hence
or degrees in which a a short pointed poem or
3
xpressed by saying.
\<ljective. Epithet [Gr. tpithi-t.*.
"
Dentals [L. dint-, "tooth"]. placed to ]. An Adjective
-onantsproTiouncod with placed to a Noun to describe
the teeth d, n, L ;
some <iuftlity of the person
Dependent (Sentence or thing denoted by the
used for Subordinate.
-
.n.

generally applied to Etymology [ Gr.

Subordinate sentences that "true meaning;"

"nination -imu in Latin, when added tr> Participl.'s, ilcntcs tJint

wMcA
'
hat arisen from, e.g. "captivus," that which has aris< .

HeePar 14.
l The point will generally he a'
" Uow WriU CUarl*.
Umcs borders on epigram." See to I'.
xxii ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF
" science The science of Throat letters,
"]. "throat"].
the true meaning of words, /, and hard g.
according to their deriva- Heterogeneous (Sentence)
tion. [Gr. k>t' m, "different.;
" 1

A SenteiiGu
Euphony [Gr. eu, "well;" yenos, kind' ].

phone, "sound"]. That combining a number of

which sounds well. Sentences of so //.''
Flat (Consonants). B, d, g. kind from each other that
Foot. The metrical sub- they ought not to be coia-
division of a verse. verse A bined.a
being supposed to run, its Iambus [Gr. iamhos\. In
limbs or members a. foot of two syl-
might Kn.^lisli,
well be called feet. lables, the first
unaccented,
Frequentative (Verb). A the second accented.
Verb that expn. Idiom [Gr. itlinma,
''
pec-u-
(jtiently repeated action, e.g. liarity ''].
A mode of ex-
" to a lan-
pat- 1 -*."
Gender [L. genus, Fr. genre, guage.
"breed," or "class"]. Imperative (Mood). [L. m-
Forms to denote c/cwsirication " command "I The
pern-,
according to sex. There are i-rniimanding Mood (70).
no inflexions for Genders in Impersonal (Verbs). Verbs
English (37). not used in the first or
Genitive (Case) [L. genitiv-, second Person (328).
11
generating"]. The name Incomplete (State). The
for the Latin case denoting focus of the Verb denoting
generation, origination, pos- an action in an Incoinpleie
session. Sometimes applied State (72).
to the English Possessive Indefinite (Article). A
Inflection. 1 name given to "an," "a,"
Gerund " I because the Adjective
[L. gero, carry
on"]. Part of a Latin Verb its Noun undefined, or in-
denoting the carrying on of definite. See Article; also
the action of the Verb. Definite.
There was once a gerundive Indefinite (State). The
form in English (551). forms of the VeHt> denoting
Grammar [Gr. gramma, a an action of which the State
" is not defined (72).
letter;" Fr."grammaire"].
The science of letters ; hence Indicative
the science of using words " (Mood), out [L.
indices, point "].
correctly. The Mood that points out
Gutturals [ L. guttur, or indicates an action, &c.,

* The Latin "genitivus" is a mistranslation of the Greek genikt,

TThi eh meant the generic case i.e. the case, that denoted the genus or
olass. For example, " life," "What class of life ? " " Man's life. "
43, How to Write Clturly.
* See Par.
 GRAMMATICAL TEEMS. xx in

as a past, present, or future Liquids. Letters of a flow-

existence (70). ing, liquid sound, as I, r.
Indirect ^Object). The Noun Metaphor [Gr. meta, "front
"
or Pronoun denoting the one to another ; piiora,
' * "
>n or thing regarded as carrying ]. The a < ,

not directly but only <V of a relation from one set

tltj
influenced by the of objects to another e.g.
ai of the Verb. But of the relation of ploughing
see Paragraph 118 for a more from "plough" and "land,"
"
satisfactory to "ship and "sea." l

Infinitive "(Mood) [L. t, Metre [Gr.

" not " " h'uiited The
jijiit-, ; "J. sure"].
at limited by any language out into vcr
ition of Person or Monosyllable [Gr. /,>,>,
ro). "only"]. A
word of only
Inflection. [L. injlecto, "I one syllable.
bend The betiding of a
"J. Mood [L. mod-, "manner".]
from the simple form,
i The form of a Verb express-
by means of varying the ter- ing the manner of action
mination. See Ubliqat-below. (70).
Interjection [I. Mutes [L. mut-, "dumb"].
" An Letters that are dumb with-
thrc/wn between"].
u iterance throicii in i
out the aid of a vowel k, :

words, to express emotion. r), t, d, 11, p, I,

m.
Part of Speech.
i Nasal [L. nas-, "nose"].
Intransitive (Ve^O- (,'onsonants sounded through
" not*' [L.
; transitiv-, the nose; it. ///.
icross"]. A Verb Nominative (Case)
" to name [L.
on is not supposed nomina-, "J. An
to pass across to any Object. old Latin term for the Sub-
But see Transitive below. ject, used because the Sub-
Labials [L. Idbiam, "lip"]. ject was regarded as a
1 otters f, v, p, b, m,
:
person or thing named.
'

he real sound in tr/tic/t) Noun [L. Homcn, Fr. nom,

and ?r.
" name "]. The name of
Ltnguage [L. tim/ua, Pr. anything.
1

tongue"]. The Object. The word, or group

-ssion of meaning by of words,denoting that
which regardrd as the
is
Lingual* [Latin object or mark aimed at by
tongue"]. Letters the action of a Verb or the
whose sounds are pr< motion of the Preposition. 2
by the tongue: \

sh, t in (13). But see Definition in

I>k-;uure. Paragraph 14.

Engltoh Lena** for English People, page 78.

> This D< .-h in accordance with Etymology, ia often
GrainiuatkuKv iiMpi'li'-aLk'.
xxiv ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF
Oblique (Case). A name Indef. Past and Complete
given to Cases but the
all Present.
1

Subjective. By the Greeks Period [Gr. peri, "round' ;

the Subjective form of a od-, "path"']. (1) The full,
Noun was regarded as erect, rounded path of a complex
and all the other forms, as sentence, (2) a mark at the
fallings or oblique deviations end of a sentence.
from the Subjective. Person [L. per, "through";
Ordinal (Adjective) [L. ton-, "sound " heno ;

on (t/i-, "order"]. An Ad- "'amask tltnwyk which

an " an
jective, that answers to the actor
question "in what order." artor's part in a ]>lay."J.
Orthography [Gr. ortho, The ji i-t
pl<i;i,d in conversa-
" "
"I
i-orivc-t ; yrapho, tion, whether (1) spt -aking ;

write"]. The correct writ- S'oken to ; (3) spoken of

ing of words, i.e. correct 7V).

pelting. N.B. Not "culli- Personification. Endow-

"
LT.ipliy," pretty writing." ing what is impersonal with
Parenthesis [Gr. para,
-Mii.-il Char,
" inser- Phrase "
xw, [Gr. phrasis, a say-
tion "]. A
word, phrase, or ing"]. A group of words
sentence, inserted aside, or not fxpiv-sin'j- B

by the way, in a sentence <|iu stion. or command (239).

complete without it. Pluperfect
" more " (Tense) [L."com-
Participle [L. part irip-, perfect-,
;

tieipatiiiLc"]. A form of
.
plete"]. A /'</' tint

a Verb j,n, putting of the

/,',
/>/(>' A Latin way
Tense.
nature of a Verb, and of of expressing the Complete
the nature of an Adjective.
Partitive [L. ,irt-, "part"]. Plural (Number) [L. pin-,
Denoting partition. "more"]. The form of a
Passive (Voice) [L. pass-, Noun that denotes more
" The form of than one (34
suffering "]. 36).
a Verb in which the Subject Poetry [Gr. poul
is supposed to suffer an ac-
" maker "J. Language that
tion i (60), is 'artistically made, as dis-
Palatals. Letters whose tinguished from that which
sounds are produced by the is ordinarily written of
palate : ch, j. spoken.
Perfect (Tense) [L. perfect-, Polysyllable [Gr. poly,
The Name " A word of
"complete"]. many "]. many
for the Latin Tense that has syllables.
to represent (owing to the Positive. The simple form
paucity of their Tenses) the of an Adjective so called ;

* This definition >s unsatisfactory, see Par. 60

English Lessons Jor English People, page 131.
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
uiso it exj'iv- name that is peculiar or
quality not comparatively, proper to the individual,
but j>ot it ii\lt/ (42). not common to a class. See
Possessive (Use) [I. i aon.
sess-, "possessed".] The Prose [L. prosa, for prorsa,
name given to the use or for p>-"-< ,>",' i.e. "turned
,

of a Noun denoting forward"]. Writing th.it

(

37). does not turn like verses

Potential (Mood) [L. potent- (see Verse below) but runs
" An old name
powerful"]. iht o)i. Hence, the
br ft snppooed Mood, which straight forward arrange-
is
really either the ment of prose.
of Purpose, or else simply Prosody
" " [Gr. prosodia, a
the Indie, of an AusiUani song ]. Hence, that
Verb. So called, because part of Grammar which
it involves the miming of treats of verse, whether
ity. intended to be sung or not.
Predicate [L. Punctuation [L. pandam,
" '
A "
proclaim, "state"]. point "]. Dividing a sen-
word or group of words tence by means of points
making a .i'out a representing the pauses.
268). Quantity. The ymifitity of
Prefix [L. prce, "before;" time necessary to pronounce
Mixed"!. letter, A a syllable.
syllable, or word jijc-d Redundant [Latin re(d),
v another word. "back;" umlaut- "flow-
Preposition [L. prce "be- ing"]. Flo-l,, ; i hack or
|'l''f''l "]. over, i.e. supertluous. N.B.
A Y\
/
> laced This word is oiten lazily
<r Pronoun used to appear to get rid
as its object. of a difficulty. But few
Preterite (Tense) [L. prce- words are, strictly speaking,
\.
A pe- ndant ; they'serve some
ssion for purpose, although the pur-
st Tense." pose may not be e;i
Prodosis " be- detect.
[Gr.
" ")>ro, "
fore ; dosis, giving ]. Reflexive (Verb) L. [reflect-,
"Lend back"]. A Verb in
<-o, in a sentence, the which the action of the
.t or Condition. Subject is us i'

EMU. back on the Subject, so that

Pronoun [L. pro, "for;" the Subject and Object d.e-
"
I-. /.",;c /-, noun "]. A note the same person or
word used for a A thing.
(Noun). [L. propri-, Relative (Pronoun) [L. re,
"
F. pr< -iliar
J.
A "back;" fat-, "carried"].

Compare our e'er, o'tr for tvtr, over.

xxvi ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF
A name given to who, statement, question, com-
u-/uc/i, &c. when they do mand (-239).
not carry one forward (as Sharp (consonants) :
k, p, t,

they do when used interro- so called from their .sharp

gatively) but carry one bach sound.
to the Antecedent.
'
Sibilant L. [sibila-, hissj.
Retained (Object). The lli.ffiinj letters :
s, z, s/t.
i mi no given to one of the Simile. A
sentenceexpi
Objects of a Transitive the similarity of relations
Verb when retained as the e.
g. between "plough"
Object of the same Verb in and "land," "ship" and
"
the Passive (123). "sea.
Rhyme [A.S. rim, "num- Solecism [Gr. .,/,'/.
ber" J, identity of sound " like the men of
speaking
" 4
(from the vowel to the end) Soloi J. Inaccuracy of
between two syllables at
the end of two line.-.-' Spirants [L. */<//-./-,
The Anglo-Saxon Poetry was "breathe"]. Letters in
not based on rhyme but the pronunciation of
on alliteration. sounds the brt-atk is not
Rhythm [Gr. rftyt/tmw, wholly stopped, as it is
"flowing motion"], the in the pronunciation of
iini'in'1n'LTular motion of "mutes."
verse an. of periodic prose.
1 Stanza [It. stanza, a
Root. That form from "stop"]. A division of a
which another word springs, poem containing
as a tree springs from its variation in the
root. poem, and generally fur-
Semicolon [L. semi, half; nishing a stopping place at
Gr. colon, "limb"]. ///// its termination.
of the colon, i.e. of the stop Strong (Verbs). Verbs that
that marks off a separate make their Past Tenses and
1 1 nib or member of a sen- Passive Participles not by
tence. adding -ed, -t, but by. vowel
" "
Sensuous [L. sent*-, changes.
" sense "an
Appealing to the
"]. Style [L. stilus, instru-
senses. Milton says that ment for writing "]. A
Poetry should be " simple, manner of expressing
sensuous, and passionate." thought in language.
Sentence [L.
"
Sententia, a Subject [L. svJbject-, "j
" A of That which is
meaning ]. group under''].
words of a meaning so far placed under one's thoughts,
complete as to express a as the material or topic for

i See How to Tett the Parts of Speech, p. 124.

a
Syllables altogether identical do not rhyme.
3 See English Lessons for English People, page 126.
The derivation usually given, but probably inaccurate.
 GRAMMATICAL TEEMS. xxvii

eoh. Hence, the Subject the middle, e.g. ne'er for

Verb is said to be that
about which the Verb makes Syntax [Gr. syn, "together;"
a statement. But see Par. taxis, "arranging"]. The
1, note. arrangement of words to-
Subjunctive (Mood) [L. gether in a sentence.
subjuiicl-, "subjoined']. Synthesis [Gr. *//., "to-
A Mood " "
expressing a pur- gether ; thesis, placing"].
pose, condition, &c., sub- Placing toget/ter parts so
some statement, as to form a whole. The
(question, or answer (163). opposite of analysis. Hence
Subordinate (sentence) [L. a synthetical period in lan-
"
"beneath;" orditi-, guage. See Par. 551.
rank "J. A sentence that Tense [L. tempus,
Fr. temps,
rank* beneaUi another sen-
"timo/'l
The forms of a
tence. See Par. -Jl
1

.'. Verb indicating the time of

Substantive Xoun) <
[L. sub- an action (71).
substance'']. A Transitive [ L. trans,
usi.-lf.-s name given to Nouns
" across " "
; it-, going "J.
denoting things said to have A Verb that has an Object,
existence. so called because the action
Suffix [L. ,--ib. "beneath," of the Verb is regarded as
-lixod'']. Same as passing or going across to
the Object (55).
Superlative ( degree) [L. Trochee [Gr. trochos, "a
"above;" lat-, running"]. InEngli9h,afoot
Tied
"J.
An Adjectival of two syllables consisting of
form denoting the expression an accented, followed by an
of a quality in a degree unaccented syllable. So
ied above other (i called from its brisk, or run-
ning nature.
Supplement [L. sub, "up;' Verb [L. verb-, "word"].
That whk-h The chief word in a sen-
i

supplies
what is tence.
in a Verb (148). Verse fL. vert, "turn"]. A
"
Syllable to- line ofpoetry at the end of
" [dr. " syn, A which one *r7wtoane\v line.
8TJ /"/'-, take"].
:p of letters taken, to-
Vocative [L. voca-, "call"].
gether so as to form one
The use or case of a Noun
sound. when the person or thing is
" filled to (32).
Syncope" [Or. ti/n, alto-
"
gether or " quite ;" Vowels [L. vocal is having
cope,
'}.
A considerable voice "]. The Jotters that
cur' have & voice or arc s<.un<lr<l

word, by omitting lei' (not as the "consonants

"a
-tp rutting in the middle so as to pull the extremes together."
xxviii RULES AND DEFINITIONS.
but) by themselves :
a, e, Passive participles by add-
i, o, u. ing d or t, and not by
Weak (Verbs). Verbs that changed Vowel.
form their Past Tenses and

RULES AND DEFINITIONS.

It is assumed that the ten following Definitions are known lo
the pupil :

1. A Noun is a name of any kind (page 19 ).

l

2. A ]',,;,, a word used for a Noun (page 21 l ).

is

3. An Adjective is a word that can be put before a Noun either

to distinguish it, or to point out its number or amount (page
32i).
4. A Verb is a word that can make a statement (page 39 1 ).
5. An .1 '/<' rl> is a word that answers to the question L
' '

" when ?
" " where? "
or "how far is this trm 6 I *).
6. A
Preposition is a word that can be pl:uv<! before a Noun
or a Pronoun, so that the Preposition and Noun or Pronoun
together are equivalent to an Adjective or Adverb (page 7*> ).
l

7.
-
a collection of words expressing a statement,
i -<

question, or command (page 45 ).

l

2
8. Any other collection of words, having a meaning, is called
a Phrase (pa^e 4f>
l
), or '

9. A Conjunction is a word that joins two sentences together

1
(pageSS ).

10. A
Relative Pronoun is a Conjunctive Pronoun used so as
to refer to a preceding Noun or Pronoun called the Antecedent
(page 125 i).

1. The Subject of a Verb making a statement is the word or

words answering to the question ' who ? or " what ? " before ' '

the Verb (Par. ]).

2. The Object of a Verb or Preposition is the word or words

figures denote the pages of How to Tell the Parts of Speech on

1 The

which the first ten Definitions will severally be found.

2 A Sentence
preceded by a "Conjunction ceases to state, command,
or question; it therefore becomes a Phrase, e.g. " When I saw '

Such a Phrase may conveniently be called a Clause. See Par. 239,

 RULES AND DEFINITIONS. JtXIX

answering to the question "whom?" or ''what?

'

after the
Verb or Preposition (14 ').
3. When the Relative followed by a Conjunction intro-
is

ducing a new Sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing

the Relative (24).
4. 'i
''
nt must sometimes be supplied from the sen-
tence (25).
5. The Relative is sometimes omitted (26).
6. Some Pronouns are used Interrogatively, Conjunctively, and
Relatiwly (28).
7. TheUses or Cases of a Noun are four, viz. Sultject, Object*
Possessive, and Vocative (32).
8. The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Sin-
gular (34).
9. The Possessive Use or Case,
in the Singular and Plural, is
formed by adding to the Singular or Plural form (37).
's

10. An Adjective has three Degrees of Comparison, riz.

Positive, Comparative, and StMMriofeM (42).
11. To form the Comparative and Superlative, add -er, -est
to Positives of one Syllable.
" More " and " most " are used
in other cases (43).
12. A
Verb that can have an Object is called Transitive; a
Verb that cannot, is called Intransitive. 3
13. The Passive Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form
assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject
(60).
14. The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that
can be used with an Object (61).
15. A can be distinguished by the fact that it can
Participle
be, in part, replaced bj a Conjunctive word (66).
16. Each Voice has four Moods: Infinitive, Indicative, Im-
perative, and Subjunctive (70).
17. The Ii>iini'tive Mood speaks of an action without defining
the doer (70).
18. The Indicative Mood definitely points out an action (70).
19. The Imperative Mood commands an action (70).
nctive Mood expresses condition, purpose,
. kc. (70).
21. Verbs have three Tenses: Past, Present, and Future
(71).
22. Each Tense has four " States" of Action: the Indefinite,

These and the following References are to the Paragraphs in How to

Pane.
* If the Indirect
Object is called a separate use, there wiU be flvo
Uea of a Noun.
3 The usual Definitions are given in Par. 65 ; but they are vci> in-
jcrjc RULES AND DEFINITIONS.
the Complete, the Incomplete, and the Complete Post-Continuout
(73, 74).
23. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number
(78).
24. "May," "can," "must," "will," "shall," "let," &c.
are called Auxiliary Verbs (95).
25.
" To " is omitted in the Infinitive after the
Auxiliary
Verbs, and after "see," "hear," "feel" (96).
26. An Infinitive may be used (1) as a Noun ; (2) as an
Adverb (3) as an Adjective.
;

27. The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or

phrase
" " "
answering to the question For, or, to, whom ? For, or, to,
"
what ? when used after the Verb and the Direct Object (118).
28. When an Active Verb taking two Objects is changed
into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the
Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object (1'J'A
29. Some Verbs, generally Intransitive, can take an Object
of a nature akin or cognate to the Verb, called the Cognate
125).
30. The Object is sometimes used Adverbially to denote
extension, price, point of time (127 131).
31. The Subject, generally with a Participle, is sometimes
usedyl^vr^'f*//// (135).
32. A Noun or Pronoun, not Subject or Object of a Verb,
but so connected with another Noun or Pronoun that we can
understand between them the words "I mean," "that is to
say," &c., is said to be in Apposition to the latter (137).
33. Nouns and Pronouns are use/1 Subjertively when in A ppo-
sition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to <>
(138).
34. The (1) Intransitive Verbs "is," "looks," "seems,"
" and the Transitive Verbs "
make," "create,"
" appears, "&c.,
(2)
" " esteem,"
appoint," deem,' being used to express identity,
and, as it were, to place one Noun or Pronoun in apposition
with another, may be called Verbs of Identitu, or A ^positional
Verbs (147).
35. Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take
a Subjective Supplement; when Transitive, take an Objective
Supplement (150).
3o. "It" and "there" are sometimes irregularly used to
proparo the way for the Subject or Object (151).
37. In a Conditional Sentence, (1) the Clause expressing the
condition is called the Antecedent ; (2) the Clause expressing the
consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Con-

sequent (167).
38. Auxiliary Verbs (when not following "if" or any other
Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, trJtfn-
foer they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs (181).
 RULES AND DEFINITIONS.
89. Whenever language is irregular, there is some came foi
the irregularity (192).
4". The three principal causes of irregularity are I. Desire oj
; II. Confusion of tiro constructions ; III. Desire tc
:

avoid harshness or sound or of construction (198).

41. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that has only one Sub-
ject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb
(245).
4'J. When several Simple Sentences are connected by "and/
" " "
but," so," then," &c., so that each sentence is, as it were,
independant, and of the same rank as the rest, cash is called
a co-ordinate Sentence 1 ('246).
43. A Compound Sentence is a Sentence made up of Co-
ordinate Sentences (247).
44. When a number of Sentences are connected by Conjunc-
tions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not intro-
duced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence (248).
45. Sentences connected with a Principal Sentence by Con-
1
junctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate

46. A Complex Sentence is the whole Sentence formed by

the combination of the Principal and Subordinate Sentences
(250).
47. When a word passes from one form to another, a letter
is often changed or doubled in order to preserve ttie original
toitnd (26ti).
48. Final - is dropped before an affix beginning with a

vowel, but retained before an affix beginning with a consonant

(270).
49. A monosyllable er v ng in -II, when followed by an affix
uing with a consonant, or when itself used as an affix,
(fenendly drops one -I (275).
50. If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by
a vowel, then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel, the
final consonant in the word is doubled, provided that the word
liable, or accented on the last syllable (277).
51. When a word is separated from its grammatical adjunct
by any intervening Phrase, the Phrase should bo preceded and
followed by a comma 2 (224).

t Tlio mark of a Subordinate Sentence is Hint whm pnvodod by Its

Conjunction, it cannot gr nrrally stnrul aa a Sentence by itself. A Co-
ni thus stand by itself.
i.iii'il is referred to the Alphabetical
u.ok.
 HOW TO PAESB.

CHAPTER I.

SUBJECT AND OBJECT.

The Subject in a Stating Sentence.

ALL Verbs that make a statement must be ac-

companied by some Noun, or equivalent of a

Noun, about which the statement is made:
" Thomas failed."
(1)

(2) "#e failed."

" The to take the city failed."
(3) attempt
" That he is certain."
(4) failed

In each of the three examples above, if you ask

the question "Who or what failed ?" the answer,
1

being the subject of our statement, is called the

Subject of the Verb.

This leads us to a Definition :

Tl> a Verb in a stating sentence is the

>if

word or collection of words answering to the question

" "
a*kt<1 ',,/
(
Who ? or " WlMt ? before the
Verb.*

a not enough to nay Hint I tri wiii.-li th.-

"
F,.r, in :.<! mir sliip." tlir
ft* much about "ship" asab., :
"; but
ect"
 2 SUBJECT. [Par. 24
Caution I. If the Verb is accompanied by an
Adverb,

(1) "He seldom sleeps."

(2) "She does not sleep."

the Adverb should be repeated in the question :

(1) "Who seldom sleeps?" Answer: "He,"

Subject.
(2) "Who does not sleep?" Answer: "She,"
Subject.

3 Caution II. If the Verb is accompanied by words

necessary to give the meaning, as
" John is a mere boy."
(1)
(2) "Thomas was made happy."

these words may be repeated in the question :

(1) "Who is a mere boy?" Answer: "John,"

Subject.
" Who was made "
Answer *' "
( 2) happy 1 : Thomas,
Subject

4 The Subject in a Questioning Sentence.

In a Questioning Sentence, e.g.

" Did John come ?"

(1)
" Did who come " " Did John
ask, 1 Answer :

" "
come 1 Therefore " John is the Subject.
 Par. 5 7J SUBJECT. 3

5 Caution. If the Sentence only answers our ques-

tion by repeating " " What?" " Who P
Which P
&c. as
" What made "
(1) you so foolish ?
"
(2) WTw saw him die ? "'
then,
"
Who 1" " What P " Which P are them-
selves the Subjects.

The Subject in a Commanding: Sentence. 1

The Subject in a Commanding Sentence is almost

" " " thou or " ye."
"
always you ; or, in Poetry,
It is generally not expressed :

"
(1) Stay (you.) where you are : the rest may go."
" Follow
(2') (thou) me."

7 Caution. Where a Verb follows a Conjunction,

as
(1)" "... that the attempt may prosper."
(2) ". . .
if Thomas helps me."

it is useful sometimes to repeat the Conjunction

before " 1
"
Whoor What 1 n :

" That what "

Answer " The
(1) may prosper ? :

attempt," Subject
(2) "If wlio helps me?" Answ.-r :
"Thomas,"

In th<-' 'o (ho

Pronoun denoting the person to whom the <
addressed.

B 2
4 SUBJECT. [Par. 7

The Conjunctions " "

and," but," "for," "then,"
" "
so," therefore," &c. need not be repeated.

EXERCISE I.
(SPECIMEN).
Find out the Subjects of the italicized Verbs
x
in the following Exercise :

3
Once upon a time there* lived a mighty king whose* name
was Xerxes, and he reigned over Persia. Does every
boy know where Persia is ? If you do not know, look
it out in tho Map. Though he was king of the Persians,
and reigned over almost all the nations of the East, yet
he was not satisfied with this nothing but the whole
;

world could satisfy him. So, learning that a little

nation lived not far from him, on the other side of
the ^Egean sea, and had not yet submitted to him, the
king determined to conquer it. This nation, which
consisted of several independent cities Athens, Sparta,
Thebes, and many others was called altogether by the
name of " Greeks." All the Greeks together, when they
mustered all their fighting men, did not amount to a
hundred thousand, while Xerxes was obeyed by more*
than a million of soldiers. Besides, the Greeks were
often divided against themselves, one city fighting against
another, so that they seemed to have no chance against
the Great King for this was the name by which the King
of Persia was known.
Xerxes did not believe for a moment that the Greeks, few
and divided as* they were, would resist him. So before
he collected an army, he determined to try peaceable
means. Accordingly he sent heralds to all the principal
* In this Exercise, and in those that
follow, the Pupil may bo asked
to point out Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, &c. But in that case, words
marked thus * should be omitted.
The term "Subject" includes not merely the Noun that answers
to the question "Who?" or "What?" before the Verb, but also all
Adjectives or Adjective Phrases put to the Noun; e.g. "a mighty
king" is the Subject of "lived." "King" maybe called the "Noun
part of the Subject," or the "Noun Subject."
Par 7] SUBJECT. 5

cities in Greece,and bade them demand from each city

and water." What made him ask for that ? Why,
rth

you must know this was the Persian way of demanding

obedience and subjection for, among them, giving earth
;

was the sign of surrendering their land to the Great

King, and giving water meant that they surrendered
their sea and navy to him. The heralds therefore, with
this message from Xerxes, went forth on their several
journeys.

"Who lived?" "A mighty king," Subject.

" Does " Does who know ?"
every boy know ?" "Every
boy," Subject.
" If who do not know ? " "
You," Subject.
" Look it out." A command "
Subject you," implied.
:

"Though who reigned?" "He," Subject. (Note that

" "
and to the Verb
jutd is joined by the Conjunction
>, and both these Verbs follow the Conjunction
"though." We
therefore repeat "though," in asking
the question to find the Subject. Note, also, that the
answer is he," not " Xerxes.
" "
The answer must always
be a word in the sentence. )
"Who or what could satisfy him?" "Nothing but the
whole world," Subject
" Who or what had (not yet) submitted?" "A little nation,"
Subject. These words are also the Subject of lived,
h is joined to had submitted by "and."
" Win) or
what was called ? " " This nation," Subject.
"Who or what did (not) amount?" "All the Greeks,"
Subject
was obeyed ?
" "
Xerxes," Subject.
were oftn divided ?
" " The
.

Greeks," Subject.
"
"They," Subject.
" What made him ask ?" Here the answer is the same as
"
juf-stion, viz. "What ;" ;m<l "What is thr Subject

was (the sign of surrendering) " "

it ? Giving earth."
;cct
 6 POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. [Par. 8 1O

8 Position of the Subject.

The Subject of a Verb expressing a statement

generally (a) comes before the Verb ; but it (6) some-
times comes after the Verb, e.g. when " there or an
"

emphatic Adverb, or some other emphatic word,

comes at the beginning of the sentence - :

(A) (1) "He reigned in Persia."

" There is no doubt about it."
(b) (1)

(2) "Next came my brother."

" '
(3) Stop,' cried the sol'

Q In Poetry, the Subject often comes after the

Verb (Seo Pars. 5134) :

(1) "Loud blew the Host:'

10 In Questions, the Subject is generally (1) in the

middle of the Verb, but sometimes (2) after the
Verb
" What did the man "
(1) say ?
" What said the man f"
(2)

unless the Subject happens to be "Who" or

" What "
" Who saw him die
"
(1) '(

EXERCISE II.

Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs

in the following Exercise :

When the heralds had arrived at the cities of Greece, and

delivered their message, they were received differently in
Pw. 11] FORMS OF THE SUBJECT. 7

different places. Some cities gave earth and water, be-

CUU.M- they w<-re afraid of the Great King; others, because
they \\vre jealous of their neighbours, and hoped the Great
Kin*; would help them and destroy their enemies. But
tlio iiK-n of Athens and of Sparta would give neither

earth nur water. Indeed the Athenians were so angry at

the message, that they threw one of the heralds into a
pit, and bade him take his earth thence another they;

w into a well, telling him that he could Jlnd water

there.
3,
when lie hoard how
his heralds had been treated, and
how the men and Sparta had refused earth and
of Athens
water, dtttrmined at once to levy an army and to conquer
Greece. Never before was so vast a host collected. They
drank whole rivers dry.* The Hellespont, across which
they had to pass into Greece, was bridged with boats a :

promontory (its name was Mount Athos) was cut through

to give a passage to their fleet. And now this monstrous
army, amounting to a million at least, had penetrated
Greece, and was marching southward. Still no one
ifurcd to oppose them, and in a few days the hosts of
Xerxes, with undimiuished numbers, had reached a pass
called Thermopylae.

Different forms of the Subject.

The Subject may be

1. A Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective put for Noun :-
" He " Jf'/to runs?" " Tlutt
runs,"
is a mistakr."

2. A grroup of Nouns connected by "and" :

" Two ,i live."

" }',,u and I are
cousins."
 FOEMS OF THE SUBJECT. [Par. 11

3 A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause :

(1)"To write an exercise without a fault requires

much care."
" That he ivas guilty was not proved." 1
(2)

EXERCISE III.

Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs

in the following Exercise :

" What "

a pass ?
/.s-
perhaps you ask. A narrow path with
.strepmountains on both sides is called a pass. In this
case there* were mountains on one side, and, on the other
side, inm a marshy place stretching down to tic
that thru-' ?'"- only room for a cart or two to j>

sin-li a plaee, to resist a host was an easy matter for a few*

brave mm. Hut, just tlim, the Greeks were terrified.
To remain at Tlieniiopyhe wmal to them certain death ;
so they determined to retreat. Then Leonidas, who was
king of the Spartans, when he /0und that he could not
persuade the otliri Cr eks to remain, <l<t< rmiiicd to remain
by himself with a few* brave Spartans, to i

and to gain time for his countrymen. With him remained

about three hundred men, and the* rest* depart> </.
When Xerxes, after arriving at Thermopylae, saic the hand-
Spartans prepared to resist him, he laughed at them,
ful of
and bade his soldiers bring them to him in chains. But
the Persian soldiers, on advancing to the charge, found
that their master was mistaken in his laughter. Charge
after charge was madefy the Persians, but to no purpose.
The Persians </vrc slain in hundreds, but tin- '

neither taken nor dt Iccn back. That the Persians were

1 The
Noun-Clause in (2) may be called a Ncwn-Sentcnre, for conveni-
ence but it must always be borne
; in mind that a Sent* :

by a Conjunction, so Hint it in. mds

(rusrs. stiidly s] < (
'lause. gee
the Definitions, p. xxviii. The word J'hrnse includes Clause.
 Par. 12, 13] OBJECT. 9

no match for the Greeks was made evident even to the

proud King Xerxes and, when the sun set, he retired to
;

his tent in great sorrow.

12 The Object.

Supply what wanting to complete the sense

is

after the following Verbs and Prepositions :

1. The grey-hound killed . 2. I am travelling

towards . 3. The woodman felled . 4. The
soldier shot . 5. We wish for . 6. We
desire . 7. I look for . 8. John isseeking
. 9. I come to 10. .
They reach .

11. The cart-wheel ran over . 12. I am think-

ing about . 13. I am living in .

The best way to supply what is wanting is to

repeat the Verb or Preposition, and ask wJwm ?

or what ? (not before the Verb, as when you were

finding the Subject, but) after the Verb.

For example, "Killed what ?"
1

Answer: "A
hare." " Towards what ] " Answer " Paris." :

Now " hare " is called the Object of the Verb

" "
kilK'd," and "Paris the Object of the Preposition
"towards."

" "
nv nns
"
13 Olijfr-t put in the way." Just as a target is put
.rksnian, ami is railed the
wliii-h In: shoots, so the word or group of words answer-
ing to the ">m ? or what* aft IT a Vn-li or Pro-
:

''joctof the action of the Y.>rl>,

Implied by tiiePrepoeitioiL For exam pic,

11 of "killing" :

"Parw" is the object of the motion implied in " tov

 10 OBJECT. [Par. 14, 15

Hence the name "Object" given to the words answer-

is

ing the tjiu'>tion whom? or what? after

the Verb or
Preposition, even in some cases where the name may
seem misapplied.
For example, in "He is travelling from Paris," you can
hardly say that Paris is the object of motion. Never-
" Paris "
theless, in conformity with the general rule, is

called the
" of the "from."
Object" Preposition

14 The word or collection of words answering to the

question whom ? or what ? after a Verb or Prepo-

'
sition is called the Object.

Different forms of the Object.

The Object, like the Subject, must be a Noun, or

the equivalent of a Noun :

1. A Noun or Pronoun:
"I like playiny, J<Jin, nothing."

2. A group of Nouns connected by "and":

" He is between and me" : " This
sitting you railway
"
connects Paris and Brussels.

3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause:
(1)"I like to play, to hear mu:>ic, hearing music, a
rascal to be punished."
"
(2) "I know that he wag not guilty." I asked
whether ht had arrived."
"
* As in
finding the Subject, so here, if the Verb is modified by not,"
or .iny other Adverb, the Adverb may be repeated with the Verb U|
asking the question.
 Par. 1619] OBJECT. 11

16 Position of the Object.

The Object generally follows the Verb or Pre-

position, but not always. For example :

I. When the Object is an Interrogative or Kela-

tive Pronoun :

" "
(1) Whom did you see ?

(2) "The house that I live in."

17 II. When the Object is emphatic :

(1) "Silver and gold have I none."

" Not one word did he
(2) say."
" Some he he took alive."
(3) killed, others

18 III In Poetry (514):

" A monarch's sword when njad vain-glory draws."

19 Some Verbs have no Object.

Some Verbs denote (1) states, e.g., "be," "remain,"

"appear," and generally all forms of "be"

-in,"
followed by the Verbal forms in -ed, -en, &c. ; others
denote (2) actions not re<ir<l </ as having an external
/., "run," "walk," &c.

These two classes of Verbs do not take a Gram-

matical Object. The former class suggests the

question "who?" not "whom?" <v/..

'

II seems
"
"; ", Answer, "11
rascal" Here "rascal" answers to the question
12 OBJECT. [Par. 19

" who ?" (not

" whom ? and is not called the
")
" See Par. 147.
Object of seems."

EXERCISE IV. (SPECIMEN)

Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and

Prepositions in the following Exercise :

Next day the Persians attacked the Greeks again, but to 110
purpose. Not the slightest impression did they make
on the little Greek phalanx. Their gold and silver
armour was no match for the steel spears of the brave
Greeks. Besides, the Greeks were fighting for their
country, while the Persians did not want to fight, and
were driven to the battle with the lash. So the sun set
again, and Xerxes found that he was again defeated.
But, that night, while the King was angrily thinking
that he should have to retreat, a traitor came to his tent
and offered to show him a path over the mountains, by
which the Persians might come down behind the Greeks,
and thus (might) attack them in the rear as well as in
front. At once, a Persian battalion set out under the
guidance of the traitor, and by sunrise next morning, the
Persian*, u-ith two vast hosts, had shut in
1
the little
band of Greeks between the sea, the mountains, and their
enemies.
" At tacked whom " " The
? Greeks," Object.
"They did (not) make what?" 2 "The slightest impres-
sion," Object.
i " Shut in " one Verb. See How to Tell the Parts if
is Compound
Speech, ]>. 77.
= See Note on page 10.
"
The term " Object includes, not merely the Noun, but the whole of
the ansu-er to the question "whom?" or "what?" after the Verb. The
Noun-part of the Object, may, for convenience, be called the Noun- " the
Object, andmay " be stated
separately, if desired, e.g., slighted.
" the " Noun-O..
" "
impression is the Object," but impression is
of did make."
 Par. 20] OBJECT. 13

"For what?" "The steel swords of the brave Greeks,"

Object.
" For what ? " " Their
country," Object.
" Did "
"To fight," Object.
(not) want what ?
" With what ? " " The
lash," Object.
" Found what ? " " That he was again defeated," Object.
" Was what ?
" " That he should have
(angrily) thinking
to retreat," Object.
" To what ? " " His
tent," Object.
" Offered what ?" "To show him a path over the moun-
tains," Object.
The rest you can answer for yourself.

20 Many parts of the Verb that take no Subject

may take an Object.

For example, you cannot ask " Who or what
"
killing ? but you can ask " killing whom or
what]" Consequently "killing" can have no
"
Subject, but may have an Object." And so may
" to kill."

EXERCISE V.

Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and

T
Prepositions in the following Exercise :

Leonidas saw at once that he and his men had no chance of

escape. But instead of lamenting, he seemed delimited

at the thought of dying honourably. He told his men
to clean th-ir armour and weapons, and to prepare them-

selves as if for a feast. Then, when the sun was sinking,

" Take, your suppers," said he, "and remember that you
< Th SuWectB of the ItallHrM Verbs may alo bo found both in
thi and in the preceding
14 OBJECT. [par. 2O

will take your breakfast elsewhere." But in that little

band there was not one man that feared to die ; for a
soldier's death was counted an honourable, and not a
among the Greeks. When night came,
terrible thing,
out marched the Greeks against the army of Xerxes.
Wherever they went, they carried death and terror with
them they overturned the tent of Xerxes and slew his
;

guards. The proud king was forced to flee for his life ;
and, if the night could havt a ni^lit and a
day,
perhaps they might have destroyed the whole of that
vast host. But, when day /<
<j<m to dawn, the em my
discovered the small number uf the Greeks, and took
courage. The Greeks were weary icHh .slaving thi-ir
thousands, the Persians were fresh the Greeks were ;

three hundred men, the Persians were more than three

hundred thousand. So the Persians gathered round the
Greeks, attacking them with slings and darts and spears,
1). M-iui^e tlu-y <f ''I not dare to attack them in close fight.
When the Greeks charged, the Persians fled from them j
wh-n the Greeks retired, the Persians approached them.
First one and then another of the Greeks fell beneath the
shower of darts, others were wounded and could scarcely
stand but none would surrender.
;
Before sunset, every
Greek was slain, and the Persian army had gained
the victory. But, from that day to the present (day),
all men have honoured the names of Leouidas and his
brave Greeks,who have left for us and for all men an
example teaching us not to be afraid of dying honour-
ably.

EXERCISE VI.

Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized

Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and
Prepositions, in the following Exercise :
Par. 20] OBJECT. 15

Tommy had heard from Mr. Barlow many stories about the
taming wild animals
<>f ;
so he thought to himself he
should like to tame 1 a pig. He had heard that the
l
youngest animals are most easily tamed ; so he chose
out the youngest pig in the farm-yard, and approached
it with some bread in his hand.
" Come
here, little
pig," said he but the pig ran away.
;
"Then I must
fetch you," cried Tommy, and, so saying, he caught it
by the leg. The little pig squeaked, and the old sow,
coming up, ran between Tommy's legs, and knocked him
dmon in the mud. "Who did all this mischief?" said
Mr. Barlow, coming out that moment from the house.
"That foolish pig," said poor Tommy. "Oh! no,"
replied Mr. Barlow, "that foolish boy."

In doing the above Exercise, make three columns,

thus :
16 OBJECT. [Par. 2O

EXERCISE VII.

Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized

Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and
Prepositions, in the following Exercise :

A lion, while* quietly sleeping, was surrounded by some

They began dancing round him, and at last one
l
mice.
young mouse, bolder than* the rest,* jumped up on his
body and scampered across his fare. The lion awoke,
with a roar, and the mice ran away: but the young
mouse was stopped by the lion's* paw. " Spare me " !

ri.,1 .she, "and I will never disturb

i
you again." The
lion good-humouredly took his paw off her, and lay down
again. Some days afterwards, the lion was caught in a
net spread by some huntsmen. In vain 1 he roared and
struggled: he found that his struggles onlyentangl*,/ him
more in the net, and he cried in despair, " I have no
chance of escaping." Just then, up came the little
mouse with a thousand brothers and sisters. To work
they fell, gnawing the net, and in ten minutes the lion
was released by the mice.

An Adverbial Pnraae. See Hmo to Tett, <c , page 7&

 CHAPTER II.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

21 How to Find whether the Relative is Subject or Object.

IN the sentence " Bring the book that pleases you

" "
best," what is the Subject of pleases ? Perhaps
"
you may ask the question in the usual way, What
" "
pleases 1 Answer, the book." But this is not
" Book " is the " "
right. Object of bring." Bring
what 1 " Answer, " the book."
Now the same word is never both Object and
"
Subject ;
so " book cannot be the Subject of
" "
and the real Subject of " pleases " is
pleases ;
the Relative Pronoun " that."
You will generally answer questions of this kind
rightly you remember that the Relative Pro-
if

noun 1 is in some sense a Conjunction, so that it

joins together two sentences, one of which states,
commands, &c., and may be called (Par. 248) the
ncipal Sentence ; while the other as it is intro-

duced by the Relative Pronoun may be called a

Relative Sentence. If these Sentences are kept quite
distinct the Principal Sentence being first repeated

> How to Tell, Ac., page 126.

 18 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN, [par. 2B

and parsed by itself, and afterwards the Relative

Sentence the pupil will have no difficulty.

22 In parsing the Relative Sentence, the Noun or
Pronoun for which the Relative Pronoun is used
1
that is, its Antecedent should be written in
brackets by the side of the Relative Prosoun.
Thus, in parsing the Sentences of the next Exer-
cise, write down the. Principal and Relative Sen-
tences as follows :

Principal Sentence ....(!)" The jay was very soon

punished for her rob-
ry-"
Relative " That
(2) (.jay) robbed the
peacocks of their fea-
thers."

If the Sentence contains two or three Relative

Sentences, they may be taken separately, e.g. in the

seven -h Sentence of the following Exercise :

"
Principal Sentence (a) (I) The girl that I told you
of was taught a lesson
that she never 1

"
Relative ,, (a) (2) J17m ith<- girl)
*

her chickens before they

were hatched."
,
1'
iuripal (5) (1) "The girl was taught a
lesson that she never

j
forgot."
"
tive (J) (2) I told you of that (girl.)"
(Principal ,, (c) (1) "The girlwas taught a
lesson."
" She
]
Relative (c) (2) never forgot UuU
[ (lesson)."
* How to Tell, &c., page 125.
par. aa] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 19

The form who, or whom, will of itself tell you at

once whether it is Subject or Object.

In parsing a Relative Pronoun, state

1. Antecedent.

2. Subject of what Verb, or,

3. Object of ivhat Verb or Preposition.

EXERCISE VIII.

Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following

sentences :

1. The jay that robbed the peacocks of their feathers was

very saon punished for her robbery. 2. The ass that
frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed at when
he began to bray. 3. The crow dropped the cheese,

which the fox immediately snapped up. 4. The lion that

spared the mouse was afterwards released by the mouse.
5. The travellers, all of whom had seen the chameleon,

coul.l not agree about its colour. 6. Shakespeare tells us

that the man that does not love music is fit for murders
and conspiracies. 7. The girl that I told you of, who
countr-d her chickens before they were hatched, was
taught a lesson that she never forgot. 8. Have you ever
heard of Horatius Codes, who defended the bridge
against a host of enemies, and whom the Romans
honoured by erecting a statue to his memory ?

Write these down as follows :

Word.
 20 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 23, 24
Find out the Subjects and Objects of all the
Verbs in the foregoing sentences,

23 The Position of the Relative.

Note that the Relative Pronoun, when used as

Object, precedes both the Subject and the Verb.
The reason is that the Pronoun, serving the purpose
of a Conjunction, has to precede the sentence that it
joins to the Principal Sentence.
24 When a Parenthetical Sentence intervenes be-
tween the Relative Pronoun and its Verb, that
sentence must be carefully separated from the
Relative Sentence.

A Parenthetical sentence is a sentence inserted in

the midst of another sentence, the latter being com-
plete without the former.

The following are examples of sentences contain-

ing Relative Pronouns followed by Parenthetical

sentences :

(1) "Yesterday I met Robert, who you will hardly

believe it has grown to be six feet liigh, with a
beard reaching to his watch-chain."

(2) "Yesterday I met Robert, whom (though I had

not seen him for ten years) I recognized at once."

In the following Exercise, the Conjunctional

sentences are inserted between parenthetical marks;
Par. a<] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 21

but the pupil must be prepared to parse the Relative

hereafter without the aid of these marks. The
following will be found a useful Rule :

When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction

(e.g. "though" above in (2)) introducing a new

sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the

Relative.

EXERCISE IX.

Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following

Exercise, stating the Antecedent, and the Verb or
Preposition of which each is Subject or Object :

Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose
about the ownership of the spectacles, which (so said the
nose) were undoubtedly intended for him and not for his
two neighbours the eyes ; who, on their part (although
they admitted that the nose had a share in the spectacles),
yet claimed the largest share for themselves. The two
ears, whom both parties accepted as judges, called on the
tongue, who was counsel for both, to plead first the cause
of the eyes, and then that of the nose. So the tongue
began by saying that spectacles that had no eyes to look
through thnn, were of no use the word "spectacle," which
;
"
the Latins used to denote a "place for seeing, proved, of
If, that tin- instrmm-nt was meant for seeing and not

for smelling. The judges, who (though they became

,ih- Latin was l>ring
rather in;r quoted) had
listened with great patience to the arguments that

ngue brought forwar.l, now disiml t<> lic-nr what

the noso had to say. So the tongue, taking that side of
6 pl.-a.l.-.l ivmarkaMy wrl,.
attention to the saddle that wan lu'twct n the two glasses,
 22 THE RELATIVE PEONOUN. [Par. 25

which, said he, was clearly intended for the nose. He

added, with great force, that, if the eyes were closed or
even altogether removed, the spectacles would still remain
faithfully in their place, but a man that suddenly lost
his nose would certainly lose his spectacles as well
l
"which," said he, "clearly proves that the nose is the
owner of the spectacles. If a dog were placed between
two claimants, should we not readily admit that the
claimant to whom the dog went would be the rightful
owner? My lords, the spectacles, which (because they
have no power of motion) sit patiently there between
my two clients, would clearly shew you, if they could
move, to which claimant they adhered. Cut out the
eye, the spectacles will sit unmoved : cast down the nose,
the trusty spectacles will immediately follow their fallen
master."
Here the judges, declaring that what 3 they had heard was
enough to enable them to arrive at a decision, stojjpcd the
counsel, and at once decided in favour of the nose.

EXERCISE X.

Write or repeat the Subjects and Objects of the

Verbs italicized in the last Exercise.

25 Omission of the Antecedent.

Tell me the Antecedent of which in the following
sentence :

"The ass in the lion's skin frightened all the beasts

in the forest till he began to bray :* which at

once changed their fear into laughter."

* See " Omission of the Antecedent," Par. 25.

a What should be
parsed here thus: "what is put for that which ;
that is the Subject of was; which is the Object of had heard." The
"
sentence, fully expressed, would run thus declaring that that (Subj.)
:

which, (Obj.) they had heard was enough," Ac.

 Par. 26] THE RELATIVE PKOXOVN. 23

There is no Noun or Pronoun here that can be

called the Antecedent of which. Which stands lor
" the " the
beginning to bray," or
ass's braying of
the ass," or some other words to be supplied from
the previous sentence. In parsing which you must
" which stands for an Antecedent to be supplied,
say,
' "
viz. the braying of the ass.'

26 The Omission of the Relative.

When the Relative would be the Object, it is

often omitted :

" The book me not mine."

(1) (that) you sent is

(2) "Where is the parcel (that) I left here yester-

day ?"

(3) "The message (that) I was sent with was to this

effect."

In Poetry it (Par. 520) is sometimes omitted,

even where, if inserted, it would be the /Subject :

0) "Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the

view."

EXERCISE X I .

Write down the Subjects and Objects of tin-

Verbs, and parse the J; is in tin

last i :

hnvinj; !

message he had \\ his steps home-

24 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 26
wards. There was no moon, which (together with his
1

ignorance of the neighbourhood) made him quicken his

pace across the common. For some time he managed
to keep the path, which was nothing but two cart ruts
leading from one farm to another. Presently, however, a
track that turned off to a gravel-pit, led him astray.
When he had once gone wrong, he found that he could
not find the path he had lost. Through brambles, over
furze-bushes, he scrambled onward, till, at last, he fell
into a deep pit which, having been left by the peat-
cutters, had been filled with water oozing from the bog
around, and would have drowned him, if he had not been
able to swim. Suddenly, to his great joy, he saw a light,
which2 he wondered that he had not noticed before. He
ran towards it, supposing it came from some cottage
belonging to a shepherd he had seen in the morning keep-
ing his sheep near the middle of the common. Just
when he was close on the light, he fell into another deep
pool, which was so broad that he had great difficulty in
swimming across it. Scrambling out, he looked round
for the light he was seeking; but to his surprise, it
seemed to be behind him. Just at this moment another
light appeared, straight when he
before him, which,
approached it, retired from him.
Thinking it was the
torch of some traveller that, like himself, had lost his
way, he shouted to the man to stop, and ran towards him ;

but, instead of stopping, the light ran away faster than

before, seeming to choose the most miry and boggy spots
it could find, so that poor Harry soon fell a third time

iuto the water.

* See Paragraph 25.

* Which is not the Object of wondtrtu.
 Par. fi7, 28] INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 25

Uses of "Who," "What," &c.

27
The Pronouns "who," "what," "which," were
once always used Interrogatively :

A. " Who has a good conscience ?"

(1)

In time, questions of this kind were used with

their answers, thus :

" WKoh&s a He
(2) good conscience ? is prepared to
"
die.

Afterwards, for shortness, the two sentences were

olended in one. Then, sometimes the whole of the
Interrogative sentence was treated as a Noun
"
(3) (Who, or whoever, has a good conscience) is pre-
pared to die."

But, more commonly, the interrogative force of

"
the first sentence was quite forgotten, and, " who
"
being treated like that," the two sentences be-
came
B. " " He who has a good conscience is
(4) prepared
to die."

28 Again, when Sentence A was made the Object of

a Verb in a preceding sentence, e.g. " I asked" the
second sentence lost its Interrogative force and :

"
who," instead of being Interrogatively used, was
used Conjunctively, so as to join the sentence " I
"
asked with the following words :

C. (5) "I asked who had a good conscience."

 26 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 29

Carefully distinguish the three uses :

" What "

(A) say you ? (Interrogative.)
" WTiat is true."
(B) you say (Relative.)

(C) "I asked what you said." (Conjunctive.)

If you are asked where are the Antecedents of

the Relatives "what" and "whoever," you can
often supply the Antecedents, thus :

(1) "What you say, (that) is true."

" Whoever said
(2) that, (he) was mistaken."

29 Sometimes, as in the fourth line of the next

" what "
exercise, may be parsed either as (1) Coii-
junctively, or as (2) Relatively used :

" rrhat should he do ?

(1) Harry did not know."
(2) "Hajry did not know what, i.e., that which he
should do."

EXERCISE XII.

Parse the italicized words, stating the Subjects

and Objects of Verbs and Prepositions :

Harry's* efforts had almost exhausted him.

Wet, weary,
and almost in despair, he stood shivering on the pool's*
brink, looking at the waters from whi<-h he- had escaped,
not knowing what he should do. Another light began to
dance before him, but the chase he had had after the
light already, made him decide not to pursue it. "I
have had enough of following you, Mr. Traveller,"* said
he " yet what, shall I do ? If I stand here much longer,
;

the little strength I have will be exhausted yet I do not ;

know which way to turn, and what I have seen of this com-
Par. 29] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 27

mon convinces me that a man that does not know the road
well,may go on walking rdnnd and round for hours and
"
only come back to the place he started from. Just then
the clouds, which, while he had been wandering about,
had hitherto covered the sky, now parted and shewed a
few stars. Among them was a constellation he knew very
well, called the Great Bear. Then, all at once, what
Mr. Barlow had told him occurred to his mind, that two
of the Great Bear's* stars always point to the Pole-star,
which is always in the North. Now he knew that the
farm he had lately left was six miles to the south of his
home, so tliat the path he ought to take, lay to the north.
Off he started at once, keeping his eyes on the Pole-star,
which, though it led him through more brambles and
furze and pools, yet at last brought him out of the com-
mon. When he came home, he told his father about the
moving lights, u-hich, his father informed him, were
called Will o' the Wisps, or Jack o' Lanterns. Those
* * *
lights came from the marshes, and it was the wind
that* made* them shake and dance about which poor
Harry mistook for the motion of a traveller.

Words marked * are not to be parsed for the

present.
 CHAPTER in.

USES AND INFLECTIONS OF

WORDS.
3Q Inflections.

THE different forms of the same words, as, (1)

"like," "likes," "liked;" (2) "man," "man's,"
"men;" (3) "quick," "quicker," "quickest," are
called Inflections.
The word " Inflection" means a or altera-
"bending," slight
tion.

31 Some words in a sentence are inflected to suit

or agree with other words with which they are put,
For example, we say " He likes me ;
"
but, if

"he" is altered into "they," "likes" must be

altered into "like" to agree with " they."
The rales for the " putting together " or arrange-
ment of words so as to agree with one another,
are called Rules of Syntax (syn- t together ; taxis,

putting).

32 Uses of the Noun.

I. A Noun may be used in the

(1) Singular Number.

Apple, man, mouse, ox.
 Par. 33] NOUNS 29

(2) Plural Number.

Apples, men, mice, oxen.
1 "
Singular is nearly the same word as single," Plural
means "more (than one)."

II. Again, a Noun in a sentence may be used

(1) Subject.
"John strikes."

(2) Object.
" I strike John."

(3) Possessively (i.e. to denote the Possessor).

" John's
book," "men's thoughts."

"
(4) Vocatively (i.e. calling by ").
"Come here, John."

33 These Uses, inasmuch as they represent the con-

dition or case in which the Noun stands relatively
to other words in the Sentence, are sometimes
called" Cases."

The word cast, in ita original Greek use, inS><nc, meant "falling."
By the Greeks the Subject was regarded as erect, while tin- m-tion, and
those affected by the action, were regarded .is subordinate, bent, or
falling. Hence tli 11 not have used such an expression as
<.

the Subjective COM at all to thriii it wnuM have been as absurd as to

:

/." Hut th Latins, translating WT-<TC into

he Greek sense, and wo have lost it also ; so that now case
'

more than " use in connection with other words."

 30 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 3436

34 Inflections of the Noun.

I. of a Noun is denoted by an
The Plural use
Inflection,which is generally formed according to
the following Rule :

The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to

the Singular ; as apple, apples.

35 To this rule there are some exceptions well known to all

English children. The reason for the exceptions generally

is, that the regular Plural
would be harsh and hard to pro-
nounce hence for "churchs" we say "churches," and for
:

"calfs," "calves."

36 Some of our irregular Plurals are remains of old Plural

forms, and are made by
(1) Adding -en :
e.g. "oxen."
(2) Changing the vowel sound of the monosyllable :

e.g. "mice," "men," "feet/' "teeth."

(3) Leaving the singular form untouched e. g. :

"sheep," "deer."

In some cases the modern Plural is derived from an old

disused Singular. For examrjle, the old Singular forms,
"file," "citie," are retained in the modern Plurals, "flies,"
"cities."
In other cases words (1) early introduced into the language
received (and retain) the old -e, while (2) words, with similar
terminations, later introduced, are spelt without -e :

(1) Echoes, heroes, potatoes.

(2) Grottos, tyros, dominos.

See Par. 2S3 ;

also Morris's Historical Outlines of English
Accidence, p. 95.
 Par 37, 38] NOUNS. 31

37 II. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular

and formed by adding 's to the Singular
Plural, is
or Plural form, e.g. "sun," "sun's;" "children,"
"children's."

The mark ('), called an Apostrophe (see Glossary), denotes

that something is omitted. In Early English there was a
rowel instead of the Apostrophe.
The Apostrophe serves the purpose of distinguishing the
" sun's " ftom the Plural "suns."
Possessive, e.g.

When the Plural Noun ends in -s, the Possessive

-s omitted, and nothing is added but the Apo-
is
" This is also the case in the
strophe boys' books."
:

Singular, where a Singular Noun of more than two

"
syllables ends in -s, e.g. Lycurgiis* laws."
The other uses of Nouns have no Inflections to
denote them. 1

38 Uaes and Inflections of Pronouns.

The uses of Pronouns are the same as those of

Nouns, except that (1) some of the Pronouns, e.g.
" "
I," he," cannot be used Vocatively ; (2) instead
of being used Possessively, they have Possessive
Adjectives formed from them.
These Possessive Adjectives are really old Possessive Tn-
'>ns or Cases of the Pronouns which have now ceased
1 as Cases. See Par. 569.
, ".1 to di'iinto ^"-ii.lcr, e.g. -ttor, C
.v.. Hut tii

M i
>f all nr cvn iif many N"tn
eqoently they are now terminations, and no longer to bo c&llc'l
injUctiont.
32 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 39, -4O

The Inflections of the Personal Pronouns are as

follows :

PERSON.
Par. 40] NOUNS. 33

II. USE or CASE :

Subject or Object, or Possessive or Vocative.

III. REASON FOB CASE :

(1) Subject of what Verb.

(2) Object of what Verb or Preposition.

(3) Defining what Noun.*

Notice that a Possessive Noun often has an Adjective

joined to it e.g. "this boy's bt>ok." Here "this" points
:

out "boy's" not "book."

EXERCISE.

Parse the Nouns and Prorouns in Exercise XII.

those marked * as well as others, thus :

Noun
or
Pronoun.
 34 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 4143
Uses and Inflections of the Adjective.

41 I. USE. The use of an Adjective is to point out,

"
enumerate," a certain Noun.
1
qualify, or

42 II. INFLECTIONS There are three degrees (degree

most Adjectives, "
means step) in e.g. long."

(1) "Longer" of two things, i.e. long when

compared with one other thing. This we call the

Comparative degree.
" "
(2) Longest of more than two. This is, as it

were, carried above the Comparative degree, and

we therefore call it the Superlative degree (super-
above, lat- carried).

In poetry the Superlative inflection is sometimes used,

without any notion of comparison, to mea,n " rery."
"A little ere the mightiest Julius died."

"
(3) Long," without any thought of comparison
at all, but simply and positively long. This is
called the Positive degree.

43 To form the Comparative and Superlative, add

(1) -er, -est, to Positives of one syllable. 3

(2) ; , two syllables ending

in -yt -le, -ow, -er.

l
(
See How to Tell, &c., page 32.
"Enumerate" here means to answer the question how many? or
how much? before a Noyn.
3 For changes In spelling, see Par. "268.
 Par. 44] ADJECTIVES. 35

These forms sound as though they had only two syllables,

e.g. "happier," "nobler." Hence the exceptional forma-
tion.

(3) More and most in other ca^es.

"More," "most," are not Inflections, but substitutes for

Inflections. A few disyllabic Adjectives are occasionally
found with -er, -cst, e.g. "sublimcr." But this license is
best reserved for Poetry.

Other formations are quite irregular, e.g. not

(4)
" " bet "
"good-er," but bet-ter," from an old form ;

so
" worse." " "
has no Inflections.
Every
Some few " these have a Plural Inflec-
Adjectives (e.g. ")
tion but these are so few that they need not be considered.
;

There was once a Definite form in -e, of which perhaps

" "
olden. retains a trace (MORRIS).

44 How to Parse an AdjectiTe.

In parsing an Adjective, state

I. Degree of Comparison.
II. Function of Adjective, i.e. whether it qualifies,

defines, enumerates, &c.

This may be found by answering the question, "What
"
does the Adjective tell me ?

III. Noun or Pronoun, qualified, defined, enume-

rated, &c.
When- the Noun is omitted, as in "I do not like these
'

books; are they the best ;it have?" you yu

may Ray that "best" qualifies the Noun "books," implied
.
1
USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par

EXERCISE.

Parse the Adjectives in Exercise I., thus :

Adjective.
Par. 45 J ADVERBS. 37

3. (a) An Adverb, or, (b) Adverbial

Phrase :
(a) "More, less, very, often."
(b) "I laboured altogether in-vain."
" I came
merely to-help-you."
"You live/ar from-me."
4. A Noun (
rarely) ;
( Homer sometimes nods."
"
This is a short way of saying Even (so wakeful
" " even "
a poet as) Homer ; so that, in reality,
modifies an implied Adjective.
Only requires care in such sentences as :

"Only a tyrant would act thus."

In early English "one" (an) was used in many places
where we should use "only, '
1

or "alone." (For the use

of "one" as an Adjective to signify "only," cf. the Latin
" " not
Ego unus supersum.") Thus, instead of (this) only
that," they wrote :

"
(1) Not that one (an) that," <bc.
ne God alone, or only God) can do this."
I
(3)
" He was
(i e.,
king 6ne," i.e.,
" He
alone, or, only he."

In the earliest times "only" (dnlich) appears to have been

nsed as an Adjective for "lonely," "solitary," and to have
had a Superlative form (tinlukest). In this sense we still
"
speak of "an only child. But the Adverbial termination
the -y in "many") (Par. 218) has encouraged the
:.

Adverbial, and 1 the Adjectival, usage. Our

" "
rn Adverbial only is therefore a compromise between
v and an Alv-rb. It is not exactly an Adjective
" an "
in the sense of only tyrant" nor yet is the "only ;

an ordinary Adv-rb modifying "would act." It is a con-

A tyrant is the only or one person that
'

i a-t thus," and " A tyrant Inj himself (one-ly) would

a-'t th
"
>nly should be parsed as "Adjectival Adverb irregu-
' "
larly modifying tyrant.'
 38 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 4649
46 II. inflections. Adverbs have their Degrees of
Comparison expressed (rarely) by Inflections, e.g.
" " " Boon-est
more commonly by
"
soon," soon-er," ;

the addition of "more," "most," e.g. "happily,"

" more " most
happily," happily."

47 In parsing an Adverb, therefore, you may state

I. With what Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Noun

it is connected.
Always ask yourself before parsing an Adverb, "What
"
does this Adverb tell me ? The answer will contain the
Verb, Adjective, or Noun with which the Adverb is used.
II. Whether it is in the Positive, Comparative,
or Superlative degree.

AQ Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Coniunc-

48 tions:-
" You me well me then! "
say you wish ;
will you help

Here "then" must be parsed as a Conjunction,

or as an Adverb used Conjunctively. 1
49 The Adverbs " where," " when," " whence," (fee.,
are used (1) Interrogatively, (2) Conjunctively,
2
(3) Relatively.
" tf^reisthebook?"
(1)

(2) "I asked him where (in what place) the book
was."
(3) "You will find the book where (in the place in
which) you laid it." 2

See How to Tell, &c,, page 101.

t

2 In but it is nlso
(3), as well as in (2), where is Conjunctively used ;

used Relatively, and is thus described, to distinguish it from the merely

Par. 49] ADVERBS. 39

EXERCISE.
x
Parse the Adverbs in Exercise I., thus :

Adverb.
 40 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. so, si

50 The Use of the Preposition.

The Preposition has no Inflections; and, in order

to parse it, there is no need to state anything but
the Noun or Pronoun that is the Object of the Pre-

position.

Cautions: 1. Some Prepositions are used as Ad-

verbs, e.g.
"Come in," "Heave to."

2. Some Prepositions or Prepositional

Adverbs are parts of Compound
Verbs, e.g.
" He was run over
by a heavy waggon."

51 3. When a Preposition has a Relative

Pronoun for its Object, it often

follows the Pronoun, e.g.

" The am with."
people that I

hi such cases the Relative Pronoun is often

omitted
" The was
boy you spoke to my brother."

EXERCISE.
T
Parse the Prepositions in Exercise I., thus :

Upon: Object, "a

time."
Over: "Persia."
In : "the map."
Of: " the Persians."
"
Over : almost all the nations of the East.
' '

Of: "the East."

* All this
ought to hnvo >>oen clone l>y the Pupil in learning to dis-
tinguish Prepositions. See How to Tell, &c., pp. 71, 80.
 Par. 52, 53] CONJUNCTIONS. 41

The other Prepositions in this and other Exer-

cises may be similarly parsed.

Cj2 The Use of the Conjunction.

The Conjunction has no Inflections, and there-

fore, in order to parse it, nothing is needed except

to state what it does, i.e. what are the two sen-
tences joined together by it. (See pages 104 and
105 of "How to Tell" <fcc.)

53 Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Conjunc-

tions :

(1) "I asked the man where ' my brother was."

" It was useless to
(2) attempt to persuade him ;
so 1
I took my leave."

/ In "as far as," "as soon as," &c., the first " as" is an
/ Adverb modifying "far," "soon ;" the second "as" is a
;'inction.See How to Tell, &c., p. 99. These worda
I
are, however, sometimes parsed as Compound Conjunctions.

EXERCISE.
Parse the Conjunctions in Exercise I., thus :

,_
13 J(l)
"You do not know."
j(2) "Look it out in the map."

joins

"Thomrh" ioins
ns $ < ])
" ]l " u;ls kill - f tho
j(2) "He was nut satisfied."

" Yet "

joins the same sentences.

" "a
is In *," may be simply
 42 VERBAL NOUNS. [Par. 54
The other Conjunctions in this, and in other
Exercises may be similarly parsed.

64 How to Parse a Verbal Noon.

A Verbal Noun is a Noun formed froma Verb
to " I like *
by adding -ing it, e.g. walk-ing"
A Verbal Noun resembles other Nouns in being
the Subject of some Verb, or Object of some Verb
or Preposition ; but it differs from other Nouns in
often taking an Object of its own, e.g.
" I like
catui'j beat"

Here "eating" is the Object of "I like," but

" beef."
also has for its Object
Hence in a Verbal Noun you may state

1. Whether it is used as Subject or Object. 2

2. (a) Of what Verb it is Subject, or (6) of what
Verb or Preposition it is Object.
3. What is its
Object, if it has one.

EXERCISE XIII. (SPECIMEN).

Parse the Verbal Nouns in the following Exer-
cise :

On reaching the shore, Mr. Barlow pointed to a speck far off

on the horizou, and asked Tommy what it was. After
observing it ult.-ntively, Tommy replied that it must* be
a very small boat. " What can the boatmen be doing so
" "
far out at sea ? asked Mr. Barlow. They must be
* Verbal Noun Phrases
"
may also be formed, such as, " I do not like
being deceived," He does not like having been deceived," &c.
spelling, see Par. 267 73.
generally in the Singular, so that the Number
= \Yilml Nouns are

need not be stated.

Par. 54] VERBAL NOUNS. 43
"
I in catching fish," said Tommy. Look again,"
* "
saivl .Mr. Barlow a few minutes afterwards
and, be- ;

note wlrether the speck has changed."

:'!>/iH<j,
" " "
Yes, indeed cried Tommy,
! instead of appearing
a boat,* it now seems to be a small vessel,* sailing this
way." A *
half * an hour afterwards, Mr. Barlow bade
look* once more. "
Tommy Why," said Tommy, "the
vessel, nearer, seems to have changed into a
by coming
ship, and, on looking more closely, I see that it has three
masts." " Then," replied Mr. Barlow, smiling, " I trust
you will now believe, without b< imj
very much surprised,
that the sun is really larger than the earth, and only
appears to be smaller, because of its being-so-far-off.
Ami when you hear people saying that ' seeing is be-
lieving,' remember for the future, that, though you may
-,'htly, your reasoning may be wrong. You said
you saw nothing but a speck at first, and there you were
right but you were wrong in inferring that the speck
;

was a boat."

Verbal Nonn
44 VERBAL NOUNS. [Par. 54
EXERCISE XIV.
Parse the italicized Verbal Nouns in

The Sun and the Wind were one day disputing which
was the stronger. On seeing a traveller approaching,
"Cease your baioling," said the Sun to the Wind, "and
let us decide the question by doing and not by talking.
Whoever can succeed in taking away that traveller's
cloak shall be confessed to be the conqueror what do :

"
you say to deciding thus ? "I agree," cried the Wind ;
" but would " "
you mind my trying first ? Not a bit,"
said the other and straightway the Wind set to work.
;

First In- tried />/<>/// ./;/ ijuietly, then more furiously :

and at last he blew so loud that you could not have

heard yourself speak for his howling; but all his f>h(s-
\vas in vain. So far from giving up his cloak,
the traveller only drew it closer round him. Now it
was the Sun's turn to try. He began by driving away
the clouds that the Wind had gathered ;
then he
wanned the air with his bright face till the traveller
was forced to loosen his cloak because of the heat.
On seeing this, the Sun redoubled his effort* till at
last, fainting with the heat, the weary traveller flung
himself on a bank to rest, after stripping b mself of
cloak and coat as welL
 CHAPTER IV.

USES, FORMS, AND INFLECTIONS

OF THE VERBS.
55 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs*

WHEN " I struck

you hear a person say ."

you are led to ask u struck whom ? " for the action

passes across, as it were, from the Verb to the Object

of the Verb. In " I walk," the action is confined

to the walker, and you are not led to ask " walk
"
whom or what ?

Hence " strike " called a Transitive Verb (trans,

is

across " walk " is called an In-

; itive, passing) :

transitive Verb.

The following Definitions are usually given :

I. Transitive Verbs are those that denote an action

not confined to the agent, but affecting something
else.

II. Verbs are those that denote (1)

Intransitive
" " "
being or (2) becoming" or (3) some action co
to the agent, and not affecting anything else.

56 Most Transitive Verbs can take a Noun-Object

"
or Pronoun-Object after them, e.g. I love, hate,
 46 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 5759
"
strike Thomas, them : and, as a rough test, it may
be said that i/ a Verb cannot take " them after it,
"

it isnot a Transitive Verb.

57 But a few Transitive Verbs take a Noun-Phrase
or a Noun-Clause as Object, and rarely or never a
Noun or Pronoun, e.g. " I think, hope, that he will
come." Here "that he will come" is the Object
of the Transitive Verbs think or hope.

These Verbs are very seldom followed by a Noun-Object,

e.g.
-
" Think not so foul a
(1) thought."
"I
(2) hope better things."

58 Caution. Some Verbs seem to be (but are not}

used Transitively. The apparent Object is really
a kind of Adverb ;
it might be made the Object

of an inserted Preposition, but it is not the Object

of the Verb. See Par. 131.

(1) "He ran (for) a mile."

" She waited an hour."
(2) (for)
" We
(3) slept (during) the whole morning."

The Verbs is, seem, appear, remain, become, &c.,

are Intransitive Verbs (see Par. 147).

50 Active and Passive Forms. 1

"When the Object of a Transitive Verb, e.g. " John

wounds Thomas" is made the Subject, e.g. " Thomas
'
Tin-so forms arc
usually failed Voices; but the Latin term (Madvig)
seems to have been " forma or " genus."
"
 Par. 60, 61] VERBS. 47

iswounded by John," then the Verb in the second

sentencetells us what is done to Thomas, or what

Thomas suffers. Hence the form of the Verb, is

is called the Passive "
vouHtlfd, (i.e. suffering ").

60 The Passive Voice is the form assumed by the Verb

when its Object is made the Subject.

Hence only Transitive Verbs can have Passive

Voices, for only Transitive Verbs have Objects.

It is sometimes said that a Verb is in the Passive

Voice when its Subject "denotes a person or
" Go-
thing acted on "; but this is not true. In
liath fell, or perished, by the hand of David."
"Goliath" denotes "a person acted on": yet
"
"fell and " perished " are not Passive Forms.

The ordinary form of the Verb is often called

the Active (i.e. " doing") Voice, because it generally
tellsus what the person or thing denoted by the
" John wounds."
Subject does, e.g.

This is not always tme. In " Goliath fell or perished,"

"f.-ll" and " j.rrislicd" tell you rather what Go-
liath suffered than what he did: yet they would
be called Active.

The following definition seems truer :

61 Thf Ariiiv Voice of a Transitive Verb is tlie form

(Jtut can be used wit <tn Object.
It

Intransitive Verbs are always in the Active <

 48 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 6264
62 Verbs of Motion are exceptions to this rule. We still
" I
say (and once used to say more commonly)
am arrived," " he is come."
The agent is here considered as affected by his own
act: cf. the French "s'en aller,"
" se
pro-
mener."

63 Participles.

1. Most Verbs, Transitive or Intransitive, can

have Verb- Adjectives formed from them by adding
" " wander-
-ing (rejecting final -e) e.g. dancing," t

'
ing."

34 These words are used as

(1.) Adjectives:
" A dancing bear," "a
wandering gipsy."

(2.) Verbs with Conjunctions or with Relative Pro-

nouns :

"A gipsy wandering (i c. ?////, ?/////', or became

he was wandering) across the heath, found the
child."

(3.) Parts of a Stating Verb :

"A gipsy was wandering across the heath."

Consequently, as these words participate in the

nature of Adjectives and also in the nature of
Verbs, they are called Particii>l-s.
1
For <-li;i ?)-.< in spelling, see Tar. 26778.
 Par. 65, 66] PARTICIPLES 49

When these words are used as Adjectives, they

should be parsed as " Participles used as Adjec-
tives."

65 2. A second Participle is formed from Transitive

Verbs by adding -ed to the Verb, e.g. wound,
wounded. See Par. 558.
This kind of Participle is often used with a

Noun, to denote that the person or thing repre-

sented by the Noun suffers the action denoted by
the Verb ;
in " a wounded
e.g.
" "
man," wounded
" "
denotes that a man has suffered wounding.
Hence the Participle in -ed is called the Passive

Participle.

The Passive Participle is also formed in other ways,

e.g., break, broken: bring, brought: sing, sung.

The Participle in -ing is called the Active Par-

ticiple.

How to Tell a Participle.

A Participle can at once be distinguished (1) from

an Adjective, (2) from part of a Stating Verb by
the fact that it can be, in part, replaced by a Con-
word, i.e. by a Conjunctive or Relative
Proa
You must judge from the sense of the pamage
what Conjunction is (partly) to replace nny Par-
 60 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 67

ticiple. For example, " walking " might be re-

placed by
1. While or when : " Walking along the street one
day, I saw Thomas."
"
2. Because :
Walking on the ice in spite of the

park-keeper's warning, the boy fell in."

"
3. Though or if: Walking with the greatest care
you will scarcely keep yourself from slipping."
4. "I once saw a man walking on a rope," i.e., "a
man that was walking."
" I saw him "
5. walking towards me," i.e. while he
was walking," or "that he was walking."

Of There is probably some confusion between (1) "I saw him a-walk-
f. "in, >r, iii the
i
(X'Miii)"; (2) "I s;iw him walking
" I saw him waft
(Participle)"; (3) (Infinitive)," whirh Intiui?
once "walk-en, "easily confused with the Verbal Noun and with the
Active Partlriple.

EXERCISE XV. (SPECIMEN).

Change the italicized Participles into Verbs and

Conjunctions or Verbs and Relative Pronouns :

A little hoy running carelessly along the street, knocked

against an old woman carrying a basket of eggs on her
head. Down fell the basket smashing all the eggs. The
thoughtless boy at first ran on but, looking round and
;

the people staring and the old woman beginning to

i

" I am very sorry; I would

cry, he turned back, saying,
not have knocks! against you, if I had seen you."
"Yes, master," replied the old woman, looking sadly at
the fragments of her broken eggs lying about the
dirty pavement, "but your sorrow will not mend my
nor feed my grandchildren waiting for bread at
home."
Par. 67] PARTICIPLES. 61
52 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 68

Hobbling to the door on his crutches, he found it locked.

By this time his feet, heated by the hot iron toor, pained
him so much that he began to raise them, lifting first
one, then the other, at first slowly, then more and more
quickly. In this way, forced to use his legs, he found
the use of them grow more and more easy, and was
cured against his will.

Participle.
Par. 69] PARTICIPLES. 63
"
shot down ; but in " I saw his body, thrown on
one side and frightfully mangled" the meaning
" when it
might be, either was being thrown," or
" it had been
"
after thrown and you cannot tell
:

which is meant without carefully looking at the

whole of the passage.
In other words, a Passive Participle, "
e.g. shot,"
may stand for "being shot," or, "having been
'
shot."

How to Parse a Participle.

A Participle, like an Adjective, (1)must always

be connected with some Noun or Pronoun (2) as ;

being part of a Verb, it must be either Active or

Passive ; (3) if Active, it niay have an Object. In
parsing a Participle, therefore, you can state
1. What Noun or Pronoun it is joined to.

_. Whether it is Active or Passive.

3. What is its Object, if it has one.

In order to answer
(1), first replace the Participle
a
by Conjunction (or Rel. Pronoun) and Verb ; then
ask the question who ? or wliat ? before the Verb
that replaces the Participle.
1
See Par. 67. I some cases, the Passive Participle re
prrsents the old i

ire :

'*) ch<i*d."

' '
Would swear him (to have) dropped out of t ! 1 '< >wt
 54 MOODS. [Par. 7O

The answer given by the sentence to this question

is the Noun or Pronoun to which the Participle is

joined.
"
For example, in the last Exercise, " troubled is
" that was troubled." " Who was
replaced by
troubled ?"
1

The answer given by the story is "a

rich gouty man ;
"
then " man " is the Noun to
"
which " troubled is joined.
"
Seeing" is replaced
" since he saw." " " " The
by Who saw 1 Answer,
"
then " "
is the Noun to
physician ; physician
which " seeing " is joined.

EXERCISE.
*
Parse fully Participles not marked in previous
Exercises.

70 Moods.

When we speak about an action or state, we may

speak of it in several different ways or Modes.

I. We maypoint out the action definitely, as

" he
present, past, or future, e.g. comes, came, will
come." This is called the Pointing or indicative
Mode or Mood. (Indica-, point out.)
II. We may speak of an action without defining
" to come This called the
the doer, e.g. is easy." is

Infinitive Mode or Mood (in, not ; jinit-, marked

out, defined).
 Par. 71] TENSES. 55

III. We may command an action. This is called

the Commanding or Imperative Mode or Mood

(imperar, command).
IV. We may speak of an action not as past,
present, or future, but as (1) expressing a condition,
" if he should come " or
e.g. ; (2) subject to a con-
" I should see him " or
dition, e.g. ; (3) (a) purpose,
" Come here that I "
e.g. may see you ; or (b) pur-
" I
pose approximating to a wish, e.g. pray that his
life may be spared."

all these cases, except (2), the Verb is pre-

In
ceded by a Conjunction if, that, &c. ; and this
Mood might therefore be called the Conjunctive
Mood. But it is generally called the Subjunctive
1
Mood.

71 Times or Tenses.
For the present, in speaking of the Times or
Tenses of a Verb, we shall confine ourselves to
those of the Indicative Mood.

A Verb may tell you

1 . "What any person or thing does at the present

time :

"Hecofcfowfish."

1 In any -
tatoMatof/Eief is called the prfc
and tin- prirt : the sentence describing tho jmrpose, condition. Ac,., is
 56 STATES OF ACTION. [Par. 7ft

2. What he did in past time :

"
He caught fish."

3. What he will do in future time :

" He tm codfish."

A Verb, then, has three times of which it can

speak Past, Present, and Future.
" time
Now the French for
'
is temps ; and from
this French word, slightly altered, we have made
the word Tense.

A Verb has three Tenses Past, Present, and

Future.

72 States of Action.

Suppose you are speaking of a fisherman whom

you saw some time ago, i.e. in past time, catching
fish.

1. You may say simply

" He caught a salmon."

Here you do not define the action further than

by saying it is past. This Tense may therefore be
" not-defined
called the Past," or Past indefinite.

2. You may say

" He was him."
catching a salmon just as I left
Par. 72] TENSES. 67

that is, the action was in an incomplete state,

still going on, or continuing. This Tense may
therefore be called the past incomplete, or past
Continuous.

3. You may say

" He had
caught a salmon just as I left him."

that is, the action was in a complete state. This

Tense may therefore be called the past com-
plete.

The same three divisions may be found in the

Future and Present :

1. Future Indefinite:
" I shall catfish."

2. Future Incomplete :

" I shall be catching fish."

3. Future Complete:
"I shall have caught fish."

1. Present Indefinite:
"I cate/t fish."

2. Present Incomplete :

"
I am catching a salmon, but have not yet landed
it."

3. Present Complete
" T
*"tv caught a salmon, and hore it is in my
 68 T&XtiES AND [Par. 73, 74-

73 In old English, it was more easy to see that "I have

"
caught was a present tense for they used to arrange it
:

thus, "I have the salmon caught," clearly showing that the
Time of the Verb was Present (as is shown by " I have i.e.
"

"I possess") and that "caught "was only a Participle or

Adjective telling you what had happened to the salmon.
But it is not so easy to see this in Intransitive and Passive
" I have run."
Verbs, e.g.

Each Tense has three States, the Indefinite, the Com-

plete, and the Incomplete.

The Passive Tenses are formed by placing the

Passive Participle after the different Tenses of the
Verb " to be."
74 Someof the Passive Tenses are rarely or never

used, owing to their lengthiness ; and there is one

"state" that is found in the Present, Past, and
Future of the Active, but not of the Passive.

(1) "I have been )

(2) "I had been [ catching."

" I shall have been )
(3)

This " state

"
denotes an action completed, after

being continuous. It may therefore be called the

Complete Post Continuous.

Hence all the Tenses may be arranged as fol-

lows :
Par. 75] STATES OF ACTION. 59

I I I

! i
|

see s s s
I

S I 3 e I I
o
S 3 * I i |

1
in 1
see i I
a
-

! 1 I
ess i
e
i
e e

i i i i
 60 TENSES AND [Par. 76, 77

76 Common Mistakes in Tenses.

The Tenses and Participles of Irregular Verbs will be best
learned by practice. But the pupil may be cautioned against
confusing :

t. "Lay," "lie," "lie."

LAY (Transitive) = " to

place or put down."
Present. Past. Pa*rive Participle.
(I) lay (I) laid (I have) laid

LIE (Intransitive) = "to recline."

(I) lie (I) lay (I have) lain

LIE (Intransitive) =" to tell a falsehood."

(I) lie (I) lied (I have) lied

II. The Past Indefinite, and Passive Participle of "ring,"

"sing," &c. often confused by Milton and Pope, but to be

;

kept distinct in Modern English :

(I) sing: (I) sang (I have) sung

(I) ring (I) rang (I have) rung
See Dr. Morris's Historical Outlines, Ac. In E.E., sang was iis^l in
the Singular, sung in the Plural, of the Past Tense. "Lay" is tho
Causative form of "lie," as "raise" of "rise," "set" of "sit," "fell"
of "fall," "drench" of "drink."

The Negative, or Interrogative Form.

In questions and denials we prefer a different

form of the Indefinite Present and Past. Instead
" " "
of " I came not ; Why speak you 1 we say
" I did not come " " "
; Why do you speak ? The
advantage of this form of the Verb is, that it
enables us to put the Verb at the end, while the
Par, 78, 79] STATES OF ACTION. 61

did or do prepares the way for it. You may call

this the Negative or Interrogative form of the
Verb.
More rarely this form is used affirmatively, to em-
phasize the truth of a statement :

"Who says I did not come ? I did come."

Person and Number.

If you alter the Subject of a Verb, you often

have to alter the Verb so as to agree with the
Subject.
1. If you alter "I" into "he," you must alter
" catch " into " l(
catches," so as to agree with he."
if alter " he " into " "
2. Again, you they you
must alter "catches" to "catch," so as to agree
with the alteration of the Subject from Singular to
Plural
This is expressed by saying that
A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and
dumber.

As an explanation of our distinction between First, Second,

and TJiird Persona, it may be remembered that the Romans,
whose grammar w- him- roj-u-d, thought it natural for a
person speaking to \\m\kjirst of himself (/), secondly of the
person to whom he was speaking (you), ami thirdly of any
one else about whom he was speaking (him or her).

The following Scheme shews how a Verb agrect

U Subject:
62 PERSON AND NUMBER. [Par. so
Par. 81] HOW TO PARSE VERBS. ^3

5. The Person : in the Third Person.

6. The Number :
Singular.
7. It agrees with its Subject "he."
8. It has for its
"a
Object fish."

Caution. Note that the Present Indicative is

often used where, logically, the Future should be

used :

(1) "He will come when he is able."

(2) "1 shall wait till he comes."

After " when,"

"
till," &c., Shakespeare often uses
" When he shall be
the Future or Subjunctive, e.g.
able." The modern Present may in these cases be
"
parsed as used for Future." For the Present after
"if," see Par. 168.

The Noun-Subject, and Noun-Object.

It is usual, in parsing a Verb, and stating the

Subject and Object, not to state the whole of the
Subject or Object, but only the Noun or Pronoun,
omitting any Adjectives or Adjective Phrases con-
nected with the Noun. For example, in the sixth
Verb parsed in the Exercise below, the Subject of
" had seen " " the keen "
is eyes of the lion ; but
you need only take the Noun part of the Subject,
and may answer simply " eyes."
 64 HOW TO PAESE [Par. 82

In the same way, when stating the Object of

" didst thou "
leave," you need not write down thy
cruel master," but only the Noun " master."
part,

82 EXERCISE XVIL 1

Caxton brought the printing press to England from Bruges

in 1476. In addition to the difficulties that attended the
lu-w art of printing, the language had come into such a
state that an author needed much judgment to select his
words and frame his style. A conflict was ra<j
tween the new-fangled French affectation and English
pedantry, and Caxton was sorely distracted between the
"honest and great clerks," who advocated the former,
and the "genl who stood up for " old and homely
"Our the
" varieth
terms." ." says printer,
far from that which was used and spoken when I was
born;" and he adds that "the English that is spoken
in one shire varieth from the English spoken in another."
He goes on to tell a tale how certain merchants on the
Thames sailing to Zealand and compelled by contrary
winds to remain on the Foreland, went into a farmhouse
and asked for " eggs." The good- wife answered that she
spoke no French. "Why talkest thou of French?"
replied the merchant, angry at being tak^n for a French-
man, "I speak no French, nor wift> rsfi/,/ff it, I ask for
eggs." But the farmer's wife, in spite of all his anger,
could none the better understand him, till one of his
companions said he wanted "eyren," and the eggs came
fast enough.
" Lo what "
shall a man in these days now write ? adds the
' '
' ' ' '

puzzled printer. Shall he write eggs or eyren ?

*
Certainly, it is hard to please every man, by cause
of diversity and change of language."

* This Exercise is modified from the admirable Short History of the

English People, J. R. Green, M.A. (Macmillan, London). It may be

parsed after the following Specimen Exercise.
Par. 82] VERBS. 66

EXERCISE XVIIa. (SPECIMEN).

State the Noun-Subjects, Noun-Objects, Kinds,

Voices, and Tenses of the italicized Verbs :

Many centuries ago, a slave, who had made his escape from
a cruel master, fled to a forest where night surprised
him, so that he was forced to take refuge in a cave.
Scarcely had he closed his eyes in the attempt to sleep,
when he heard the roar of a lion beside him. He started
up, but it was too late the keen eyes of the lion had
;

seen him, and were slowly coming nearer. Androcles

who had no arms of any kind now gave himself up for
lost.
" What shall I do ?
"
said he "I have no spear
:

or sword no, not so much as a stick to defend myself

with." And he cried aloud in agony, foolish Andro- "0
cles, why didst thou leave thy cruel master, who at least
would have spared thy life because thou wast useful to
him, whereas now thou wilt be the meal of this hungry
lion?'' What was his surprise, however, to find that
the lion, instead of springing on him, was walking quietly
up to him, limping as though he were in pain. Gaining
courage at this, Androcles made no attempt to run
away. Presently the lion held out liis paw, and on
examining it Androcles found that it was inflamed and
1

swelled. Looking more closely, he perceives that a thorn

has pierced the ball of the foot, and that it is from this
that the lion is suffering.

"inflamed" and "swelled" are Adjectives dpscrib-

'.'lt ill tile SfJltrlirr "nil ln'.'irillg thJ8,
og was inflnm>d with fun-," was inflami w.mlrt be a Verb. You
can say "an inflamed foot," bat not " an inflamed king.
 66 HOW TO PAUSE [Par. 83, 84

Verb
83
Par. 85] VERBS. 67

Person
 68 VERBS. [Par. 86, 87

the foot. As soon as the thorn was extracted, the lion

showed his joy by evident signs, and at first lay down
by the side of his benefactor, as though to protect him ;

but presently he departed. Next morning, however,

before the sun had risen, back comes the lion to the cave
with a deer in his jaws, which he sets down at the feet
of Androcles and, for several days, while Androcles
;

was hidiny in the cave, he was protected from all danger

and supplicil with ample food by the grateful Hon.
1

But one day, just when the slave was congratulating

that lie had escaped his pursuers for ever, a party
hiiiis.-lf
3
of soldiers, passing through the forest, catch sight of
him resting in the cave in the absence of the lion. At
once they arrest nim, and carry him back to the city
whence he had escaped. 3

80 Singular Norms with Plural Verbs.

Some Nouns, though Singular, are sometimes treated as

Plural, because they are Plural in meaning, e.g. "party"
"
in A party of friends are coming to dine with me to-day."
Here, although "is coming" would not be absolutely
wrong, yet "are coming" sounds more natural, because
' ' M
party means a number of persons coming from distinct
quarters, and regarded as distinct. See Pars. 334- -9.

87 Shall, Will

Note that in the Indefinite Future, shall is used in the

First Person, and will in the Second and Third Persons :
ist Person I shall We shall.
2nd Person Thou wilt You will.

3rd Person He will They will.

*
Repeat" "was."
"
a Note catch not " catches. " See next Paragraph.
3 Continued in Par. 102.
 Par 88] THE IMPERATIVE. 69

The reason
is this: shall, like "must," implies compulsion.

KOW we do not mind using a word implying compulsion

about ourselves but it seems rather rude to use it about
;

others. For this reason we dislike saying, except in anger,

"
"you shall," "he shall," and prefer to say, you will," "he
will." "You will" once meant "you wish or are willing
"
to ;
but now it generally means no more than "you are
going (to)."
When we are bestowing a favour that does not depend on
the recipient but on our own will, we may use " shall " with
the Second Person :
" You thall have
(1) a holiday to-morrow."

Here the context absolutely destroys the notion of com-

pulsion, and therefore " shall " may be used without vude-

For a similar reason, there is no rudeness in

" "
(2) Shall you see him to-morrow ?
(3) "He says he shall be out of town all the summer.'

Imperative Mood.

You cannot command a man to do anything

unless you speak to him ; consequently the com-

manding or Imperative Mood is, strictly speaking,

always in the Second Person, Singular or Plural,

e.g. "come."
88 Sometimes we, as it were, exhort or command
" " let us run." But
ourselves, e.g. let me see,"
" suffer " suffer us
this is the same as me to see,"

Here, therefore, "suffer" and "let"

to run." are

natives, addressed to some im<t</i>iry person;

but "see" and "run" are not Imperatives, l.ut In-

left out
finitives, the "to" being (
 70 THE IMPERATIVE. (W. 89-91
Again, sometimes, when we are speaking of
a
39 " let
Third Person, we seem to command him, e.g.
him beware ; " but this is explained in the same
"
way, and is put for let him (to) beware."
Tho Imperative is almost always in the Active.
The Passive, when used, is formed (like every
other Mood and Tense of the Passive) from the
" be "
Passive Participle preceded by :

" Be to cuter.
"
(1 ) pleased
(2) "Be pacified, be persuaded that all is well."

90 iu the Bible, the Subject of the Imperative is often ex-

pressed, e.g., "coineye": but it is generally omitted in

modern English.
As a command applies mostly to the present time, there
are no Tenses in this Mood. A command relating to the
future is sometimes expressed by the Future Indicative ;
" You shall
either the compulsory form, bring the book to-
morrow," or the courteous form, "You will have dinner
"
ready by seven." We also say Have done," Pres. Compl.

91 How to Parse the Imperative.

An Imperative has no Inflections, and therefore

cannot with truth agree with its Subject. It is
thereforewrong to use agree about the Imperative.
The Imperative has a Subject.
In parsing an Imperative, use the form given in
Par. 80, remembering that, though the Subject of
an Imperative is seldom expressed, yet it is always
implied.
 Par. 92, 93] THE INFINITIVE. 71

92 Forms of the Infinitive.

The Tenses of the Infinitive Mood of a Verb,

"
e.g. send," are as follows :
 72 TO" OMITTED. [ Par 94, 95

Again, compare together

I bade him I ordered him

| |
I let him come I permitted him > to come
J>
I made him ( I compelled him j

I can 1 I am able
I dare I venture
I may I am allowed
I must come I am compelled \- to come
I shall I am certain
I should I ought
I will I am willing

To is also omitted after the Verbs see, hear, need,

" I saw him " I heard her
feel, e.g. die," sing."
What is the reason for the omission of to after all
these Verbs 1

94 The reason is that our ancestors used not to put

to before the Infinitive. Instead of "to walk "
" " To " was
they used to say walk-eft." only used
to denote purpose, with a special form of the Verb,
" to " in order to
walk." In time,
walk-ewe," i.e.
the inflections -en and -ene became disused. So, to
used " to
"
denote the Infinitive, they in all
cases,
not only in its proper sense of purpose, but also as
the mere sign of the Infinitive, even where the
Infinitive was nothing but a Noun. Thus, instead
of saying " I like walk-eft," they began to say "I
like to walk."

05 But after some Verbs, such as let, may, can, &c.,

it was not found necessary to use to. These Verbs,
 Par 96, 9?] THE INFINITIVE. 73

because they are so often companions or allies to

other " allied " or
Verbs, are called Auxiliary
Verbs. When these Verbs therefore were used,
everybody knew that an Infinitive was pretty
certain to follow, even though to was not put in :

"let us (to) pray."

96 For a similar reason, to was not inserted after see,

hear, &c., because they were Verbs of such common

use that everybody understood that a Verb could
be in the Infinitive after them, without the insertion
1
of to.

But remember, the Verbs after the Auxiliary

Verbs, e.g. "let us pray," are Infinitives, just as

much as after other Verbs where to is inserted,
"
e.g. permit us to pray"
" To" is omitted in the Infinitive after the Aux-

iliary Verbs"may," "can," "will,"* "let," "must,"

&c.,and also after "see," "luar," "feel," &c.

" The Complementary Infinitive.

The Infinitive is often used to complete, i.e. to be

'
Partly also the to may have been omi- these words
may, can, tes, hcar,&c. arc so common that Iln' insertion <>r f". when-
ever we n s
hakespeare, to is f where we should !

-li.mld insert it. People li;i<l not yet.

.'i now,
Lire" is used like an ordinary Verb, ' must l.e in-
erfc": v uy, !! dam Dot eome," imt
vted in the Inst sentence
I
;" Imt "lie ii<<is mnilf tn Kit."
..r "will" denoting futurity, i

will" and treated as pn:

 74 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 98
the Complement of, a preceding Noun or Pronoun,
For example, in

(1) "I like a rascal to be punished."

" The
(2) prisoner was ordered to be executed."

Here (1) " a rascal is not the Object of " like,"

"

"a " a rascal to bo

for you do not like rascal," but

punished." Consequently, "rascal" is only the

1'nrtial Object, and it has for its Complement the
Inlinitive
" to be
punished."
In the same way (2) (though the Subjective
Construction is less common than Objective), the
was not " ordered at all what was
" " "
prisoner ;

ordered was the execution of the prisoner, or, in the

words of the sentence, " the prisoner to be exe-
" "
cuted." Consequently, prisoner is only the
r<trti<il Subject, and it has for its Complement the

Inlinitive " to be executed."

Uses of the Infinitive.

C)Q The Infinitive is used

I. (a) As a Noun :

(1) "I like to walk."

" To walk is
(2) healthy."

I.
(6) As part of a Noun-Phrase used Objec-
tively :

(1) "I like a rascal to be punished."

(2) "I know him to be honest."
 Par. 99-101] THE INFINITIVE. 75
" He
(3) reported the experiment to have failed."
(4) "I perceived him to have made a mistake."
" I saw him
(5) (to) fall."

I.
(c) Less frequently, as part of a .Noun-Phrase
used Subjectively :

" He is said to be
(1) coming."
" TJic
(2) prisoner was ordered to be executed."

But these may also sometimes be parsed aa Ad-

verbial Infinitives. See Par. 105.

99 II. As an Adverb, or part of an Adverb, modi-

fying a Verb or Adjective :

(1) "I am come (for what purpose ?) to see you."

(2) "I am sorry (on account of what ?) to hear this."
" He is slow
(Z\ (in what respect ?) to forgive."
(4) "You are cruel (in what respect?) to frighten
her."

100 III As an Adjective-Phrase :

" Water to "

(1) drink," i.e. drinking-wier."
" " "
(2) Paper to write with" i.e. t0r#m0-paper.
(3) "Their importunity was not to be resisted" i.e.
"\\--rcsistible."

(4) "Your mistake is to be deplored" i.e. "deplor-

able."

101 How to Parse an Infinitive.

Hence, in parsing an Infinitive, you may first

state

1 . Kind of Verb. Transitive, or Intransitive.

 76 THE INFINITIVE. [PUT 102

2. Voice. Active or Passive.

3. Mood. Infinitive.
"
4. State" or Division of Tense, i.e. whether
Indefinite, Complete, or Incomplete.

5. Object, if it has any.

To these statements you may add whether it is

used as a

I. Noun : and, if so, (a) of what Verb it is the

Subject or Object, Complementary or otherwise ;

and (6) to what Noun or Pronoun it is
Comple-
mentary.

II. An Adverb : and, if so, by what Preposition

and Verbal Noun it may be replaced.
1

III. Adjective : and, if so, with what Noun it is

connected.

EXERCISE XIX. (SPECIMEN).

102 Parse the Infinitives in the following Exer-

2
cise :

Having been brought before the judge, Androcles was at

once condemned, and ordered to be exposed to wild beasts

1 The
pupil may also be asked to mention the word modified by the
Adverbial Infinitive, as in parsing an ordinary Adverb.
2 For
brevity, the Voice. Mood, and "State," are omitted, as also is
the Object of the Infinitive, and tlu; word modified by the Adverbial
Infinitive.
Par. ioa] THE INFINITIVE. 77

in the amphitheatre, to strike terror into all other slaves

that might wish to run away from their masters. Ac-
cordingly, on the appointed day, the wretched slave wa
made to stand in the presence of thousands of spec-
tators, opposite the cage of a lion, which had not been
suffered to eat anything for several days, to increase its
natural savageness. The furious roaring of the famished
lion struck terror into every heart, and made the poor
slave prepare for the worst. Suddenly, the signal is
given, and from the open cage forth bounds the lion.
But, what was the astonishment of the spectators, to see
the savage beast, on reaching its victim, at once change
its nature. Instead of devouring Androcles, it began to
fawn on and caress him. The spectators, indignant at
the cowardice of the beast for so they called it bade
the officers let loose a second lion to destroy the first.
It was done, and forthwith a monster larger and more
furious than the first, rushed with open jaws at the
trembling slave. But the first lion, at once springing
on the assailant, forced it to turn from Androcles, and
after a terrible contest, left it disabled on the sand.
The admiring spectators now shouted 1 applause, 1 declaring
that the slave must be asked to explain the lion's extra-
ordinary conduct. On hearing the story of his adven-
tures, they begged the Governor to pardon Androcles,
and not only to give him his freedom, but also to bestow
on him his faithful lion. Their importunity was not to
be resisted, and both requests were granted.

' Be Par. 196.

 78 THE INFINITIVE. [ Par. 1O3, 1O4

103 Infinitive.
Par. 10*] THE INFINITIVE. 79

1. If Complementary, state the Par-

or Object of
tial Subject or Object.
2. If Adverbial, replace by a Prepo-
what Verb. sition and Verbal Noun.
3. If Adjectival, state Noun qualified.

was ordered Androcles

for the purpose of striking
might wish
was made the slave
: fie red which
for the purpose of increasing
made the slave
at seeing
the beaat

the officers
forced it
must the slave
for the purpose of explaining
begged tin- Governor
" "
qualifies importunity

upon tin-, waggon and let * the horses carry him, while
he cracked his whip and sang songs. Presently tho
roa . to rise, but still the waggoner kept his

seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent

seemed to have dashed across the road, wearing a deep
pit with its waters. Tho horses put forth all their
strength to pull the waggon across, but in vain all ;

th'-ir efforts could 4 not even move the wheels, which

1
began t<> r into the pit. Now,
.

when it was too late s to do anything, the good-for-nothing

his way." On th.- ofli.-r li.-uid, "try" is a Transitive

< "< name aa "was The following Infinitive may

able."
"
! PV.'lplr'l ;i- lli,- fll,j.-,-t ,,t
'

ran "rtHlM:" "r:m" V.'lS I'llC' a

up
1

s the same a* "suffer;" "dare"istho same

-
meant 1st get rid of
'

iilil avoid."
i .10 lato to do uujr-
" " too late "
tiling ta for the purpose of doing anything.
 80 THE INFINITIVE. [ Par. ios

carter got down from his waggon ; but all that he did
was to curse and swear at the horses. Finding that
cursing did not move the waggon, he at last thought
he would try what praying could 4 do. So, falling on
his knees, he besought Hercules, the god of hard work,
to come and help him in his troubles. In an instant
Hercules was on the spot but, instead of helping
;

him, "You lazy fellow!" said he, "how dare 4 you

send for me, till you have tried 3 to do without me?
Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are
to 5 themselves."
willing help

105 Caution. After Verbs of

asking, commanding,
advising, compelling, is not always easy to
it

determine whether the Infinitive is Adverbial or

Complementary. For example, in
(1) "They besought him to help them."

the meaning is the same as

"
(2) They besought him that he would help them."

Here there is a notion of purpose : and hence

"to help" in (1) maybe parsed as an Adverbial
" for the
Infinitive meaning purpose of helping."

3 "Strive" is not a Transitive Verb; therefore "to make" should

be considered as an Adverbial Infinitive of purpose, "striving for
the purpose of making his way." On the other hand, "try" is a Tran-
sit ive V. rli, and therefore can take an Object after it.
" Could" is the same as " was able." The
4 following Infinitive may
be regarded as the Object of "can" or "could;" "can" was o
Transitive Verb.
" Let " is the same as " suffer " " dare " is th<
;

as "venture."
" "
5 You might be disposed to say here that are willing is tli
as "wish," and that "to help" is the Object of "wish," which is im-
plied in "are willing." " But, if you bear in mind how of'
In such sentences, r.<;. I am sorry, glad, to do this," it
willing, able,
will seem better to take "to help" as an Adverbial Infinitive, meaning
'ns regards doing," "in the matter of helping."
 Par. 106, 107] THE INFINITIVE. 81

But "him to help" might also be treated as

" his
meaning helping," and regarded as the Object
of " they besought."
Either parsing may therefore be allowed, Ad-
verbial or Complementary.

When the pupil has once grasped the notion that could,
would, &c., are followed by Infinitives, it will be no longer
necessary to separate the Auxiliary from the Infinitive. The
whole may be parsed together as a Compound Verb. For
example, in the last exercise, "could do," maybe treated
as a Compound Verb.

106 The Complementary Subject Infinitive.

Note that the Complementary Object Infinitive

cannot always be converted into a Complementary
Subject Infinitive. You can say
" I like a rascal to be punished."
(1)

But not
" A rascal is liked to be punished."
(2)

The reason is this, that in (2) the Noun '' rascal "
is separated and disconnected in meaning from the
" to be " "
Infinitive punished ;" and therefore rascal
would be in danger of being regarded as the com-
" is liked."
plete Subject of
107 Consequently the Complementary Subjoct In
finitivu is seldom used except where the Noun-

ject and the Verb are so related that i

o
 82 THE IXX-UXITIVE. [Par. 1O8

might be made the Complete Subject of the latter,

without making utter nonsense. For example,
"he" might be made the Complete Subject of " ie
" was " was asked "
known," heard," ; although in
a very diiferent sense from that of the following
" he "
examples, in which is Partial Subject :

(1) "He is known to be honest."

"
(2) He was heard to say, seen to do" &c.
"
(3) He was aaked to do, ordered to come" &c.

In all these cases it is better to parse the In-

finitive as but it may be parsed,
Complementary ;

" he is known
though not so well, Adverbially, e.g.
" he was heard in the act
as regards being honest,"

of saying," &c.

108 The Infinitive after Adjectives.

I. As an Adjective can be modified by an Adverb,

so can it by an Adverbial Infinitive :

" Pleasant to see," i.e.,

" in the
(1) seeing," or, "for
purpose of seeing."
" This is hard to l "
(2) bear," i. e.,"in"oT 'for bearing.
(3) "I am content to be poor," i.e., "with being
"
poor.
(4) "He is quick to detect imposition," i.e., "at
detecting."
" This
(5) apple is fit to eat," i.e., "for the purpose of
eating.'
 Par 109, 110] THE INFINITIVE. 83

109 The AdJ ectival Infinitive Explained.

AnAdjectival Phrase may be made up by the Preposition

to and the Infinitive, as easily as by a Preposition and Noun.
There is no difference, in principle, between "a monkey with
a long tail ; " " apples for dating ;" paper for writing ;
" ' '

11
water for drinkiiig," and
" " " a house to let."
(1) "Apples to eat ; paper to write with ;"
" "
(2)
' '
Duties to perform ; debts to pay ;" " work to do."
"A time "
(3) to work, and a time to play ;" nothing to do."
" This is not to be " it is not to be denied."
(1) believed;"
" It is to be
(2) deplored, to be remembered," &c.

The Adjectival force of the Infinitive may be seen by the

ease with which, in many cases,
" to "
may be replaced by
ing or -able, so as to convert the Adjective -Phrase into an
" " "
Adjective: writwuj-paper," play mg- time,' deploroWe,"
"
undenioife," &c.

HO The Parenthetical Infinitive.

The Adverbial Infinitive of Purpose is often

briefly used in a Parenthesis :

(1) "I came by a circuitous path, or rather to tell

the truth I completely lost my way."

This seems to be a short way of saying " (In

order) to tell the truth (I must say that), I com-

pletely lost my way."
" Will " " To
(2) you come then ? be sure, I will."

This seems to be a condensation of "(In order

for you) to be sure, (I say distinctly) I will come."
o 2
84 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. ill, 112

The Exclamatory Infinitive.

The Infinitive is sometimes used absolutely in

exclamations :

"
(1) "To think that he should be so foolish !

(2) "Simpleton! To dream that he could succeed

with out "effort!"

In (1) "to think" appears to be the Subject of

"
some Verb understood, e.g. " astonishes me ; in
" to dream" is
(2) probably an Adverbial Infinitive
" " "
modifying simpleton repeated. Simpleton to
" " foolish to dream" or
dream is the same as "for
dreaming."

EXERCISE XXI.

Parse the italicized words in the following Exer-

cise :

A lean hungry wolf one day met a mastiff, who had lost him-
self in the forest, and asked the wolf to shew him the

way home.* For a moment the wolf thought of springing

at the dog's throat ;
he was so plump and sleek and seemed
so good to eat. But the mastiff was too strong to be over-
powered; so the wolf replied, "Show you the way, Sir?
"
To be sure I will and away they trotted together.
:

Presently the mastiff looked askance at the wolf. "You

seem to me," said he, "to be in good condition for the
chase, but to look at : one can count
you are not shapely
ribs."
" am
content to be poor," replied the wolf:
I
your
" here in these woods there is not much to eat. But
what makes you so fat x
and sleek ?
x
I would give any-
thing to be in such condition." "Then I advise you to
 par ii3, ll*J TEE INFINITIVE. 85

come with me," replied the mastiff, "and you will be sure
to get what you want. You will have nothing to do, but
to bark at beggars and vagrants, and then you may
eat as much as you like of good beef and mutton. Will you
come ? " At the mention of mutton, the wolf could not
contain himself his mouth watered and he began to icccp
;

" To think of
for joy. your doubting whether I would
come," he cried "most gladly will I accept your offer
: :

my life is no longer to be endured.

Indeed, to tell you
the truth, I have not tasted food for the last four days."
So on they went at a quickened pace.
113 AH they walked and talked, the wolf could not forbear every
now and then turning to admire his companion. Wink- *
doing* so, he noticed a mark round the dog's neck win-re
the hair appeared to be worn away. "What's that?"
" "
' ' " "
asked the wolf. Nothing. Nothing ? Nothing
to speak of," answered the mastiff in a rather confused
" But what is it ? " asked the wolf for he
way. again :

began to be "Well then, if you are deter-

suspicious.
mined to knowit is only the mark of the collar round
my neck. Sometimes I am ordered to be tied up to prc-
:ny losing my way, as I have done to-day. It is of
no consequence." "It of so much
consequence," in-
is

terrupted the wolf, "that I must wish you* good-bye,* and

bid you go home by yourself. To lose one's freedom is a
1
loss not to be endured. I prefer to starve free rather than
to be a plump slave."

Tense* of Participles.

Participles, like Adjectives, have no Tenses of

their own, but borrow the time they express from
" to live " die Thla use of
Cf. happy," rich," Ac. t

to a *>rt of compromhw between (1) an Adverb, and (2) the

iii 1'ar. 14y.
$6 THE TENSES [Par. lid

some other Verb in the sentence. Thus " walking "

or " supported" may be Past, Present, or Fi.turo :

1. Past:
"
(1) Walking on, I soon reached Windsor/' i.e.,
"after I walked on."
"
(2) Supported by this scanty food, he lived for te*
"
days longer," i.e., since he was supported"

2. Present :

(1) "I an old man walking towards me," i.e.

see
" who is "
walking," or, and he is walkimj."
" I see an old man
(2) coming this way, siijij) >rtul I>T
"
his son," i.e., who," or, "and he, is bein
ported."

3. Future:
"
(1) Walking on, you will soon reach Windsor," i.e ,

"if you (will) walk on."

(2) "Supported by his son's daily lalxnir, he will

live for the rest of his life in comfort," i.e.,
"since he will be supported."

The Participial forms might be arranged as fol-

lows, according to their forms :

INCOMPLETE

COMPLETE
 Par 116J OF PAETIOiPLES. 87

But the Incomplete form may sometimes denote

an action in the Indefinite Past, as in the first
example of Paragraph 114.
Note that the Complete as well as the Incomplete
form of the Participle can be used either for Present,
Past, or Future.For example, " Having walked on,
I came to Windsor " means not " when I have
walked on," but " when I had walked on," so that
the Participle is here put for the Complete Past.
A future action is expressed in a Participle by
a Phrase with " being," e.g. " being on tlie point oj
death" "being about to die" (where "to die" must
be regarded as the Object of " about ").

116 T^ 6 confusion in the uses of the Participle is, perhaps, in

part explained by its having been confused with the abbre-
viated Adverbial use of the Verbal. For example, *' in," or,
"on walking" could mean either
" in
naturally eng.-igcd
walking," or "upon" i.e. "after walking." When this
Adverbial Phrase was contracted to " a- walking," or simply
"
walking," it was easily confused with the Participle.
Originally the Pnrtiripli- ended in -nd, and the Verbal
in -ng ; but very early, the Particle assumed -ng. See Par.
5548.
 CHAPTER V.

THE INDIRECT OBJECT.

FIND the Object of the Verb in the first of the
following sentences :

" John "

(1) brought Thomas a book.
" I will thorn
(J) forgive their fault."

(3) "The father allowed his son two hundred

pouuus
a year."
"I
(4) envy her her good health."
" This conduct will lose
(6) you your friends."
" Fill me the '

(6) cup.
(7) "My mother taught my brother French."
(8) "I will ask your sister this question."

Ask the question in the usual way, " Brought

whom or what ? " Answer, " Brought a book ; "
therefore " book " is the Object of " brought."
If any one were to say, " No, the sentence
gives
"
the answer ' brought Thomas,' you would reply,
" John
did not bring Thomas, he brought the book
for or to Thomas ; and brought Thomas is only
' '

a short way of saying brought /or or to Thomas.' "

'

1 The
Subjunctive Mood, which would naturally follow here, is
deferred to Par. 163, owing to its difficulty.
 Par. 118-120] THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 86

J.8 Nevertheless, as "Thomas" does (in a certain

"
sense) answer to the question whom 1 " after the
" "
Verb, it is called an Object. But book is called
the Direct Object, as it is the first and direct

object of the action ; and Thomas is called the

indirect object, as being the second object in-

directly affected by the action.

Rule.

The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word 01

"
phrase that answers to tlie,
question Fur, or, to
" " "
whom ? For, or, to what ? when asked after the
Verb and its Direct Object.

119 There are a few exceptions to this rule. In "he played

me a trick," "on," not "for," would be supplied before
"me." Also, after "ask," "of" or "from" has to be
" he asked *
supplied :
(of) his sister a question."

120 N.B. The Indirect Object can easily be dc:

as follows it always comes
:
before the Direct

Object, and cannot be placed after the Direct

Object without the insertion of a Preposition, in
which case it ceases to be the Indirect Object of
the Verb, and becomes the Object of the Pn p<>
sition :

(1) "John l.run.u'lit a book for Thomas."

.-aided
M tt -mil
" sUter.""Mk-a-quertion"
M a Compound Verb
hiring u iU Object,
 90 THE OBJECT [Par 121, 12*

(2) "I will forgive their fault to them." '

(3) "The father allowed two hundred pounds a year

to his son."

EXERCISE XXII.

121 Which are the Direct and which the Indirect

Objects of the italicized Verbs 1

1. John fetched me a book. 2. He forgave mo my fault.

3. My mother taught me French. 4. The judge asked

him a question. 5. He refused mo this slight favour.

6. My cousin did mo a good turn. 7. The thi-

me a sudden blow. 8. My uncle left mo a small sum of

money. She will tell me what she wants. 10. You
9.

shall send me some more soldiers at once. 11. He lent

me a thousand pounds. 12. I will shew your friend
everything that is to be seen. 13. This man owed me

money. 14. He played mo a trick. 15. This conduct

will lose you the esteem of your friends. 16. He promises
us much, but does little. 17. Ho answered me nothing.
18. I envy you your good health. 19. A little fore*-

thought will wrc us a great deal of trouble. 20. His

father allowed him two hundred pounds a year.

Object after a Passive Verb.

When an Active Verb, taking two Objects, is

changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes
the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other
is retained as Object. This Object may be
"I
i This and other similar constructions,
e.g. envy yonr good health
to you," are extremely harsh, and not to be imitated.
 Par 123, 124] AFTER PASSIVE VERB. 91

I. The former Indirect Object of the Active :

(1) "Their lives were offered them by the conqueror,

if they would surrender."
" His fault was forgiven him by his master upon
(2)
his promise of amendment."
(8) "This favour was refused me by my friend."
" Much trouble was saved me
(4) by his kindness."
(5) "Three questions were asked me by the exa-
miners."

(6) "Writing was taught me by my mother."

II. The former Direct Object of the Active:

(1) "They were offered their lives by the conqueror."

(2) "He was forgiven his fault"
(3) "I was refused this favour."
" I was saved much trouble
(4) by his kindness."
(5) "I was asked three questions by the examiners."
(6) "I was taught writing by my mother."

123 If a distinction is needed between the two kinds

of Objects used after a Passive Verb, the terms
Direct and Indirect Object of the Active may be
used. But unless such a distinction is asked, it

will be enough to say that the Object r<'

it is

after a Passive Verb, or, for shortness, the retained

Olj

'

fr<>m
124 Caution, f'nrrfully distinguish tin- 7,V
rt) in iisi-lf

'.impound V' r!>.

i <

<pii-

i-'iilly.
 92 COGNATE OBJECT. [Par. 125, 126

"king" is not the Retained Object, but the Supplement of

an incomplete Verb in :

" "
"They made him king," i.e., they made-king or "be-kinged him."

125 T*16 Cognate Object.

Some Verbs, though generally Intransitive, take

occasionally after them an Object whose meaning
is akin to the Verb. Such Objects are called
cognate (co-, together ; note, born : hence " born
" " akin
together," related," ").

This usage is more common in Poetry and in

elevated language than in ordinary Prose :

"
(1) They have slept their sleep."
" He has " "
(2) fought a good fight ; They shouted
applause."
" We have walked a long walk to-day."
(3)

126 The Early English Dative.

In the earliest English there was a special Inflection to

denote the Indirect Object. Being mostly used after such
Verbs as "give," "lend," "send," "forgive," "refuse," &c.
all of which imply
"
giving" or "not giving" this Use
or Case of the Noun or Pronoun was called the Dative (i.e.,
giving) Case.
In the earliest English, this Inflection would make it per-
fectly clear which was the Direct and which the Indirect
Object Compare together (1) the modern English, and (2)
the earliest English, in the following examples :

" This
(1) king gave (to) the minsters large gifts."
" This
(2) king gave large gifts mynstr-um."
 Par 137, 128] ADVERBIAL OBJECT. 93

In (2), but not in (1), we see distinctly by the Inflection

urn ^vhich is the sign of the Dative use), that " "
mynstrura
is the Indirect Object.
If the old Dative case had to be
specified, wherever it is
found in Modern English, we should have to call the Objectn
in the following examples, Datives :

" Trust me and believe

(1) no one else."
(2) "A calamity has befallen us."
"
(3) Obey me and disobey him." '

(4) "It displeased the king, though it pleased the people." l

But in modern English the Object after " trust," " befall,
"

&c. must now be called the Direct Object.

The Adverbial Object.

27 -^ Adverbial Phrase is sometimes contracted

into a Noun with a Prepositional Prefix, e.g., "a-
board," "a-foot," "a-field;" and sometimes still
further contracted into a Noun without Prefix of

any kind :

(1) "I am going fishing" (this is a contraction for

"go on fishing," or, "go
a-fishing ").
Home 'E.E. ham) is repeatedly used as an Adverb in "Layamon,"
and also aa an Inflected Noun.

28 Again, in the earliest periods of the language,

an Adverbial Phrase was sometimes represented by
an Inflected Noun, the Inflection representing a
modern Preposition (see last paragraph) :

" He that was dead came

(2) forth, bound hand-urn
ami " as "hands
Tot-?/???," i.e., regards," or, in,
and feet."
"
(3) (Modern English), bound hand and /art."
> In (3) and (4) tlir V<>rhn are derived from French, nud were followed
,
jsition "4."
 94 ADVERBIAL OBJECT. [Par. 129-131

129 Hence, even where no Preposition was ever in-

serted,the Objective form is sometimes used in
answer to the " How far 1 " " How
questions
much 1 " " When 1
" "
Where 1
"
e.g.
" He isworth you and me put together."
(1)

(2) "He walked a mile."

" He is ten
(3) years old."

The Objective form me in the first sentence shews

that all these Nouns and Pronouns must be regarded
as Objectively used.
130 These Adverbial Objects are sometimes, as it
were, compromises between Adverbs and Direct
Objects. For example, " is worth " implies the
Transitive Verb
" and equals," may therefore,
naturally be followed by a Direct Object. On the
other hand, it is in form Intransitive, so as to

require an Adverb rather than an Object.

131 In some of these cases a Preposition may be in-
serted before the Object, as

(1) "We waited (for) an tour."

" He a than 1."
(2> is (by) trifle taller
" \Vo will come
(3) (in) three days from this time."
(4) "(At) that moment, Thomas appeared."
" He came
(5) (by) the shortest way"
" He stood me."
(6) (on) this side of

But it is not to be supposed that a Preposition

was thus inserted in early English.
 Par. 132, 133] INDIRECT OBJECT. 95

EXERCISE XXIII. (SPECIMEN).

132 Parse the italicized Nouns and Pronouns in the

following Exercise :

The Romans had given Lars Porsena offence by banishing their

kin^' Tarquin the Proud. So Porsena sent them an am-
bassador bidding them take back their king or prepare for
war. But the Romans knew well that they would never
be forgiven their rebellion by king Tarquin and, although
;

pardon was offered them if they would submit, they knew

they could not trust his jn-omises. So they gave the
ambassador an ansiver of defiance, and sent him away.
Thi-ii king Porsena, after waiting some days to see whether

they would submit, determined to teach the Romans a

lesson and to humble their pride. So, two months after
the banishment of Tarquin, the Tuscan king set out for
Rome.
133 Great was the fear that the Tuscan army caused the
Romans, when it suddenly appeared on the other side
of the Tiber. The senate was just tlren taking counsel ;

but on hearing of the enemy's approach, all rushed that

instant toward the wall. Messenger after messenger had
arrived bringing the consuls word that this town had
been taken or that village burned but still the Romans
;

had not expected that the army could reach Rome that
day. Forcing his way through crowds that pressed round
asking him anxious questions about their friends and re-
lations, the consul mounted the wall and at once cried
oat "If yonder bridge is not broken down, the enemy
:

"
will beupcnus this moment. Then out spoke Horatius
and said "I and two others will keep the bridge for
:

you hew it down at once." So Horatius and two other

:

Romans, took their stand on the bridge, to ii^ht

-t the whole Tuscan
army, while tin- r-st
rs and Commons together, w<>ik.d
4

hard at the bridge, loosening the props and tearin

the planks.
 96 ADVERBIAL SUBJECT. [Par. 134-, 133

134 An Object may be parsed as follows :

Object
 Par. 136, 137] APPOSITION. 97

Objectively; for the Subjective forms "I" and

" he " are " me " and " him."
used, not
The Subject may be explained as Subject of the
Verb implied in the Participle ; e.g. in (1) " /resist-
ing" is the same as " while, or, though, I resisted."
The Subject in this construction being free from
or loosed from its usual connection with the Verb,
is sometimes called the Subject Absolute (ab, from ;

solut-, loosed).

136 IL Sometimes the Participle is omitted :

" Sioord in
(1) hand, the captain led on his men."
(2) "I was lying on the grass, an unopened book by
my side."
"
(3) Breakfast over, we prepared for our journey."

In all these cases some Participle, such as "being,"

can be easily supplied.

137 Apposition.

Sometimes a Noun or Pronoun is used not as

the ordinary Subject or Object of a Verb, but as a
sort of repetition and explanation of the Subject or

Object.
In such " I " that is to
cases, mean," or say,"
or some similar expression, may be supplied between
the two Nouns :

" Nrxt ramo is to say) Uu bny

(1) ) Thomas, (that r
Then we saw \ that cleans the boots.
 08 APPOSITION. [Par. 138-14O

Here " the boy," being in close connection with

"Thomas," is said to be in Apposition (ad,
" Thomas."
near ; position, position) to
138 For "the boy," write the Third Personal Pro-
noun. Then the sentence becomes
" Next came
(2) Thomas, he that cleans the boots."
(3) "Then we saw Thomas, him that cleans the
boots."

In (2) "Thomas" is the Subject, and the Pro-

noun in Apposition has the Subject-Inflection; in
" Thomas " is the
(3) Object, and the Pronoun in
Apposition has the Object-Inflection, Hence we
get this Rule :

Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when

in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in

Apposition to Objects.

139 B7"used Subjectively " or " Objectively " is meant that

if the word has Subject and Object Inflections the Sub
jective Inflection or Objective Inflection must be used.
140 IQ most cases it may be shewn that words "used (1)
Subjectively" and (2) "Objectively" respectively, answer
the question (1) "who?" or "what?" before the Verb, or
"
(2) whom ? " or " what ? " after the Verb so that they are
logically entitled to be described as being themselves Subjects
or Objects. Thus " he," above, answers " who came 1 "

Nouns or Pronouns in Apposition may be therefore

described as Appositional Subjects or Objects respec-

tively.
 Par. 141-143] APPOSITION. Q9

Apposition with Indirect Object, &c.

The Indirect Object is not often emphatic enough to have

another Indirect Object in Apposition to it. But such a
construction may occur :

"Will you give him your confidence a rasaal banished from all
respectable society?"

wnen use d Possessively, being almost an

Adjective, rarely or never followed by a Noun in Apposi-
is

tion. It would scarcely be English to say :

"This picture was not mine but my brother's an artist himsdlf,

and a great connoisseur."

Even were such an Appositional use allowable, the Pos-

sessive could not be tolerated in Apposition ;
the Objective
"
would have tobe employed, e.g. "artist above, and would
have to be regarded as the Object of an implied "of."
In the following examples there is no Apposition the ;

Noun that was once Appositional has now become part of

a Compound Noun :

" "
(1) "William the Conqueror's character; King Alfred's reign."

The word "house" must be supplied after each of the

Possessive Nouns in the following Example :

" Let ua
(1) go to Macmillan's the Publisher's."

Apposition with an Implied Noun.

143 Sometimes a Noun "in Apposition " not to

is

another preceding Noun, but to some Noun implied

>m the preceding words :
" lie was said to bave
(1) disobeyed his parents a
fault deem* >1 unp;ir<lotiul>lr in those days."
(2) "You were silent when accused a clear confes-
ti0i\ of guilt."
ii 2
 100 INDIRECT AND ADVERBIAL [Par.

In some cases the Noun implied from the pre-

ceding sentence would, if expressed, be Objective.
For example, the sentences might have run
(1) "He was guilty of disobedience & fault," &c.
"
(2) "You kept silence a confession, &c.

But in other cases the implied Noun might be

:
Subjective, e.g.
" If he were elected a Member of Parliament not a
" if his election were
very probable event," i.e.
to happen," Ac.

EXERCISE XXIV.
Parse the italicized words in

By this time the Tuscan army had come up, their spears ad-
vanced, and trumpets sounding in triumph. When they
Sfcw the three brave Romans on the bridge offering them

battle, at first the sight caused them laughter, and three

of the bravest chiefs spurred forth at Porsena's command
to open him a path. But the next moment, their three
bodies lay bleeding beneath the Roman spears. Then
three more Tuscans rode forward ; but, these too being
slain by tha three Romans, fear fell on the
and wrath
whole army. So now, with levelled spears and closed
ranks, they advanced all together against the champions,
a sight to make the bravest shrink back. But the three
stood their ground: and now they had gained their
countrymen time enough to loosen the props of the
bridge, which began to shiver under
the force of the

144 stream. "Back, Horatius, back," shouted the Consul ;

and back rushed his two friends, just in time, the bridge
cracking beneath their feet, and thundering downward,
 r. 145] OBJECT. 101

as they touched the bank. But the brave Horatius, his

wound retarding him (for he had been wounded in the
last contest) could not run back in time, and so was left

alone, the enemy pressing on him in front, and the river

which was fully fifty yards broad surging and foaming
behind. One moment he paused, and offered up a prayer ;
then leaped into the stream. Romans and Tuscans, all
alike, eagerly watched the brave swimmer, swimming
a strong stroke, wounded though he was and Porsena :

cried aloud that he was worth twelve ordinary lives, and

prayed that he might live and fight many another battle.
One minute he seemed to be sinking, but the next he
rose, and at last, weary and faint, he reached the shore.
From that time all the Romans paid Horatius due respect,
and bestowed gifts upon him, and set up his statue in the
market-place, an honour rarely bestowed on any Roman
citizen.

EXERCISE XXV.
Parse the italicized words in

145 A 8** was raging between the birds and the

battle
beasts : had lasted all day, and was not yet decided.
it

Not a bird or beast but* had taken one side or other in

the battle all but the bat. She alone, the cowardly
1

creature, would take no part with either side. In vain

the eagle, the general of the birds, being hard pressed
by his enemies the beasts, sent JT his commands by the
swallow to join the army of the birds. "How can you
she replied ; " what bird
"
give me the name of bird I
has teeth as I have?" Soon afterwards tin.- lion, tho
of the beasts, finding the battle going against
" All
"
ia in appc-l'i-n with a Subject understood.
1

It is as i

the sentence had r Is and beast* had all taken side* in lite

battle, all}'.- !
jective used as a Noun, and
"
in apposition with birds and beasts," implied from the preceding sen-
 102 APPOSITIONAL [par. 1*6, 147

him, sent to say that he would forgive her her past

if she came at once to join his army.
cowardice " What
"
146 right has he to ask me such & favour ? replied the bat.
"How can he take me for a beast? Even a mole can
see that I have wings. Who ever saw a beast with
wings!"
Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed
on the point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly
offered the eagle her services. But the eagle answered,
"Just now you told us you were a beast. Go to your
t'riciul.s the I'dxts :
they need your help more than we."
The bat retired in confusion ; but an hour afterwards,
fortune inclining toward the beasts, she humbly ap-
hed tin- lion, offering him her help.
" You would
not do us a kindness when we were in trouble," roared
the lion, "and now do you talk about giving us your
help? Away with you! The battle once over, I will
make short work with you."
ted by both parties the natural result of her cowardice
the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she
skulks in dark places, and prefers the night to the day
"
a teaming to all men that they must not trim."

147
Appositional Verbs, or Verbs of Identity.

It has been shewn that two Nouns or Pronouns

when " in Apposition" are both used Subjectively, or
else both used Objectively. There are some Verbs
whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pro-

nouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition.

These Verbs sometimes express the identity be-
tween two persons or things. The Verb "is" is
commonly used thus :

(1) "The author of this book is my brother."

 Par. 148] VERBS. 103
"
Here " is expresses the identity between
"
my
brother" and the Subject of "is," i.e. "the
author."
Hence the name Object could not be given to
"my brother." Indeed, if you alter the sentence
by putting yourself in your brother's place, it be-
comes
" The author of this book is 7."
(2)

Since, therefore, you are obliged to use the Sub-

" "
jective fosm " I (not me "),
it follows that
" brother "
in (1) is Subjectively, not Objectively,
used.
"
similar reason, the ordinary term " Object
For a
cannot be given to the Noun following the Verb
in

(3) "He was made, appointed, created, king"

(4) "He was thought, deemed, believed, supposed,
called, named, a rascal"
" He
(5) seems, appears, looks a rascal."

In these sentences the Verb by itself is incom-

plete. "He was made' is not only not the complete
1

meaning; it isThe Verb is, not

even untrue.
"was made" but "was made-king." "To make-
kiny" and "to make-beautiful" are, each, just as
much one Verb, as "to be-king" and "to beauti-fy"
"
tne words " rascal and " general 8uj'/>l>.-
"
148
ment the preceding Verbs, they may bo called the
/dement of the Verb ; and, since they are here
 104 APPOSITIONAL [ Par . 149

used Subjectively, they may be called the Sub-

1
jective Supplement of the Verb.
On the other hand, in
"
(6) created, him general"
They made, appointed,
" We thought,
(7) deemed, supposed, believed, called,
named, him a rascal."

since the identity is here between the Object

"him" and the "rascal" or "general," we may
call
" rascal " and " "
general Objective Supplements

of the Verb*

149 Adjectives are sometimes thus used as Supple-

ments :

(1) "We thought her foolish."

"
(2) I paintedmy house white."
Here " thought-foolish " may be regarded as a

Compound Verb.
Somewhat different is the Participial use of Adjectives in

(1) "They found the man dead."

"
(2) I bought the bouse new."
(3) "I ate my dinner cold."

Caution. Distinguish carefully between :

1. The Complementary Infinitive, which is the

Complement of a Noun or Pronoun (see Par. 97).

3. The Supplement^ which is the Supplement of

a Verb.
* The term "
Supplement," and not Complement, is used, for fear of
confusion between the Supplement of the Verb, and the Complement
of the Subject or Object mentione'd in Par. 97.
 Par. 150-152] VERBS. 106

150 K.B. The Intransitive Verbs "is," "looks"

"seems" "appears" and the Transitive Verbt
"make," "create," "appoint," "deem," "esteem,"
being often used to express identity, may be called
"
Verbs of Identity."

Rule Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and

Passive, take a Subjective Supplement ; when Transi-
tive, take an Objective Supplement.

Preparatory 'it' and 'there.'

Instead of saying " To walk " To

151 is healthy,"
steal is dishonest," we sometimes wish
put the to
" to at the end. But we should
Subject, e.g. walk,"
"
not like to say " is healthy to walk ; we want to
put in some little word as the Subject of is, as it
were to prepare the way for the real Subject that
is coming later on. So we say " It is healthy to
" it is I mean to walk is
walk," i.e.
healthy
healthy."
"
This " it may be called the Preparatory Subject
"
of " is ; for it is like a servant Bent on to prepare
the way for his master and to secure room for him
at an inn.
" To walk " is
the real Subject of
" is."

The Adverb there is used in the same prepai'atory

152 way t though of course it is not a Subject. For
example, if you are beginning a story about a boy,
it does not sound well to say "once a little boy
 100 PREPARATORY, [par. 153. 154
" " little "
was ; so we place boy last, and put in
the word "there," not to mean "in that place,"
but simply to make us feel that something is
coming :

" Once there was a little boy."

When there is thus used,

"
you may say it pre-
pares the way for the Subject, and is a Preparatory
Adverb."

EXERCISE XXVI. (SPECIMEN).

State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized

Verbs, and parse the italicized Nouns in the fol-

lowing Exercise :

153 Once there was a stag in a Looking one day at the

forest.
he thought himself
reflection of his antlers in the water,
the most beautiful creature he had ever seen, till his eyes
"
fell on the long, slim, shadows of his legs. Why,"
cric'l In-, "ha* not Providence made all my limbs orna-

ments to me ? Why has not Heaven given me the legs of

the horse, which, though they do not carry him quite so
swiftly as I run, are nevertheless swift and beautiful at
the same time ? It is certain that then I should 1 be the
1
king of the forest, and there would be none to dispute
the utle with me. But alas my legs are mere sticks,
!

and make me the scarecrow of the forest. However,

complaints being unavailing, I must submit."
154 Scarcely had he spoken, when there was a sound of the
huntsman's horn. Away flew the stag, through the thick
wood ; but he was sadly hindered, his long antlers catch-
1
You need not gtate the Mood of this Verb.
 Par. 155] IT" AND "THERE: 107

ing in the low branches, and checking his furious leaps.

he had gone a mile, the hounds were close upon
<

him ;
but luckily he reached the open plain. Here his
fine antlers, the ornaments of which he had been so proud,
no longer hindered him and by the aid of his legs, the
;

ugly sticks that he had been so contemptuously despising,

he soon got safe away.
It is a mistake you see, sometimes, to despise what is ugly.

155 Verb, i
108 APPOSITION. [Par. 156

Noun.
 Par 157-159] "IT" AND "THERE." 109

of toasted cheese. As soon as I perceived it, the delicious

smell attracting me, I was on the point of rushing in to
taste it ;
but I thought it my duty to come and bring you
word first."

157 "My dear daughter," replied the old mouse, "it is most
fortunate that you did not enter that trap (for it was a
trap) which you thought a cottage. If you had entered,
you would have been taught by your death a lesson that
you have now learned very cheaply. When young mice
grow old, they find that many things that seemed made
for them were made for quite a different purpose a
truth that, I trust, you will never forget."

"It" as Antecedent.
" It "
158 I. is still clearly used for the Antecedent
of the Relative Pronoun in questions :

" Who was it "

(1) the that (Le. t person) you saw ?

It is also thus used in the Bible, where we could

hardly use "it":
(2) "Art thou not it that hath cut Rahab and
wounded the dragon ? "

Similarly in Shakespeare :

(3) "There was it for which my sinews shall be

stretched upon him," i.e., "the, thing for which
I will attack him."

159 II. We do not now like to put "it" in an

emphatic position. The word seems too light to
bear, as it were, the weight that would sometimes
fall on it, if placed in the usual position of the
 110 "IT" AS ANTECEDENT. [ Par. ieo, 161

Antecedent. For example, in answer to (1) above,

we do not like to say, though it would be logically
correct
" It that I saw was John."
(4)

Instead of this, we prefer to take some of the

" " "
emphasis from it by shifting the place of that."
In this way, "it" becomes almost as unemphatic
" it" in Par. 151
as the preparatory :

" It was John that I saw."

(5)

" It
160 By a similar transposition, instead of saying,
that says so is you," we ought to say, strictly

speaking
(6) "/* is you that says so."
But this sounds harsh. We what we
feel that

want to express is " You say so." Hence " You that
"
says so seems ungrammatical. Consequently, by
a mistake of confusion (confusing (6) with "you
say so "), we have fallen into the habit of writing
the sentence thus :

" It
(7) is you that say so."

1Q1 But, in parsing (7), the only right method is

" "
1st, to state that say is, by confusion,
used for
" "
says \ 2nd, that the sentence is transposed from
"it that says so is you;" 3rd, that "it" is the
Antecedent of "that," and Subject of "is."
The same parsing applies to
(8) "It was you that I laughed at," i.e., "it that I

laughed at was yom."

 " IT" AS ANTECEDENT.
Par 162] Ill

162 I would appear also to apply to

fc

(9) "It was at you that I laughed."

" It was from
(10) you that I received this insult."

These sentences would appear to be for " It that

I laughed at was you," "It that I received this
insult from was you."

It has been suggested that " it

"
is here the
"
Preparatory
#," and "that" a Conjunction, the meaning being "The
fact that 1 received this insult was owing to, or, from you.'
But this does not seem to hold good for (9) " The fact that
I laughed was at you."
Of course however "it" is the Preparatory "it," and
"that" is a Conjunction in :

" It was in
(11) the time of Julias Caesar that the Romans first
tnraded Britain."
 CHAPTER VI.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
BESIDES expressing facts, a Verb may express
163 I. Purpose:'
" Give him some water
(1) that he may drink."
" We hid the water lest he should drink
(2) it all."

164 II. Condition:'

"If you were to give him some water. "
(1) . .

" Should see him to-morrow. "

(2) you . .

165 HI- The Consequence of the fulfilment of Condi-

Won :
'

(1) "... he would drink."

(2) "... you would find him much changed."

Every ordinary Verb has a manner, mode, or

Mood of expressing Purpose, Condition, and Con-
ditional Consequence.

166 Subjunctive of Purpose.

Present,
 Pmr. 167] SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 113

" Would used in "

"
(apparently of purpose) is begged, We
besought, that he would come." See Par. 173.
The distinction between "might" and "should "appears to
be, that "might" (expressing possibility) is a more modest
word wherewith to represent one's object, than "should,"
which expresses futurity, and necessity.
"I him water
(1) gafre (in the hope) that (possibly) he nig\\

(2) "I took away the water (for fear) lest (which would certainly
have happened) he should drink. "

In other words, since we do not like to express our hopes

so strongly as our fears, we use
" "
of what we
might hope,
and "should" of what we fear.

Subjunctive of Condition.

The following is an important division of a Con-

ditional sentence :

167 In a Conditional sentence, (I) the clause express-

ing the condition is called tJie Antecedent (" going-

before ") (2) the clause expressing the consequence

;

of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Con-

*
sequent.

The forms in the Antecedent differ from the

corresponding forms in the Consequent, and three
out of five are identical with the Indicative, as will
be seen from the following scheme :

These arejOso called (1) Protasis ; (2) Apodosis. See Gltmary ,,/

I
 114 CONDITIONAL MOOD. [Par. 168, 169

165 Conditional Mood.

Antecedent.
Far. 170] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 115

1
 116 AUXILIARY VERBS. [Par. 171, I7a

EXERCISE XXVIII.

171 Replace the italicized Auxiliary Verbs by their

equivalents in a non-auxiliary form ; and, where
they cannot be replaced, state the Mood represented
by them :

1. "If I might choose," said the camel to Jupiter, "I

would have the neck of the swan, and the legs of the
"
horse then I should be the king of the beasts."
;
You
ode a greater mistake," replied Jupiter ;

"if you had your way you would be nothing but a

" If
giraffe." 2. you would but throw me into the
"
water," said the gudgeon to the fisherman I should ;

soon grow fatter and bigger, and then, whenever yon

wanted me, I would come and be caught." "If I could
feel sure of that," replied the fisherman, "perhaps I

might let you go ; but, as I am not at all sure, I

must pop you into my basket." 3. " I could have won
the race, if I had wished," said the hare in a rage to the
successful tortoise M but I would rather lose the
; prize,
than trudge for a dozen hours together, as you do, over
a dozen yards." 4. The ass in the lion's skin might
Inive kept the beasts in awe for ever, if he could have

kept quiet. 5. "If I could sell my milk at a good

price, I might buy a hen the hen's eggs would give me

;

money enough to buy a new gown then I should be the

;

best dressed girl at the fair, and I would 1 walk like

a fine lady, tossing my head like this."

"
CAUTION. Might." I might have is often used for I
"
should have had power to," where "power" means
" lawful
power." It differs very little, in such cases, from
See Par. 173.
 Far. 173, 17*] AUXILIARY VERBS. 117

*'
I could have," except that in
" could "
there is no notion
of "lawful" power.
" If ho had wished he
(1) might have helped me."
" If he had not been too
(2) scrupulous, he could soon have made
"
his fortune.

But the two words are often confused Very often also it is doubtful
whether " might " and " could " are not Indicatively, rather than Sub-
junetively. used. "He might have helped me" (sometimes (see Par.
" He had
170) means (Indie. ) the power to have helped me (but did not
use it)." Since, according to the proverb, "no one knows what he can
do till he tries," power may always be regarded (1) as existing though
unused, i.e. Indicatively; or (:>) as a possibility, subject to the fulfil-
ment <>f condition, i.e. Subjunctively. Hence, in Latin, the Indicative
" "
potui is often used in Conditional language.

173 ^''^' wou ^- ^

ote that just as "I may come" means
"I shall possibly come," in the same way "I will, or
would come" often means "I shall willingly, or, should
willingly, come." In other words, "will" is used for the
Future of itself, i.e. "I shall will," just as "may" is for

"I shall may."

Hence " would "
is not quite the same in
(1) "John said he (John) would be punctual."
" John
(-2) thought he (John) would take a walk."
In (l)the meaning is little more than "John said he was going to
be punctual; but in (2) "will" is for "shall will" or "shall like,"
then-fore, for "should will" or "should like," so
that the sentence means " John thought he should like to take a walk.
'

This explains the use of "would" for "might" after Verbs of pray-
ing (Par. 166). "We begged that he would come" is put for "we
begged that he might will, i.e. might be pleased to come."

Indicative Use of Auxiliary Verbs. /

"
The Verbs " can,"
"
may,"
"
shall," will," to-
" "
gether with their Past Tenses could," might,"
" "
should," would," being sometimes Indicatively
and sometimes Subjunctively used, require much
care. Here are examples of the Indicative use of
those verbs :

174 " to be able."

Cn, could,
 118 AUXILIARY VEXES. [ Par 175-178
.

" He did
help me, but he could not (was not able to)
help me much."

175 May, might (i), "to be allowed;" "to have

power."
(1) "I may (i.e. am allowed to) play now, because I
have finished "
my work.
" Whi-ii I was
(2) a boy I might (i.e. was allowed
to)
always ] .lay after I had worked three hours."
"
(3) My father says that I may (i.e. am allowed to)
go out."
(4) "My father said that I might (i.e. was allowed
to) go out."
" You
(5) might (i.e. had the power to) have helped
me, but you would not."
"
173 May, might (ii), to be possible."
(1) "He says that he may possibly come, but he
does not feel certain ; " i.e. " his coming is
possible."
(2) "He said that he might come, but that he did
not feel certain;" i.e. "his coming was pos-
"
sible.

177 Shall, should (i),

to be obliged ;
to be bound."

(1) "You should (i.e. ivcre, and arc, bound to)

control your temper."
" You should not were bound not havo
(2) (i.e. to)
been so hasty."
" to be
178 Shall, should (ii), going."
"
(1) John says that he shall 1
(is going to) help me."
(2) "John said that he should (was going to) help
me."
1
There is no nideness in " "
shall here, because John is here avow-
ing his own fixed intention. You do not use "shall" about John
John uses it about himself.
 Par. 179-182] AUXILIARY VERBS. lid

" to be
179 Will, would, willing; to wish ;
to like."

(1) "He would notwilled not, or, refused to)

(i.e.

help me, although he could (i.e. was able to)

"
easily have done it.
"
(2) Although he was warned of the danger, yet the
foolish boy would (i.e. willed, was determined to)
run upon the thin ice."
(3) "After breakfast the old man would (i.e. liked
to) generally take a walk."

Caution. Notice that Indicative Tenses of

180 " " " "
may," can," shall," will," when depending
on a Principal Verb in the Present, are Present ;
but when depending on a Past, are Past :

(1) "I say that I maif, can, shall, will, help you."
" I said that I might, could, should, would, help
(2)
"
you.

The Auxiliary " can" " 1'

Rule. Verbs
IQl "
could,
"
"mfty" "might," <bc. (when not following if or
other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used

Iinliciitively, provided they can be altered into

the

Indicatives of otJier Verbs.

How to Paraje the Subjunctive.

1. Where the Mood

expresses Purpose^ parse the
Verb as
" of
Subjunctive Purpose."
2. Where the Mood expresses Condition, but in
"
the Indicative form, e.g. If he comes, came, had
," you may parse the Verb as "Conditional
 120 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [PUT. 183

(Indicative form);" otherwise as simply "Con-

ditional"

3. State whether the Conditional Verb is in the

Antecedent or Consequent.

It is good practice to replace Auxiliary Verbs by

their equivalents, either in the Indicative or the
Subjunctive, as the case may be.

183 EXERCISE XXIX. (SPECIMEN).

State the Moods of italicized Verbs in the follow-

ing Exercise :

Hundreds of years ago, in the centre of the city of Rome

there suddenly appeared one morning a deep chasm or
pit No one knew what could have canned it, and no
one could till it up. If earth or stone could have filed
it np, it would not have remained open long hut, al- ;

though heaps upon heaps of stone and ruhhi-

cast down, the pit still remained unfilled. The people
now began to fear that the gods of Koino rni</J;'
to punish the city, and they thought the pit rnujlit be
a sign of their anger. So they went to the pi
asl< them what they might to do. The high priest replied
that the gods had sent the pit in anger at the citizens ;

;i
though you -in nf on casting in earth for centuries,"
said he, "the pit would never be dosed: it will always
remain open, until the most precious thing in 1

cast into it." On learning this, the citizens ,-,-ist in their

gold and the women their bracelets and ear-rings, in the
hope that thus they ruiifltf .SY///.S/}/ the gods and close the
pit. But all was in vain, and it seemed as if nothing
would be of use. At last a young soldier named .Marcus
Curtius, clothed in full armour and mounted on hi*
 Par. 184, 185] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 121

horse, cried aloud that if a brave man had cast himself

into the pit, it would have been dosed long ago. Saying
this he set spurs to his horse and leaped into the pit ;

which at once closed, and never opened afterwards.

1 84 Could have caused. "Was able to have caused." Indi-

cative. 1
Could have filled. " Had been able to fill." Indicative
form of the Conditional Antecedent. :

Would have remained. Conditional Consequent. :

" It was
nd. possible that they intended (put for
1 1
they were possible to intend ')." Indicative.
Might be. "It was possible to be (put for 'was possible to
1
be').'' Indicative.
" Were bound." Indicative. 1
Ought.
on. "Should go on." Indicative form of the Con-
ditional Antecedent :

Would be closed. Conditional Consequent. :

Is cast.
" Shall be cast" Indicative form of the Subjunc-
tive.
" It was possible that they were going to
Might satisfy.
'
satisfy (put for they were possible to satisfy')." Indi-
cative. x
Would be. Conditional Antecedent. Full sentence is,
:

" as were going to be of use."

(it would seem) if nothing
Had cast. Indicative form of the Conditional : Antece
dent.
Would have been closed. Conditional :
Consequent

EXERCISE XXX.
State the Moods of the following italicized

Verbs :

" If wc ha tt mt a k m &" 8ai(i 8ome

185 '
*

"we should be peaceful and orderly ;

as it is, every one
'

used net only in "I*"

where it cam
pi-ens a/cwf, r.n. (1) "I IK-IT
i")

ID Latin, the 8ul>junr, w

Hi.iiM I..- usi-il In (2) and (3), il.- lulin. in (1).
 122 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [ Par . 186
may do as he pleases, and say what he likes, and there is
as much uproar in our pond as 1 if we were a set of
noisy ducks, instead of being quiet respectable frogs. A
king would" soon set us to rights. that Jupiter 3 !

would give us a king." So they held an assembly and

offered up a prayer to Jupiter that he would 4 give them
a king. Scarcely were the words of their prayer out
of their mouths, when down came a big black monster
from the sky, splashing the water up like a fountain.
Away swam the frogs in a fright. "Jupiter should not
have sent us such a terrible monster," cried they ;
"
why could he not send us a decent quiet king, who
might 5 keep us in order without frightening us out of
our wits? As for this tyrant, if he terrifies 6 us thus at
his first coming, what will he do when he M?(a) used to
oppressing us?"
186 But the big black monster took no notice of their terror.
There In- lay vilent and sullen, and would not so much
as move a Astonished at his silence, the frogs,
limb.
after their first fright, began to wish that their new
king would* say or do something, so that at least they
might be relieved from their suspense. So they took out
of prison a frog that had committed murder, and pro-
mised him free pardon if he would swim within three
frog's leaps of the king. Shivering with terror the poor
frog swam towards the king, scarcely daring to hope that
he might 1(b) escape, and expecting every moment that

* i.e. "as (there would be) if we were."

Here, as very often, the Antecedent is left out, but can be supplied,
"if he were here."
3 "O that Jupiter would" is a short way of saying "(we pray,
!

ilc-;irf) that Jupiter would." This is a more earnest and l.<ss hopeftu
"
way of expressing onecelf than we pray that Jupiter will, or may."
If fully expressed, the sentence would perhaps be
" if it were
possible
that one's prayer could be granted, we would pray that Jupiter would
"
give us a king." This is would" of purpose ; Par. 167.
4 (1) After "prayer" would expresses purpose; (2) after "wish " it
may"be changed into "was going to," and treated as Indicative.
5 Who might keep us in order" is put for "that he might" and
denotes
6 "If here is the
"in- same as " since." Hence '
teirifies
"
is Indicative.
7 (a) See Par. 80 "
; (ft) might," see Par. 180.
 Par. 187] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 123

the huge monster would dart upon him with open jaws,
and swallow him up. Closer and closer he swam still ;

the king floated silent, motionless. Taking courage

from this, the frog thought he would 1 awake his ma-
jesty by croaking. He croaked, but the king made no
reply. Ho swam closer, and still closer, and at last,
his suspicions being aroused, he extended one of his
legs, and stroked the monster's face with it. It was
as he had suspected. The king was no king, nothing
but a big black log.
187 Immediately the whole tribe of frogs, who had been watching
from a distance, lifted up their voices and began to
abuse Jupiter: "If he had wished to insult us," cried
they, "he could not have treated us more contemptu-
ously. "We should not have minded a strong and
somewhat fierce king, even if he had swallowed up a
few of us now and then. Anything would be better
than this do-nothing, this King Log. "Why may not
we have a king as the birds and the beasts have ?
*
Jupiter should not have treated us thus ; he might
at least have sent us no king instead of thus insulting
us. Wo will pray to him no more until he sends 3(a) us
"
a real king. So the frogs shut up all their temples,
and for a whole day would say no more prayers to
Jupiter. But at the end of the day there suddenly
hopped down into the pond a monstrous stork to be
their king. He began by gobbling up a dozen of the
noisiest frogs, and ordered that no frog should *W croak in

any part of the pond while he was asleep. This plea --a
"
rest, who said, Now we shall have order it is worth :

while having a strong king that we may have ]

and quiet." But, when they canie swimming round

"
*
He thought
"
he would" la "put for "he thought he ihould vtll, i.e.

See Par i

Tt von take it to moan "ho had the power ;'

:i able (If he had pleased),

o Par. 80 " $h<wM croak," notion of Pnrpoae.

; (6)
 4 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [p r . 188
him next morning, to respects, and to ask
pay their
him to judge their disputes, he would not hear them,
but ate them up by scores, quiet and noisy alike, choos-
ing the fattest. So now the frogs saw they had nuulo
a mistake, and they said, "If we were once rid of King
Stork we would not find fault with King Log, and
"
indeed we could be content to have no king at all.

188 The Indefinite Subjunctive.

Sometimes " should "

is used where a Condition
is implied rather than expressed :

(1) "It would be unjust that I should suffer for

other people's misconduct."

This is really equivalent to

"It would be unjust if I should suffer," &c.
(2)

But it is more difficult to explain why we say

" It is a shame that I should be thus insulted,"
(3)
i.e. "am thus insulted."
"
(4) I am
sorry that my son should thus misconduct
himself," i.e. "thus misconducts himself."
"
(5) To think that he should r
disgraced
himself
" " has so far
i.e. !
disgraced himself."

In the last three examples facts are spoken of :

why thenthe Subjunctive used ?

is

The answer is, that we desire here to speak of

the facts, not as definite facts, but as possibilities.
In the same indefinite way we sometimes Use the
Infinitive, as being an Indefinite Mood :

" It is a shame me to be thus insulted." x

(6) for
* "Porto ... be insultfl
"
is really here the Old Infinitive with
" for to " instead of " to." See Par. 402.
 Par 189, 190] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 125

" "
Consequently, this use of should may be called
the Indefinite Subjunctive.

1 QQ Tenses of the Subjunctive.

usual to speak of tho Present and Past Tenses of a

It is
"
Subjunctive but, in reality, "if he comes
: refers to future
and so does " if he came or should come"
time,
It may perhaps be said that, in "if he come(s), I will see
"
him ;
the Condition, though having to do with the Future,
is regarded as Present to the speakers. Nevertheless, th
fact that the Elizabethan writers often used to say "if he
shall coine," indicates that this form is more like a Future
than anything else.
The form " if he should come " seems to be a combination
of Future and Past the Future being represented by the
shall, and the Past by the Inflection -d as though with
the intention of making a Condition that should apply to
no time in particular, but to all time.
The same intention seems obvious in " if he were to come,"
where the Past time is included in " were," and the Future
in to," which looks " to-ward the future.
" "

The False Subjunctive.

1
QQ " If "
sometimes used not in
is its ordinary Con-
ditional sense, nor, on the other hand, exactly like
" but ratber in the sense of " assuming as
since,"
a fact" In such cases it is followed by a true
Indicative (not an Indicative form of tho Con-
126 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [ Par. 19O

ditional), and the Indicative (Present or Past) ia

also used in the Consequent :

(1) "//"he says that, he is more ignorant than I

supposed."
"
(2) // he said that, he was more ignorant than I
had supposed."

This must not be confounded with the true Sub-

junctive.

Pope seems to use the Present and the Future indiffer-

" while "in
ently after
"While lasts the mountain or while Thames shall
 CHAPTEE VIL

IRREGULARITIES.

that which is like a ruled line,

191 REGULARITY "means
for
"
regular means " ruled." Irregularity, there-
fore, means that which is not like a ruled line.
Language is said to be regular when it follows

straight fixed rule*.*

Irregularity of Idioms.

For example, it is regular to say, " I have a score

Of sheep." Here " score " is a Noun, and therefore
" of." On
is regularly followed by the other hand,
it is irregular to say, "I have a dozen marbles,"
" of."
leaving out

Now bear in mind

Whenever language is irregular, there is some
cause for the irregularity.

> For a Summary of the Rules of Syntax, see -RVLBB AMD I'

x
 128 IRREGULARITIES. [ PaP . 193, 194

Language does not bend away from its straight

fixed rules for nothing ; there is some cause that
makes it bend.
193 In the last example there are perhaps two causes:
when we " I have a
(1) say, dozen," we confuse this
with " I have twelve," that is to say, we confuse
the use of a Noun with the use of an Adjective.
"
So we treatdozen," partly as though it were an
" of " after
Adjective, leaving out the it, and partly

as though it were a Noun, keeping the

" a"

before it
We do the same thing in " I have a hundred
"
sheep ; we ought to say, by rule, " I have a
hundred (Noun) of sheep," or, u I have hundred
"
(Adjective) sheep;
but we keep the "a," as though
" hundred " were a " "
Noun, and yet leave out of as
" hundred " were an Thus we
though Adjective.
mix or confute two constructions. (2) Another
omitted after " dozen and
" "
reason why the " of is
" hundred " to be brief.
is probably the desire
194 Here then there are two causes, and they are

very common causes, of irregularity: (1) Con-

fusion oftwo constructions, (2) the desire
to be brief. (3) The desire to avoid
harshness of sound or of construction,
and (in Poetry more especially) the desire to give
special emphasis to certain words, are also causes of
irregularity.
 Par 195-1971 IRREGULARITIES. 129

195 Irregularity of Words.

The " confusion of two constructions," or rather
the "reduplication of constructions," affects the
formation of words, as well as of idioms. It is very
common for an Inflection to become obsolete ;md
forgotten, and then to receive a second Inflection as
"
an appendage, the two being blended or " confused
ther.
196 For example (1) the old Genitive in 's, which is
now retained only in our " Possessive Inflection,"
had once a wider use, so that it represented our
" at " or "
by," and was used for an Adverbial
termination. Hence were formed :

" One-s " or "once

" "
unaware-s
" " door-s "
(1) ; ; ;

"day-s;" i.e. "by day."

In time, the Adverbial use of the Inflection be-

coming obsolete, a Preposition was inserted, but
the old useless Inflection was retained :

(2) "At once;" "at unawares" (Spenser); "in

s
" '
;" now-a-days."

In the same way (1) " near

"
197 was recognised as a
" neah" nigh
itive form, from :
(2) "song-
ster" was recognised as a Feminine, with the old
Feminine termination -ster. But, as the sense of

and
'

Occasionally tli. -i. i . f.. -,i..|

l.y little little*.*
 130 IRREGULARITIES. [ P ar. 198

the Inflection in each word became lost, new In-

flections were added :

(1) "Near-cr;" (2) "Song-strew."

In this way may be explained the use of

in " a friend of yours"
1 "
yours (See Par. 434).
The use of " yours " ' for " your," is in part ex-
"
plained confusion," and in part by Law III.
by
Law " Desire to avoid
III, the harshness,"
accounts for the irregular retention of the following
old forms for emphasis :

(1) "I want a book, give me one (emphatic form of

a, an, ane)."
" Give me a have no(ne)."
(2) book, for I
"
Keep my book, and
1
(3) I will keep your(s), till

you have done with

198 How to Explain Irregularities.

Just as the attraction of the earth makes a bullet

deviate from the straight line in which it is dis-

charged, so some attracting cause makes language

deviate from the straight path, i.e. from regularity,
into a path that is not straight, i.e. into irregu-

larity.

1 '
Yours was early used in the Northern Dialect*
 Par. 199] IRREGULARITIES. 131

This may be illustrated by a diagram :

J,
Attracting force :

Desire of Brevity.
I.
II. Influence of some other construction.
III. Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construc-
tion, Ac. Ac.

First, therefore, ascertain the regularity from

which the irregularity in question has deviated.
Secondly, ascertain the cause of deviation, whether
it be (i) desire of brevity ; (ii) confusion of two

constructions ; (iii)
desire to avoid harshness of
sound or of construction.
" He loved her as his own
(1) daughter," i.e., "as
(he would have loved her, if she had been) his
own daughter." (Brevity).
"
(2) All of us remonstrated," i.e., confusion of tin-

two constructions " All 1: we remonstrate^,"

and "some, many, ten, &c. of us remonstrated."

199 ^ " ^
y u ^ia ' ^y s

Compare shocp, have gone artray

 132 IRREGULARITIES, ^Pa

In this last example two principles are at work.

The regular construction would have been
"
(1) It that says so is you."

Here steps in (III) the desire to avoid the harsh-

" it " is
ness of " it," used so emphatically ; hence

deprived of its emphasis by being separated from

its Relative "that."
"
(2) It you that says so."

" confusion " between this con-

Here steps in (II)
" You
struction and the straightforward construction
"
say so resulting in the idiom logically incorrect,
but by process of custom stamped as perfectly good
English :

" l
(3) "It is you thiit say so.

200 Irregularities are very common (j) with the

Relative Pronouns and Relative Ad-verte, (ii) with

Adjectives and Adverbs of Number and Amount.

A few of these irregularities are given below, in
order to prepare the reader for dealing systemati-

cally with all irregularities in the

English language.
In every case the same method will be adopted,
viz. to ask

I. What would be the regular construction f

IL What is the cause of irregularity ?

i See also Par. 160

 Far 201, 2O2] RELATIVE WORDS. 133

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

" "
201 1. That is often omitted as the Object, aiid
sometimes (rarely except in Poetry) as the Sub
ject :

" Twos you daw."

(1) (that) I
" 'Twas not I."
(2) you (that) said so,

"
The regular construction inserts that."
" the l
The cause of irregularity is (I) desire of
and " confusion
"
with '

brevity," (II) the straight-

forward construction " You said so."

202 2.
" But "seems put for
" that. ..not"
or " who
...not," e.g. in
" There is no one here but hates you," i.e.
" that
(1)
"
dbes not hate you.

The " but " " be-out " or

radical meaning of is

"with-out;" hence "except." And therefore the

regular construction is
(2) "There is no man here but or except (he) hate
you."

Compare Julius Ccesar, v. 5, 35 :

(3) "I found no man but he was true to mo."

" he." Also " but "

Brevity steps in and omits
is confused with a Relative Pronoun, just as "as"
is.
(See next Paragraph).
For other uses of " but," see Index.
Theae Numbers refer to the Laws of Irr.^iil.irity mentioned in Par*.
 134 IRREGULARITIES, (par. 2O3, 2O4-
" So." The radical " "
203 3. meaning of so (Early
" swa " in "
English ") is that way ; and the radical
meaning of "as" (which is a contraction of an
emphatic form of "so," Early English "all-swa,"
"also," "als," "as") is "in which way," or "in
that way." " as " has the Demon-
Consequently,
strative meaning of "so," besides having its own

Relative meaning.

(1) "If you are busy, say so."

"
(2) I thought ho was a rascal, and he is so."

The Regular Construction would be

(3) "He is //."

But (Law III) 1

the harshness of "it" in so
emphatic a position has
tended to irregularity;
and (Law II) this construction has been confused
with
(4) "I thought ha was a rascal and he turned out so,

proved so," &o.

In " so " " in

(4), is used in proper sense, viz.
its

that way," and it has been confused with and

"
substituted for "
"
it in Example (2), in which " so
must be parsed as
" used
fo? it."

" So as-to."
204 4-

(1) "The sailors furled the sails so as to be prepared

for the storm."

1 These
Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned In
Paragraph 198.
 Par. 205] RELATIVE WORDS. 135

The Regular Construction would be

" The sailors furled the sails so (in the way) as (in
(2)
which way) [they would furl the sails] to be pre-

pared for the storm."

Brevity (Law I), disliking the repetition, omits

the bracketed sentence. In the same way we
say
(3) "I am not so credulous as (I should have to be)
to believe this."

"
The words " so as add indefiniteness, by suggesting con-
dition. If they had been omitted :

" The sailors furled the sails to be

(4) prepared for the storm."

the purpose of the sailors would have been definitely ex-

pressed. But the insertion of "so as" implies rather that
tin- work was of a nature tending towards a certain result,

without distinctly stating the purpose.

205
" As." " In that "
5. way," in which way."
(1) "I have not such kind treatment as I used to
have."
" "
(2) Bring such books as you have.
" Parse such a sentence as this
(3) (is)."
" Such as it is, I it
(4) give you."

The Regular Construction would be (since " such "

means " so-like," and is the Demonstrative corre-
to the Relative " what-
sponding which," i.e.

:
like)
" I have not such kind treatment which I used to
(5)
h.ive."
 136 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 2O6-2O8
" such "
206 Hence, in ^Shakespeare, we often find
" which " " "
followed by and that (Relative Pro-
nouns) :

" Such an affection which cannot choose but

(6)
"
branch.
" You man
(7) speak to Caaca, and to such a
"
That is no fleering toll-tale.

But (Law II)

1
the Regular Construction in (5) is

confused with
(8) "I have not kind treatment as (i.e., in the way
in which) I used to have."

207 The result is the irregularity in (1), which is now

recognized as good English. But while this process
"
of " confusion of constructions was going on, many
idioms were formed that have been discarded, and
are not recognized as good English. We all know
that it is vulgar to say
" This saw yesterday.
'

(9) is the boy as I

" "
Yet Shakespeare, using " as for that," precisely
in this way, writes

(10) "I have not from your eyes that gentleness

And show of love as I was used to have."
"
208 Hence we can explain the use of " as in paren-

theses, as follows :

(11) "So you are late again, as (is) usual."

(12) "As 1 told you before, you must work before

yon play."

i These Numbers refer to the Laws of Trregularity mentioned in Para-

raph 198.
 Par 209] RELATIVE WORDS. 137

In both (11) and (12) "as" is used for the

Relative Pronoun "which," while the Antecedent
(see Par. 25) must be supplied from the context,
thus :

"
(11) in full, So you are late again, which (lateness)
is usual with you."
" You hiust work before
(12) in full, you play, which
"
(saying) I told you before.

209 6. "As" redundant.

(1 ) "He was appoi n ted as general .
' '

" We will have him as our leader."

(2)
"
(3) "I esteem him as a rasml.
" This shall serve ua
(4) as ink."

In (3) and (4) the Regular Construction would

be
(3) in full, "I esteem him as (I should esteem)
ra*
"
(4) in full, This shall serve us as ink (would serve
us)."

It is more difficult to give the Regular Con-

struction for (1) and (2), and probably the irregu-
larities of (1) and (2) are caused not only by (I)
desire of brevity, but also by (II) confusion of con-
struction. For example, it is au easy transition to
" \V- will "
hnve him as from :

" Wrwill rvo him, honour him, treat

(5)
hin;, hold him, ns WP would ohoy, servo, honour,
f

; leader."
 138 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 21O-21A

210 "As," in many similar sentences, is used to give

the impression that the writer is not stating a fact,

but somebody else's opinion :

(1) "He considered pleasure as (it would be con-

sidered if it were) the object of life."
" He
(2) represented the results of the expedition as
(they would be represented, if they were) most
"
disastrous.

"
In all these cases " as may be parsed as re-
"

dundant." The full construction should be given,

or the construction that has caused the irregularity
" confusion."
by
"
For " as yet and other uses of "
as," see
Index.

211 " As " as are often used

7. if," though,"
where (I) the Consequent is omitted :

(1) "He loved her as (he would have loved her) if

she had been his own daughter."
" He loved her as (much as he could have loved
(2)
her, for he could not have loved her more)
(hough she had been his own daughter."

In both examples, Brevity is the Cause of Irregu-

larity.

212 Words of Number. 1

Some much-used Adjectives and Adverbs of

" Laws of
*
(I), (II- ), (HI), refer to the Irregularity," mentioned in
Par. 198,
 Par tola] WORDS OF NUMBER. 180

Number and Amount present many irregularities.

The same word is used sometimes

1. As a Numeral Adjective, answering the ques-

tion "How many]"
2. As an Adverb, answering the question " Ho\
"
much ? "In how great a degree 1 " &c.
3. As a Noun, being the name of a collection,
" score."
e.g.

" Cause of "

213 Hence theprincipal Irregularity here
\\illbe the " Confusion of Constructions," viz. the
Constructions of an Adjective, Adverb, and Noun.

(1) "A dozen (of) pens, a hundred (of) men, half (of)
the country, 1 all (of) the men, more (of) pudding
a little (of) pudding." 2

Here the Regular Construction would have

been
(2) "Hundred men, twenty men," &c.

But a feeling that each number represented a

" collection " led to the insertion of " a "
single
without the grammatically consistent and necessary
insertion of "of," so that the Noun Construction

yon cannot say "quarter tin- country." Why? 1."

"half" in more commonly tued than " quarter (insomuch that half"
"
"
i sometimes Used VO, th- larp-.r half");
s feed upon custom. It ia where inrii liavc t<> say t;
thiivs
'
" "'i'/
91/K/.J//. that in.'ii art; most apt to cut
ami clip and
V their language to suit
"renio Romam," but " venio ad Italiam."
 140 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 214, 215

was confused with the Adjective. In the same way,

we find
in earlier English,
"
(3) "A score sheep," a ten furlongs."

And even in our Authorized Version of the Bible

we have
(4) "About an eight days after these sayings."

214 In some of these cases probably the Adjective

and Noun are regarded as one Compound Noun.
"
Compare "a fortnight," i.e. a fourteen-night," "a
twelve-month."
But in modem English the irregularity is only
licensed with a few much-used Adjectives "dozen,"
" " thousand " " million
hundred," (perhaps ").

215 1.
" All."

(1) "Allo/us rejoiced."

Regular Construction "All we." Cause of Irregu-

larity, partly (III)the harshness of " all we," partly
"
(II) Confusion of (1) with ten, twenty, many, &c.,
of us." Note the following various uses :

(2) "He rushed up all out of breath," "all the

better," Adverb.
" All is in vain h will not
(3) :
help us at all,"
Noun.
In " The men all perished
"
(4)

" "
all may be parsed as an Adjective, just as we
can say " The men twenty in number perished."
 Par 216-218] WORDS OF NUMBER. 141

"
But undoubtedly all owes its position in (4) to
"

a confusion of its Adjectival use with its Adverbial

"
use, viz. altogether."

" "
16 2. Enough :

(1) "He has been punished enough," Adverb.

" We have
had enough of wandering," Noun.
(2)

(3) "We have not enough men," Adjective, though

"
really a Noun with of" omitted (II.) ;

(4) "I have not men enough," Adverb in position,

Adjective in use ; (II.)

" " "

217 Few," little :

"A " a
(1) few (of) men," little (of) padding."

Adjectives, with (II.) Confusion of Noun Con-

" "
struction. Distinguish a little (of) pudding from
"a little," i.e. "a small pudding." See Pars. 21314.
"
218 3. Many:"-
(1) "Many a man has tried, but few have suc-
ceeded."

The Regular Construction would be " Many

"
men ;
but this appears to have been confused
with
" man
(2) Jfaw?/ times a hap tried."

"
The -y termination of " many has doubtless
ired this Adverbial use.
There is abundant proof that in Early English
" "
many was used either as an Adverb, or as part of
 142 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. ai9

a " in Modern
Compound Adjective many-one," i.e.

English "many-a." (See Shakespearian Grammar,

Par. 85.) This began in the thirteenth century.
In the same way the Germans say "mancher
(Adj.) mann," but "manch (Adv.) ein mann."
The insertion of " a " is common after Adjectives
that are Semi- Adverbial. Compare
" What a, man he is " !
(3)
" Such a man as he is
(4) ought to know better."

And, in Early English :

(6) "Each a man," "which a wife," i.e. "what a

wife."

also has

(6) "Poor (i.e. barely) a thousand pounds."

It is rare to find "many" (like "few") now

treated as a Noun (Shakespeare has "a many of
our bodies ") :

(6) "A many (of) men."

219 4. More "- :

" Give me
(1) some, no, much, &c. more pudding."
" Give me three more books, one more book."
(2)

"
Here " more is an Adverb, and means " besides."
But it owes its position to a confusion of the
Adverbial with the Adjectival use of " more."
instead of " Some
Hence, saying pudding more,
" some more
%.e. in addition," we say pudding."
 Par. 220-222] WORDS OF NUMBER. 143

H20 "No," "any," "some," are used as Adverbs

"
" How much more
answering to the question ]

in
" He " no " " did uot
(3) slept no more," i.e.
longer ;

sleep any more, much more" ie. "any, much,

longer."

" "
221 More is used as a Noun in
" He is formore."
(4) always asking
(5) "I want, (or) I said, no more."

"
Here " no regarded either as an Adjec
may be
tive making up part of a Compound Noun, "no-

more," or perhaps, more correctly, as an Adverb

" more." '
modifying the anomalous Adverbial Noun

" "
222 Some :

(1) "I had some difficulty," Adjective of Amount.

(2) "I saw some children," Adjective of Number.
" He will come some time or other," Adjective of
(3)
Indefiniteness.

(4) "Some one or other said so," Adjective of Inde-

finiteness.

(5) "Some twenty men arrived," i.e. "about,"

Adverb.

Compare, for the Adverbial use of "some,"

Shakespeare's use of the word :

"
(6) I would detain you here some month or two."
"
(7) ,SV/77i honr (i.e. about an hour) hrfmv yi took

For the Adverbial ue of "

t
no," ace Index.
 "
144 "EACH," EVERY," &c. [Par aaa, 224

And Early English (modern Scotch) use :

(8) "It is some late." "Five mile or smac (i.e.

thereabouts)."

" Each,"
"every," "one," "none,"
" other."

223 1. "Each," "other:"

(1) "Thuy hated each other (or) one another"

This is (I) a contraction for

(2) "They hated, each (hated) other," or, "They

"
hated, one (hated) an other.

In tho same way we must explain (I) by the

Desire of Brevity :

(3) "They inquired after each (inquired after)

other's health."

Here, in modern English, we are inclined to treat

1

" each other " as a

Compound Noun ; but it is not
" Each " is in "
so. Apposition to they," or Sub-
" "
ject to inquired understood.

224 Caution. It is a common fault to use "each" with a

Plural Verb. Where " each" appears to be the Subject of

a Plural Vorb, it is really not so, but only in apposition to
the true Subject, e.g. :

" "
(4) They are each going to their several hoim-.s.

i few Par. 530.

 " "
ONE." 145
Par. 225, 226] EVERY,"
Hire also "their homes" for "his homo" is hardly
1
logically correct.
The following line of Po"pe is an example shewing that,
" all " takes a " each" does not
though Plural, :

" All
(5) join to guard what each desires to gain."

225 2. "Every" (once

"
ever-each,") is used like
" a " before a Numeral
Adjective and Noun :

(1) "There is a lamp-post every hundred yards."

(2) "He wakes up every ten minutes."

In such cases probably " ten-minutes," " hundred

"
yards," are Compound Nouns like fo(u)rt(een)-
night," "twelve-month." See Par. 214.

226 3. "One" (which is the same word, by deri-

" " "a
vation, as ane," an," ") may mean (a) a par-
ticular
" one " one " a single
;" (b) any you like; (c)
" one " " one " " one
; (d) being used for person or
thing," it has come to mean a "person," "animal,"
" " "
(e.g. young ones") or thing :

" One knows

(b) very well that perseverance is

necessary for success," Pronoun "any one." :

(d) "All creatures love their young onas," Noun.

" I do not like this book
(1) give me that one."
;

" I have no book me one."

(2) ; give

" one " " book "

In (1) is a Pronoun put for ;
in

(2) an Adjective (with the Noun to bo supplied)

put for"on (book)" or "a (book)." Sometime
meaning of "one" depends on its emphasis.
Latin* would have uael the Singular, "domutn."

L
 146 IRREGULARITIES, [par. 227-229
For example, in (2) "one" is unemphatic. and
means " a " but where it is emphatic, it may mean
;

"a
single one," e.g. in
" Lend me a book I have not one left."
(3) ;

" None," when used

227 ^' as a Subject, ought to
be followed by a Singular Verb, as in Dryden :

" None but the brave deserve* the fair."

(1)

But when you are denying something about a

number of persona, the Verb falls naturally into
the Plural :

" **
(2) Nune of my friends were at home.

This arises from a confusion (II) between " none

"
was at home and " all were not-at-home."

228 Jt k a common fo^ ( not <l

uite sanctioned by custom), to
say :

" Neither "

(3) you nor he were to blame,".for wcu to blame."

This arises from a confusion (ID with

" You and he were both not to
(4) blame."

229 " None " was once used as an Adjective ;

and
this usage is still retained in
" Where is
(5) your book ? I have none."
"
(6) Hope have 1 none."
1 The Rule is that when two Subjects are separated by "nor," or
"or," tin- V.rl' Bgreefl with the latter.
" was." The harshness
Tin-TV hanhnen
is n little in the correct may
I- i.y writing, "Xt-ither he nor you W.T- t Maim-.'
"wore mvst be right, whetlior the Subject be regarded (incorrectly)
'

" he "
as Plural nor you," or (correctly) as you."
 Par. 330] IRREGULARITIES. 147

"
Hero " none is used for the sake of emphasis.
" I have no "
book would not lay emphasis enough
on "no." " Book have I no " would be
intolerably
harsh. And therefore we use the old emphatic
"
form " none just as we cannot say
;
" this book
"
is my" but have to say this book is mine"
"
Xone" is Adverbial in

" He is none the for all his wealth," i.e.

(7) happier
" no one orwhit," "naught," Adverb.

230 5 -
" No -" If ^ the last example "the" were
we should "
omitted, use, instead of none," the less
" "
emphatic form no :
r

" He
(1) is TIO happier for all his wealth," Adverb.

" No "
does not seem to be a Numeral Adjective
in
"
(2) You are no soldier."

It is rather Adverbial :
" You are in no way, in no

respect, a soldier."

" sa" with the less emphatic fnnn of "none"

vip.irc none the .

in "jtathleas."

L 2
 APPENDIX I.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

IT is interesting to trace the processes that have
shaped our modern anomalous Conditional Mood.
"
For this purpose we will compare the Mood as it
"
is," with the Mood as it might have been."

Conditional Mood, as it is.

231 AWTECEDKMT.

232
 Par. 333, 23*] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 149

The reasons for this are (1) the general tendency

in every language to drop distinctions wherever
"
233 they can be dropped ; (2) the if," expressing the
Condition by itself, has enabled us to dispense, in
the Antecedent, with the Verbal forms ; but, in the
"
Consequent, there being no if," the Verbal forms
have been retained. 1 no ambiguity in " if
There is

he had seen me" used in the Antecedent but, were ;

that form used in the Consequent, e.g. " he had

known me," there would be danger of ambiguity.
It is neither possible nor desirable to revive the
old forms, but it is of use to perceive tueir regu-

larity. There are two ways of expressing the

Conditional :
by Inflections, (2) by the use of
(1)
Auxiliary Verbs. Supposing the Conditional Mood
were regularly formed by Inflections, it would be

I. A. Regular Conditional Mood with

234 Inflections.

AVTECEPI '
150 APPENDIX. [Par 235
" come "
Or, taking another Verb, e.g. :

ANTECEDENT.
 Par. fi6, ft37] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 16 1

236 II. A. Regular Conditional Mood with

"shall."
" shall " and " "
Bearing in mind that should are

nearly equivalentto " am to " and " were to," the

reader will perceive the regularity of the follow-

ing :

ANTECEDENT.
152 APPENDIX. [Par 238
" would " in the
Consequent, (with the, Second and
Third Persons), but not in the Antecedent. Hence
arose the following scheme :

ANTECEDENT.
 APPENDIX II.

ON THE
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
239 Hitherto wo have treated a sentence as composed
of words : now we shall treat it as composed of
groups of words.

Sentences, Phrases ; Clauses.

Def. A
group of words expressiry a statement,
" Sentence"
command, or question, is called a
Def. A group of words expressing a meaning, but
not a statement, &c., is called a "Phrase."
"
a " Sentence
" "
Def. A Phrase that includes may
be called a "
Clause."

(1) "He came." Sentence.

(2) "To come;" "Upon his coming;" "In n

short time." Phrases.

(3) "That he came ;" "When ho came; " " Because

" "
he came If he had come."
;
Clauses.

Note that some Phrases, e.g. those in (3), include

Sentences. But they are not Sentences ;
for they
are neil //fa, nor commands, nor quntf
 154 ANALYSIS [ Par . 240
Such Phrases as those in (3), are sometimes, however,
called, for shortness, Noun- Sentences, b
they include Sentences. But it must be always
borne in mind that they are not really sentences,
though they become Sentences if the Conjunction
is removed.

240 Phrases and Clauses.

A Phrase or Clause may express :

1. A Noun.
2. An Adjective.
3. An Adverb.

1. Noun Phrases '

are exemplified by the
italicized words in the following sentences :

1. To be anxious 2. That he is in error

is useless.

is certain. 3. you act thus I cannot

Why
understand. 4. I like a rascal to /

5. What 19 done eannot be undone. 6. Whether

her /'/, it is hard to determine.

7. Walking to school is being injuriously super-

seded by trains and omnibuses.

EXERCISE.

The pupil should construct other sentences on

the model of each sentence above, having Noun-
Phrases 1 for Subjects and for Objects. For example,
should make Noun
beginning with (I), the pupil
" Phrase" used to include "Clause."
i For Itrwity, the word is
 Par 241, 242] OF SENTENCES. 156

Phrases out of Infinitives; then passing to (2), let

him use the Conjunction "that," and so on.

B41 2. Adjective Phrases or Clauses :

1. The monkey with the lo-ng tail. 2. The monkey

tfat Juts the long tail. 3. A man
without principle.
4. A man of honour. 5. Sing for the oak-tree,

the monarch of the wood. 6. The light of the

sun. 7. The moon's orbit. 8. The book be-

longing to my uncle. 9. The cow in the pad-

fl<vk. 10. The business in which I am engaged.

11. The painter of that celebrated picture. 12.
This is an action to be deplored. 13. I have
water to wudi (.. washing water), Imt none to
ilrink (i.e. drinking water). 14. The boy at
the top.

EXERCISE.

AB with the Noun Phrases, so with the Adjective

Phrases, the pupil should construct other phrases

according to the several models above.

242 3. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses :

'

1. Knowing* this (i.r. since 1 kucxy this) I was not

surprised. 2. ,S'</
//>; /.W at his anstc< r, I knew
not what to reply. 3. When, wJu'/i
1

, "//</,
be/or ,<ce, T perceived mt/ mitto
- " '

nn A-lviTl'ial Clmi.. < ./. v. Incomes, if

).], iinplyii
:ii.l (-J)
" n
i MUioilii 11i:it," iiiul |
i.
scntiQg
an >
 156 ANALYSIS [ Pa r. 243,

apologized. 4. I am living in, near, not far

from, &c. St. John's Wood. 5. I go daily to,

from, past, across, d-c. the city. 6. This done,

243 they departed. 7. This house was built, (Cause)
owing to the increase of the owner's family;
(Purpose) to command a view of the river;
(Agency) by a wealthy man : (Instrumentality)
by foreign workmen : (Means) with timber off his
0wn estate ; (Source) out of his capital ; (Place)
near London ; (Time) ten years ago ; (Manner)
with great haste; (Circumstance) amid the
derision of the neighbours, in spite of the oppo-
sition of his friends, though he was in debt at
the time ; (Result) to the great detriment of his

fortune, so expensively that he ruined himself by

it. 8. I am moving (Purpose) in order to be
nearer to my friends, or (Cause) because I am too

far from my friends. 9. He is unwise to say

this, i.e. "for saying this." 10. Wherever lit,

goeshe prospers. 11. He is too foolish to succeed,

" for the
i.e.
purpose of success."

244 Note especially the following :

12. The soldiers disliked their general, who seemed

to take a pleasure in exposing them to hardships,
1
i.e. "because he seemed ." 13. (Circumstance)

Admitting that your facts are correct, I still deny

1
your inferences. 14. (Circumstance) If he comes,
I will come.

EXERCISE.

Make Adverbial Phrases and Clauses on the model

of the above.

1 The <*<iitton subject

to^which.anything happens, may conveniently
 Per 2A5 *4 OF SENTENCES. 157

Sentences.

245 1- A Simple Sentence. A Sentence that Jtas

only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning,

or Commanding Verb is a Simple Sentence :
"John struck Thomas."

Note that "John came, but soon departed," is not

"simple," because (though it has only one
it has two Verbs
" Jolm
Subject) stating ; again,
came that Robert might take a holiday," is not
" "
simple because, though there is only one
1
stating Verb, yet there are two Subjects.

246 2. A Co-ordinate Sentence. When several

" but"
are connected
"
Simple Sentejices and," by
2
"so," "then" dr., so that each Sentence is, as it
independent, and of the same rank as the rest,
,

each M called a Co-ordinate Sentence :

"John struck Thomas, so, and, but, &c. Thomas

"
struck John again.

The mark of a Co-ordinate sentence is that it

can generally stand as a sentence by itself, preceded

by its Conjunction, e.g. :

"He made all possible haste. For he was afraid oj

being late."

I: iu-lit lake" mfiylv (Par. 174) a stating

VerV
and, alto, besides, moreover, f- >,
/Or, accordingly, consequently, hence, to, then, now, therefor*, but, fmia-
ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, or.
 1 58 ANAL YSIti [ Par . 47- 49
247 3. A Compound Sentence.^ Sentence
made up of Co-ordinate Sentences is called a Com-
pound Sentence :
"John struck Thomas, and Thomas struck John
again."

248 4. The Principal Sentence. When a num-

ber of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions th<it <ire

not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that in not intr

by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence.

249 5. Subordinate Sentences. S&ntmce* con-

nected with <i
Principal Sentence by Cuitjn net hint that
are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate. 1

The Sub-ordinate Conjunctions are

" that "
(intro-

ducing (1) Subject or Object, (2) Purpose, (3) lu--

" " " " " as "
sult) ; because," when," how," since,"
in the sense of " since," " after," " before," " while,"
&c. ; and they are so called because " purpose,"
" "
time," circumstance," &c., are regarded as being
Sub-ordinate to the statement, question, or com-
mand expressed in the Principal Sentence.
"Before (Subord.) he had heard the evidence (Princip.)
he asserted that (Subord.) the prisoner was guilty."

The mark of a Sub-ordinate Sentence is this, that,

Implied Sub-ordinate Sentences aro sometimes introduced without

Conjunctions, by menus <>f hiterm-utive an Relative Pronouns and
1

B 1 u'h'it John said," where the italicized vyrds

imply the Sentence "What did John say?'' S-e Par. 28.
 Par. 250] OF SENTENCES. 159

when preceded by its conjunction, it cannot yentrally

stand as a Sentence by itself. You cannot write :

" He made all haste. Because he was afraid

possible
of being late."

N.B. All Sub-ordinate Sentences, when preceded

by their Conjunctions, or introduced by their Eclative
Pronouns, become either :

(
1
)
No u n- Clause* :

" That he was is certain."

guilty

1
(2) Or, Adjective Clauses or Sentences:
" The that deans the boots." '
hoy

(3) Or, Adverb Clauses:

"
will come when I
' '
I can.

250 6. The Complex Sentence. The whole sen-

tence formed by the combination of the Principal and

Sub-ordinate Sentences is called a Complex Sentence.

" "
Now construct Complex Sentences using :

1. Noun Phrases or Clauses for Sub-

jects, &c.
2. Adjective Phrases or Clauses to

qualify the Noun Phrases.

It may be said '

speaking, to be a Sentence. Sue Par

 160 ANALYSIS [Par. 251

3. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses, the

Clauses being Sub-ordinate Sentences pre-
ceded by Conjunctions, thus :

"After the capture of this important city (Adverb* of

Cause or Time), this great general (Subject) tho
Hannibal of his day (Adjective qualifying Sub-
ject) unsurpassed for military intuition and
promptness of action (A<(jiii-c qmilifijiiHj Sub-
ject), incurring the suspicion of having be-
trayed the town (i.e. "since he incurred,"
therefore Adverb of Cause) was (part of Principal
Verb) so completely (Adverb) distrusted (rest oj
Principal Verb) even by his own soldiers (Ad-
of Agency) who had won so many battles
underlain '/.- .
"though they had won," there-
fore Adverb 2 ) that he was deprived of his com-
mand, and would have been executed, but foi
the influence of his wife (Adverb of Result)"

EXERCISE
251
Expand the following Simple Sentences into Com-
plex Sentences by introducing Adverbial Phrases to
describe cause, purpose, material, agency, instru-

ments, manner, place, time, circumstances, i.e., con

dition, obstacle, Ac. :

1. The house was built. 2. Napoleon died at St. Helena.

3. Charles I. was executed. 4. JantM IL was deposed.

' For brevity, the terms Adverb, Adjective, Ac., are used for Adverbia
Phnite. Afljcctii'al Phrase, &c.
a If it soldiers that had won", the Relative Clause
h.t'l l.eeii "The
"that had won," &c. would have descrHn.l tin soldiers; tlu-n-for^ it
"
would have been an Adjective Clause. But who" also sometimes In-
troduces an Adjective Clause.
 Par. 252, 253.] OF SENTENCES. 161

5. Elizabeth was respected. David killed Goliath.

6.

7. Alfred defeated Guthrum. Columbus discovered

8.

America. 9. The Spanish Armada was defeated.

252 Contracted Sentences. When two Sentences are con-

nected by Conjunctions "and" and
(1) the Co-ordinate
"but;" (2) by Comparative Conjunctions, e.g. "as,"
" than " the
Verb in the second Sentence is often omitted
;

and sometimes the omission extends to other words :

(1) "I saw John yesterday and (I saw) Thomas the day before."
"
See " than," Index.
He "
(2) is taller than I (am tall).
" I have as many apples as you (have apples)."
(3)

In all such cases the full Sentences should be expressed if

the whole Sentence is to be analysed. See Par. 209.
The Sentences introduced by "than" and "as" (in this
" as "
sense) are Subordinate for "than" and ; (in this sense)
cannot stand at the head of a Sentence placed by itself.

253 Degrees of Subordination (Synthesis).

Note that a Complex Sentence may contain (1) a

Principal Sentence ; (2) a Sub-ordinate Sentence

depending on the Verb in the Principal Sentence

T

(3) a second Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on

the Verb in the first Sub-ordinate ; (4) a third Sub-
ordinate depending on the Verb in the second Sub-
ordinate ; and so on

Not always on the Verb. The Implied Sentence in a Relative Phrase

may qualify a N<mn
162 ANALYSIS [Par. 253

The degrees of sub-ordination may be indicated

by lines in the following way :

" Socrates knew that he knew

1st Degree of Subordination
nothing."
2nd "Socrates was declared by
the oracle to be the wisest
of men, because he knew
that he knew nothing."
3rd "Socrates said that he was
declared by the oracle to
be the wisest of men,
merely because he knew
th;it he kin-w nothing,"

4th "We are told that Socrates

said that he was declared
by the oracle to be the

wisest of men, merely

because he knew that he

knew nothing."

The process of putting a Sentence together as

above is called Synthesis (syn, together; thesis,

putting).
The
reverse process of taking a Sentence to pieces

again, loosening its structure as it were, and exh.bit-

ing the different parts and joints of the Sentence, is
called Analysis (ana, "back again;" lysis, "loosen-

tog)-"
 Par. as*] OF SENTENCES. 13

254 Degrees of Sub-ordination (Analysis).

Reversing the process in the last paragraph, we

can take a Complex Sentence to pieces, beginning
first with the Principal Sentence, then taking the
first degree of Sub-ordination, then the second, and
so on. Take, for example
"He said that I did not come last Tuesday though
I had promised that I would come to see him
before he left town.'

1. The Principal Verb is "said." Eead on

"
from " said to the first Sub-ordinate Conjunction
" that." " That " introduces the "
of Object said,"
the following Sub-ordinate Sentence :
" I did
viz.,
not come last Tuesday, though I had promised...
town." This is a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the
first Degree, which is therefore underlined once.
2. Principal Verb in the first Sub-ordinate
The
Sentence is " did (not) come." Read on from this to
the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction " though." The
following words, "I had promised... town," make
up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the second Degree,
and inu-t be underlined a second time.
3. The Principal Verb in the second SuKoidinate
" h;i<!
Sentence is promised." Read on to tin
iate Conjunction "that." The w.-.rds "I
"
would come... town make up a Sub-ordiuate Sen-
M 2
 164 ANALYSIS [ Par . 355
tence of the third Degree, and must therefore be
underlined a third time.
The Principal Verb in the third Sub-ordinate
4.
" would come." Read on to the next
Sentence is

Sub-ordinate Conjunction "before." The following

" he left
words, town," make up a Sub-ordinate Sen-
tence of the fourth Degree, and must therefore be
underlined a fourth time. 1

255 Relative Clauses.

A Relative Clause sometimes introduces (1) an

implied Co-ordinate, sometimes (2) an implied Sub-

ordinate Sentence. The Sub-ordinate Sentence may
form part, sometimes of (2) an Adverbial, sometimes
(3) of an Adjectival Clause.
"
(1) I hoard it from the landlord, who heard it from

the policeman," i.e. " (and) he," &c. a Co- ;

ordinate Sentence, "who" being put for "and

he."
" I ought not to have been beaten by John, who
(2)
has never beaten me before," i.e. " (since) he has,
"
&c. ; Subordinate Sentence. (Adverb. )
" 1
(3) heard it from the boy that cleans the boots,"
2
Sub-ordinate Sentence. (Adjective.)

'
Note that, if the meaning had been " Though I hnd promised.. .town,
yi-iho complained," then the words "thongh...town" would have made
up an Adverb of Circumstance, modifying "complained." In that
case, "(though) I had promised" would have been in the first Degree
(not the second) of Subordination."
3 "That
(boy) cleans the boots may perhaps be called a Subordinate
Sentence introduced by the Conjunctive, force of the Relative "that."
See Par. 249. Note.
 Par 256, 257] OF SENTENCE*. 165

In Sentences (2), (3), (4), and (5) of the next

Exercise the Relative introduces an Adjective
in Sentence (6) " which
"
Clause ;
is the same as

"and these," and therefore the words "might be

"
sold make up an implied Sentence Co-ordinate with
" she could
get."

256 The different degrees of Subordination may be in-

dicated in the implied Sentences of Relative Phrases

by underlining, as above. For example :

" The man that will not what is offered to

(1) accept
him L,V importunity, often lives to seek oppor-

tunity in vain."
" Tha:
Here the two Sentences are (1) (man) will
"
not accept what is offered to him by opportunity ;

(2)
"
What is offered to him by opportunity ? " '

(2) "The man that ought to have met me at the

station where I got out was not to be found."

Here the two Sentences are, (1) "That (man)

ought to have met me at the station where I got
" "I
out ; (2) got out."

EXERCISE.

257 Express, by underlining, the Degrees of Sut

ordination in the following Srntrnrr.s :

1. He asked m- I had said that I should n.t

com* 'J. Y'ii would li.t\v lifted \vnmgly if you h.'id

rrogativo use of "wlm," "what," !

W Par. J7.
 166 ANALYSIS [par. 258
u- fused help to the friend from whom you obtained

help when you needed it. 3. When I heard that tho

train had started before I had arrived at the station
where wo had agreed to meet, I at once telegraphed.
4. Though you asked me when I would come and pay

you the visit that I had promised, you did not mention
a definite day. 5. I confess that I was irritated when

I heard that my cousin, after he had accepted my invi-

tation, wrote to decline it, because he had been subse-

quently invited by some one whose society he preferred
to mine. 0. The market-girl reckoned that, if her milk

si ijet at least six dozen eggs, which,

ld well, she could
when they hutched and grown to be chickens,
\\viv

might IK- sold, before May came round, for as much money
as would buy her the best dress that could be found ic
the village.

258 Analysis of Sentences.

Reversing the process in Paragraph 250, we can
analyse a Sentence into
I. Principal Verb.
Tli.-term Prindpal Verb includes the "Subjective or Objective
" " was
Supplement," e.g. in He was
" Vrrbappointed general," appointed
ami so, in " They appointed him
"
general" will be called the ;

neral" will be sailed the "Verb." See the

.

Scheme on page 168.

II. Subject.
The terms Subject and Object here include their "Complements" ;

a rascal to be punished is the Subject in "

" "
e.g. A rascal is expected
"
to be punished," and the Object in I like a rascal to be pv.ni.<;lit."

IIT. Object.
The Imdirect Object may either be treated separately, or be treated
" The house was built "
as an Adverb. If we can say, in by Thomas
that "by Thomas" is in "Ad verb -Phrase of Agency," there seems no
" for Thomas " and " to Thomas " are
reason why we should not say
"Adverb -Phrases of Reception." Hence in "Give me the book," we
"
may rail " me" either Indirect Object, or an abridged Adverb-Phrase
of Reception." The latter would probably be found, in the en*' Uio
iimpler course.
 PAT 259, 26o] OF SENTENCES. 16V

IV. Adjectives, or Adjective Phrases.

V. Adverbs, or Adverb Phrases.

259 SPECIMEN EXERCISES.

" Not
1. knowing the value of his prize, the cock gave away
tin- diamond that he h;nl found for a single grain oi
barley, when he saw that the jewel did nothing but
shine, and was not good to eat"

I. Verb " Gave

away."
II. Subject "The cock."
III.
" The diamond."
Object
IV. Adjectives "That he had found''
qualifies Object.
V. Adverbs :
(a) of Cause. "Not knowing prize," i.e.

"since he did not

know."
,, :
(b) of Circum-
stance . "For a single grain ol

barley."
,, ,, :
(c) of Time or
Cause .
" When he saw to eat."

If further Analysis is required, the Adverbial

Clauses may in turn be analysed, as in the follow

ing Example :

260 '-' "A* :'l'T:irf|u:iint< d witli Ilii- treasures of English litera-

ture will nut unnaturally feel surprised, when he sees
that so large a portion of time is devoted t<> the in-

adequate study of few anrient authors, whose works

:i

.lies and duties of our

ion, while our English classics are compara-

168 ANALYSIS Oar. fl6o
FIEST ANALYSIS.

I. Verb " Will feel surprised."

'

II. Subject "A reader."

III. Adjective "Acquainted with 1;

tnre," qualifies the Sub-

ject
IV. Adverb (a) of Cause . "When he sees neglected."
of Manner. " Not '

,, ,, (ft) unnaturally.

SECOND ANALYSIS.

"He sees that so large neglected."

I. Verb "Sees."
II. Subject "He."
"
III. Object That so large neglected."

THIRD ANALYSIS.

"So large a portion neglected,"

I. Verb "Is devoted."
II. Subject "So large a portion of
time."
III. Adverbs (a) Manner or
"
Purpose. To the study generation."
,, ,, (ft) Circumstance "While 2 our English
neglected."

No further Sentence remains for analysis ; but it may be

eell to mention that, in Clause, (a) the Relative Clause
"whose works generation," is an Adjective Clause quali-
fying "authors" and that the Phrase "of a few ancient
;

authors" is an Adjective Phrase, qualifying " study."

* " Feel "

a " He ftU "
surprised is Compound Verb, like lame," II.-

grew tall."
"
* "While "may either mean "at the very time wlu-n (as p
hero,) or "although." or rimply "but on the other hand." In the last
case "while" approaches a Co-ordinate Conjunction in meaning, for
in nearly the same as "but, on the other hand."
 Par aei, sea] OF SENTENCES. 169

Caution.

261 The principal difficulty in the Analysis of Sen-

tences consists in distinguishing between Participles

implying an Adverbial Phrase and Participles im-

plying an Adjectival Phrase. The same difficulty
-ts in distinguishing between Relative Phrases.
" " " which " that " are
As who (or ") and loosely
used by many writers, the pupil must not depend on
these words for help, but upon the sense of each

(1) "I saw a ship sailing into harbour," i.e. "that

was sailing," Adjective Phrase.
" went down,"
(2) Sailing too near tlie rocks the ship
i.e.
" becaiise she sailed," Adverbial Phrase.
" I saw a schooner here, which has now
(3) Yesterday
sailed away," i.e. "and, or but, it has sailed,"
Co-ordinate Sentence.
(4) "The schooner that was here yesterday," Ad-
jective Clause.
262 (5) "The potent rod
Of Amram's son in Egypt's evil day,
Waved round the coast, up-called a pitchy cloud
Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind."

" waved '

In the last example, round the coast
"
seems to mean wlien or after it was waved/' and
not " the rod that was waved." Consequently it seems
far better to tn-at tin- italiri/f(l words as an Adverbial
and not as a: red Phrase. But "warping"
"
may fairly be replaced by that came warping," and
 170 ANALYSIS
may therefore be treated as an Adjectival Phrase
" locusts."
qualifying
" But
(6) me, scarce hoping to attain that rest,
Always from port withheld, always distressed
Me howling winds drive devious tempest-
tossed,
Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass
lost."

Here the second line is clearly Adjectival to

"me ;" but "devious" is not Adjectival, it is the
" drive " to " drive de-
Supplement of the Verb ;

vious is to " drive out of the way," and is as much

"

a Compound Verb as to "drive mad." On the

other hand the abrupt pause between " devious "

"
and " tempest-tossed allows us to treat " tempest-
tossed
"
as co-ordinate with
" withheld " and " dis-
"
tressed," and therefore as Adjectival to me."
" Sails rent " is of course an Adverbial
Phrase,
and " sails " is an " Adverbial Subject." See Par.
135.

Phraseology of Analysis.
263 The Principal Verb of a Sentence is sometimes
called the Grammatical Predicate, or, simply, Pre-
dicate.

Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are called, as

the case may be, Attributive Adjuncts to the Sub-
ject or Object; and, when attached to the Pre-
 Par 264] OF SENTENCES. 171

dicate, Adverbs are called Adverbial Adjuncts to

the Predicate.

Again, Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are

sometimes called " Enlargements of the Subject or
"
Object ; and, when attached to the Predicate,
Adverbs are called "Extensions of the Predicate."
This phraseology does not appear to be necessary but, if ;

thought desirable, it can easily be substituted for the terms

"
"Adjective," Adverb," &c. used in the Scheme appended
below.

264 Summary of the parts of a Sentence.

The following Summary will be a useful prepara-
tion for the "Scheme of Analysis" on Page 172,
and will also illustrate the comparison of the
different technical terms of Analysis.
/ SUBJECT . . . Noun : or Pronoun ;
or Adj.
put for Noun ;
or Noun
1
Phrase.

PREDICATE . Verb.
f Object, Direct
'
(If the Verb
is Trans.)
COMPLETION OF !

Object, Indirect (With some

PREDICATE Verbs.)
,
Supplement (If the Verb is
I n trans, or Pass.)
K F
ri;!:n^?E I
Adwb * or Adverbial

%
'

ATTKIHUTIVE
j
.\1UUJNUT, V
EffifSfc.
NTLARGE- ! Adjective; or Adjective Phrase.
(

LMENTOFNOUNJ
Note that the Subject or Object may BOIIK tiim s consist
"
:

"I know him tobti*

~ -/.
~ I

"ffewM believed to &edt*towj(."

'

Sr.-'l'ar.
 172 ANALYSIS [Par. 265

265 SCHEME OF
For convenience, in order to preserve the order of the sentence as
In order to distinguish the Adjective, or Complement from the n-st
Object from ihr Adverb, underline Adjective, Complement, Supplement,
Analyse tlu- tullnwmg
" p.-issaj^s:
In oiio of the large rich i-ities of ChiiMi there once lived a tailor named Mustapha.
wife and cine soa Tliia son, who wa.s a v.-ry idle fellow, waa called Aladdin.
1> to learn the use ..l the ne, -die ;
but [ill his lather's endeavours to keep
was gone. Sooii alter Aladdin was thirteen years old, poor Mustapha who was

Adverb.
Par 265] OF SENTENCES. 173

ISIMPLK ANALYSIS.
far as possible two columns are made for the Adverb.
of the Subj. or Obj., the Supplement from the Verb, and the Indirect
and Indirect Object. Write (ConipL) before the Complement.

>or he could hardly maintain his family, which consisted only of his
he was <>Ul enough to learn a trade, Mustapha wished tire boy to enter
him u> hiswork were vain for no sooner was his back turned than Aladdin
;

often heard to predict that his son would come to no good fell sick and died."

Object (including Adjective, 1. Adverb, or Conjunction,

Indirect Object. (introducing next
Complement.) 2.
Sentence.)

hi* family, which confuted only of (1) hardly

hit wife and on* ton

the boy (Compl) to enter hit thop to learn the use of the but

for

no sooner than (3) Alad

din was gone

and

-who"= "and,
or now, IK;" 4

often.]

M an Adjective, Me Par. 100.

sentence nujrbe taken out of the Adjective, Adverb, or other column an<l may
 APPENDIX III.

HINTS ON SPELLING.

266 English Spelling is so irregular that no systematic

rules can be laid down for it. The knowledge of
the derivation of a word is often a help towards the

spelling of it ; but this is not always the case. The

best way to spell well is to read often, and so to
become familiar with words. Thus misspelt words
will be detected by their strange look.

Change of Letters. The following principle

will explain many of the variations in the spelling
of words :

Rule. A letter is often,changed or doubled in

passing from one form of a word to another, in order

to preserve the original sound.

267 ^* y* -^ or exam pl e -y fi nal preceded by a con-

"
sonant, as in happy," is changed into i upon the
addition of -er, -est, -al, -ed, -ous y or of any other
affix (except -ing) beginning with a vowel. Other-
 Par. 268] HINTS ON SPELLING. 175

wise the sound of the word might be altered, e.g.

" Hence
"happ-yer," gidd-yest."
Defy, defi-ance ; easy, east-est ; remedy, remedt-al
remedied ; merry, mem'-er; country, countri-es.

In many of these words the original termination was ~ie,

which indeed was the regular English equivalent of the
French -6 :

Citie; nobilitie; felicitie ; clergie.

From a very early period y and i were interchanged (for

example in the Present Participle which ended in -inde or
-yndc) so that in the Utopia (1516 A.D.) we have "writynge,"
"myghte," "thynge," "fyne." Hence y began to supersede
t in these terminations, so that in the Utopia, we find on the
same page, "felicitye" and "felicitie." By degrees, the e
after y, being found unnecessary, was dropped. It might
have been expected that the same curtailment would have
been attempted in the Plural and accordingly in the Utopia
:

we find "qualityes." But, owing perhaps to the danger of

" "
mispronunciation, qualit-yes the innovation did not
succeed in supplanting the old Plural "qualit-ies."

This rule is also extended to -y before other

affixes, viz. -went, -ly -ful :

Necessari-ly ; greedt-ness ;
beautt-ful.

268 II. y. When (1) the affix is -ing, or (2) -y is

already preceded by a vowel, or (3) -y terminates a
monosyllable in all these cases -y remains gene-
rally unchanged :

(1) Pity-tng (not "pitrnig"); (2) enjoy-ment, val-

leys ; (3) dry-ness.

The reasons are in (1) the desire to avoid u; in

 176 HINTS [Par 269-271

(2) and (3) because the sound is not altered by the

retention of -y.

Exceptions. Nevertheless, out of conformity to

other words
" " "
Dry" makes dri-er," dri-est ; " try," tri-al,"
" "
" tn-er " " " " " " "
day," ;
dai-ly pay," pai-d ; ;
" ""
fly," ; fli-es
"lay," "laid;" "lay" (Past
Tense of "lie") " lai-n
" " "
"say," sai-d ;;

" "
gay." gar-ly," "gai-ety."
N.B. Pite-ous, plente-ous, from "pity," "plenty."

269 III. When a word ends in ~ie, the juxtaposition

of ieiin the Active Participle is avoided by changing
-ie into -y :

Die, dy-ing ; It'e, ly-ing, but h'-ar.

270 Omission of Letters. Rule, -e final is

(IV.) dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel ;
but (V.) retained before an affix beginning with a
consonant.

IV. Instances of Rule IV. are-

Grieve, griev-ancg ; fame, fam-ous ; sense, sens-t'&fe ;
judge, judging ; please, pleas-wre ; remove, re-
mov-able ; blame, blam-t'wgr ; sphere, spher-ical.

271 Exceptions (a) C and g, though soft (e.g.

to IV.
in " service," " outrage ") must necessarily become
hard if followed by an affix beginning with a, o, or
u. To prevent (1) this and (2) other changes of
sound, final -e is sometimes retained :

(1) Service, service-aJZe / outrage, outrage-ow*,

(2) Unsale-able.
 Par. 272-276] ON SPELLING. \Y.

72 Ej-'-tptions to IV. (6) When -e is preceded bj

-t, -o, -f, -y, it is often retained before -wz0r, -able
This is in order to preserve the sound :

Sboe-ing (not "shomg"); agrec-a&fc (not "agrca-

ble").

273 Th e - e is ^0 retained in " dye-ing" " singe-? ??^,'

" in order to distinguish them from
swinge-wj^r,"
"
dy-ing,"
"
sing-ing," and " swing-ing."

274 Exceptions to V. :

Abridg-ment, acknowledg-ment, argu-ment, aw-ful,

du-ly, judg-ment, tru-ly, whol-ly.

275 Rule VI. Monosyllables ending in -11 (1) when

followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or
(2) when used as affixes, generally drop one -\
x
:

Al-most, aZ-though, aZ-ready,

a?-mighty, aZ-beit,
a?-so, altogether, aZ-ways, bel-fry, ful-fil, wel~
fare, el-bow, ful-ly, drol-\y, ful-ness, re-col.

276 T ie ^ ^ affixes and prefixes with single -I

appear to have
been so common that tln-y assimilated to themselves other
urords {e.g. re-ca7) in which an I was really dropped. But
in some words the syllaMc in -// lias not coalesced so com-
pletely with tlu- other syllable as to be regarded as a jm-lix

or affix. Consequently the syllable in -II is treated as a

separate word and retains -//. Hence
Under-cW (and several words ending in -ness), tall-
11688,small-ness, r7/-ness, shritl-iu-ss, rfroW-ness,
farewell, nn-well, be-fell, down-fall, c&t-call.

1
This Is the shape In which the rule would suggest itself t<> :

ngUthmpn. uality.tl ..... Id 7. wl. el, and thi*

| rrf/jf,,^/ ii,
"' ./>,. ,.'t:.r-." </-bow."
"
/;r/
"
was not
"
fry
to reality derived from "1 .-11 (Sn- Ktym. I
 178 HINTS [Par 277-279

277 Doubling Letters. Rule VII.

If the termination of a word
is a consonant pre-

ceded by a vowel (e.g. " -it "), then, on receiving an

"
affix beginning with a vowel (e.g. -ing "), the final
consonant in the word is doubled "
(e.g. -itting "),
provided that the word a monosyllable (e.g. " sit "),
is

or a polysyllable accented on the last syllable (e.g.

" remit
")
This is in order to preserve the sound. If the
consonant were not doubled, " hop-ping " would be
"
confused with " hop-ing :

(1) Hop, hop-ping ; thin, thin-Tier ; fat, fastest.

ACCENT ON TIIK LAST. ACCENT NOT ON THE LAST.

forged-ring, remiMin<; bracketing, debiting
infer-ring, refer-ring cover-ing, offer-ing
occur-ring, acquiring sever-ing, crediting

Exceptions to VII. Words ending in -I, al-

278 though not accented on the last syllable, never-
theless double -I :

Traveling, -Zer ; counseZ-Zing, -Zor ; reveZ-Zing, -Zer ;

marvel-Zing, -Zous ; rivaZ-Zing ; leveZ-Zed ; un-
rammeZ-ZecL Also, worship-ping.
Unparallel-ed is an exception. 1

EXERCISES.

279 I- and II. Add as many as possible of the affixes

Possibly, owing to the fact that "unparalleled" is of Greek

*

derivation, contain inn the Greek long e, it may have been once pro-
nounced " unparalh ded,'.' and spelt accordingly.
 Par. 280-282] ON SPELLING. I7f

-al, -ed, -er, -s, -ly, -ness, -ous, -s, to the following
words :

Lonely, employ, gaudy, daisy, decay, steady, accompany,

enjoy, effigy, silly, occupy, busy, giddy, jelly, colloquy
chimney, ready, journey, shabby, annoy, prophesy
convey, lofty, supply, dis-
felony, try, lovely, efficacy,
may, defy, gay, vary, penury, stately, day, accompany,
pity, marry, plenty, continue.

280 IV. and V. Add as many as possible of the affixes

-able, -ing, -ly, -ment, -ous, -er, -y, to the following
words :

Love, peace, move, blame, marriage, whole, sole, decree,

ease, feeble, advantage, tmc, spice, village, due, charge,
trouble, trace, pledge, judge, guarantee, manage, abridge,
disagree, excuse.

281 VII. Add -ing, -ence, -er, -ous (where possible),

to

Control, bargain, recal, peril, benefit, admit, ballot, danger,

infer, pencil, debit, acquit, abhor, glutton, begin, poison,
suffer, traitor, gambol, extol, rebsl, travel, compel,
level, worship, cancel, model, sever, equip, allot, riot,
murder, befit, ruin, sin.

Reasons for apparent Irregularities.

282 I. -eive, -ieve. It is sometimes difficult to

decide, in such words as "receive," "believe,

whether the e or i should come first ; but tho dil
N 2
 180 HINTS [Par fts*

culty will vanish if it is borne in mind that (except

afbor c) i comes first :

(1) Believe, reprieve, retrieve, grieve, mischief, mis-

chievous.

(2) Deceive, deceit, conceive, conceit, receive, re-

ceipt

The reason
for the exceptional spelling of -ceiw
isthat this termination represents the Latin cap-,
French cev- ; whereas -ie is the non-Latin termi-
nation.

283 II' -ced, -ede. A few compounds from the

Latin ced- were introduced early and received the

English spelling :

Succeed, proceed, exceed.

These words are very common in Shakespeare's

plays. Other compounds were not introduced till
afterwards, when it was no longer the custom to
Anglicize the spelling of foreign words. Hence the
Latin or French spelling is retained in

Accede, concede, precede, recede.

These four are not found in Shakespeare's plays. 1

The English spelling also accounts for the double
e in "agreeable" (Fr. agitable), "degree" (Fr.

degre).

Preceding" is used once as an Adjective, and once as a Parti-

" "
ciple : in the latter case it is spelt preceading.
 Pa 284-286] ON SPELLING. 181

284 III. or, -our, -er. These terminations are from

different sources: -or is Latin; -our is Latin through
French ;
-cr is English. Hence
Latin :
(1) Actor, collector, demonstrator,
French :
(2) Colour, honour, odour.
Englibh :
(3) Painter, player.

Note that, wherever a Noun is formed according to

English and not according to Latin rules, then, though the
Verh he of Latin or French-Latin origin, the terrninat
" "
is generally -er ; e.g. "defend-er," extinguish-er (the
Latin Nouns would he dcfcns-or t cxtinct-or) ; "vict-or," but
" "
vanquisher.
There is a tendency, especially in advertisements, to save
" "
space by omitting the French -u. Governor (foi

"goveruour ") is now recognized as correct, and " honor"

is aspiring to correctness.

285 IV. Latin :

-(a)ble, -ible. Strictly speaking,
-ble, and not -able, is the Latin termination, a being
part of the Root. Thus the Latin word was penetra-,
and the termination -ble. In the same way, in
a few cases, but not many, t is
part of the Root, and
'ble is the termination :

(1) Penetra-hle, indisjiuta-lilo, <lclerta-brc, indispensa-

ble, iiiec.nsola-blf, indomita-bh', insnpera-ble,
demonstra-lile.

(2) Audi-hie, ed-ible, incorrupt-ible, indigrst-iM>,

iiu lest ruct-il >lc, rejm heiis-ible, incomprehens-
iMe, ineompress-ible.

266 V. English : -able. This termination is used

Mill :

"lovable," and also with

Verbs, <?.</.

many Latin Verbs (even where the Root does not

 189, HINTS [Par 287-289
end in -a), provided that the Verb is so common as to
be regarded as English :

Latin words with English termination :

Indefinable, inextinguishable, redeemable, perishable,

attributable, disposable.

287 VI. Latin (1) -(a)nt, (2) -ent, represent the

Latin terminations for the Active Present Par-
ticiples from (1) Verbs whose roots ended with -a,

(2) other Verbs :

" recalcitra-nt"
(1) "Litiga-nt," "disputa-nt,"
" trans- ient"
(2) "Iiniiiine-nt," "reg-ent,"

288 VII. Latin-French -ant. The French have

but one termination, -ant, to represent the two
Latin termination*. Hence, sometimes, similar
words are spelt differently whoro direct from
:

Latin, -ent ; where through French, ant.

(1) Transcend

(2) Defendant, descendcm*.

Hence the Latin dependent has, curiously enough,

given rise to two English words, with different ter-
"
minations (1) depends," Adjective, direct from
:

and with Latin "

Latin, spelling ; (2) dependawtf,"
Noun, through French, and with French spelling.
" ascendant "
Similarly, (though used by Pope as an
Adjective) is now only used as a Noun.

289 VIII. (1) -ise, (2) -ize. If -ize is to be re-

 Par. 290, 291] ON SPELLING. 183

tained, it ought, in strictness, to be retained only

as the affix for Greek Roots :

(1) Equalise, recognise.

x
(2) Baptize, emphasize.

200 IX. (1) -se, (2) -ce. Distinguish between (1)

the termination of the Verb in -se, and (2) the
termination of the Noun in -ce :

(1) Advise, license, practise, devise, prise. (Verbs.)

(2) Advice, licence, practice, device, price. (Nouns.)

Spelling List.
The following words should be noted. They may
be combined in sentences for dictation, or may be
set by the pupils to one another. They are pur-
posely unarranged :

Niece, awkward, seize, courageous, ceiling, league,

colonel, leisure, almond, treasure, .intrigue, ker-
nel, clothing, grandeur, ghastly, heifer, punish-
ment, intelligence, villains, gardener, realm,
principal, mountainous, principle, friar, poniard,
sergeant, abhorrent, pony, n> unparal-
-,
ssarily,
leled, quarrelling, crstasy, cavilling,
kidnapping,
limiting, dignitary, practice (Noun), reprieve,
continually, character, potato, pedlar, annually,
anomaly, business, mischievous, indictment,
onions, cabbages, vengeance, deign (Verb), un-
barrassment, anonymous, committee, couple,

"
Analyze" IB a mistake. The word is Greek, but contain* au
justifies no i. It should U
spelt
"
analyse."
184 HINTS ON SPELLING. [Par.
291

camphor, giraffe, syrup, guerilla, mosquito,

verandah, azure, hammock, phosphorus, apart-
ment, annalist, apparition, license (Verb), recede,
lecalogue, etymology, apparel, courteous, suc-
ceed, furlough, miscellany, scythe, morocco,
chocolate, cemetery, proceed, accessory, bouquet,
paroquet, exchequer, banquet, masquerade, ac-
cede, gelatine, obsequies, gazette, effigies, eti-
quette, balloon, encyclopaedia, leopard, gudgeon,
counterfeit, pigeon, menagerie, besiege, bereave,
concede, inveigle, obeisance, complaisant, bivouac,
neighbour, pleurisy, journeys, quarantine, unique,
cylinder, symptom, hydrophobia, rubies, valleys,
mimicking, noticeable, milliner, sepulchre, avail-

able, sedentaiy, peremptory, pelisse, analyst

 APPENDIX IV.

HINTS ON PUNCTUATION.

292 Stops, or Marks of the Division of

Sentences.

1. Full Stop. . (.) 5. Note of Interrogation . (?)

2. Colon. . .
(:) 6. Note of Exclamation . .
(!)

3. Semi-colon .
(;) 7, The "dash" or " break". ( )

4. Comma . .
(,) 8. Marks of Parenthesis .
( )

9. Inverted commas, or, Marks of Quotation (" ")

293 Use of Stops. The meaning of a sentence

often depends on the pauses after certain words.
These pauses are represented by marks, sometimes
called (from their effect) Stops, and sometimes (from
" "
their appearance) Points. The Latin for
point
is punctnm, and accordingly the arrangement of
points in a sentence is called Punctuation :

"John," said Thomas, "would come if he could."

Omit the point* in the foregoing sentence, and

it becomes ambiguous.

294 The Comma. The Comma (meaning "that

Vhich cut off") marks the smallest "cutting
is off,"
or division of a sentence.
 186 HINTS ON [Par. 295

I. Rule. When a word is separated from itt

grammatical adjunct by any intervening phrase, the

phrase should be preceded and followed by a
Comma :

"The traveller, after alighting from his

Verb horse, entered the inn."
" own account,
separated 1 1 is
conduct, according to his
from is inexcusable."
Subject. "The king, weariedby the woman's im-
portunity, granted her request.''

Verb (

separated J "He endeavoured, in every possible way,

from to undermine his rival."
Object. I

Verb "
( When, after hearing your explanation, 7
separated I
promised to forgive you, I belit
from s accordance with your assurance, that
x
Conjunction. \ this was your first offence."

Verb " had succeeded."

/ Now, thought he, he
" He all the efforts his friends
si'jwrated ) frustrated
from \ were making for him, by his silly
Adverb. \ vanity."

295 II. Hence the Comma is often used before and

after an Adverbial Clause, including a Subordinate
Sentence, whether the sentence be (1) introduced
by a Conjunction, or (2) implied in a Participle :

(1) "I replied, as soon as I had recovered my presence

of mind, that I could not consent."
(2) "I replied, on recovering my presence of mind,
that I could not consent."
' The Conjunction "that," not being capable of much stress, nor
allowing much pause often dispenses with the comma :
after it,
" Remember that in almost all business, it is best to make hast*
lowly."
 Par. 296-298 PUNCTUATION. 187

296 A Comma will therefore necessarily be inserted

between two Conjunctions

"It was said that, when the Capitol was built, a

human head was discovered amid the founda-
"
tions.
" It cannot be denied
that, if this statement is true,

your brother has acted most culpably."

When a Subordinate Clause or Adverbial Phrase

comes at the beginning of the sentence, the Com-
ma is inserted after it, if the Clause or Phrase
precedes the Subject of the Principal Verb (see Par.
306) :

" When I recovered

(1) my presence of mind, I re-

plied, &c."
"
(2) On recovering my presence of mind, I replied,
&c."
"
(3) Having recovered my presence of mind, I re-
plied, &c."
(4) "To be brief, there are but three courses open
to us."
" The colonel
(5) having fallen, the major took the
command."

297 III. The Comma is often used between co-ordinate

sentences connected by Conjunctions :

" Be went back to his

home, and I went forward on
"
my journey.

In accordance with the Rule in Par. 294,

298 IV. When a number of co-ordinate words have
 188 HINTS ON [Par. 299-aoi

the same grammatical adjunct, all but the last are

followed by a Comma :

"
(1) John, Thomas, and Henry came."

(2) "I saw John, Thomas, and Henry."

" He was and brave."
(3) dutiful, kind,
" He
(4) is acting wisely, justly, and mercifully."
(5) "She loved, honoured, and obeyed her husband."

299 But, if words are in pairs, then each pair

(even the last) is followed by a Comma :

" To and
(6) carp and to criticize, to slander to re-

bukc, to warn and to discourage, are very different

'
actions."

300 But sometimes, where "and" is repeated between a

number of Co-ordinate Nouns the writer may regard them
(1) as a mere list of names, all of one kind, requiring rapid
enumeration, and therefore may omit the comma, or (2) as
expressing different notions and may therefore insert commas.
Compare
" Havoc and
(7) spoil and ruin are my gain." P. L. ii. 109.

(8) "Where all is cliff, and copse, and sky." 2 Scott.

No doubt the omission of the comma here, as in Par. 306,

is before the Verb, when the reader is hurrying on
more easy
to the Verb, than after the Verb, where pauses are more
natural.

301 V. A Noun used Vocatively or Appellatively

must necessarily have no grammatical adjuncts,

" and " is not inserted before the last

1 The reason
is that in this case
pair. Hence- the termination is somewhat abrupt and, after an enu- ;

meration of the pairt, the reader requires a pause, as though to insert

" these " : "
(these) are very different action*."
"
Quoted by Matzner.
 Par 302-304] PUNCTUATION. 188

and should therefore (unless uttered very passion-

ately
;
Par. 313) be marked off by Commas :

" Your
conduct, Thomas, surprises me."

802 VL In the above Examples the principle is

all

the same, that the Comma denotes separation from

the grammatical adfunct. But sometimes the Comma
denotes the omission of the grammatical adjunct.:
" To is to criticize, difficult."
carp easy ;

303 VII. When a Subject is a lengthy Phrase, it is

often separated from the Verb by a Comma, espe-

cially when the Subject-Phrase contains some Noun

that might at a hasty glance be supposed to be the

Subject of the Verb. The object of the Comma is

to indicate that not the word immediately preceding
the Verb, but the whole of the preceding phrase is the

Subject of the Verb :

(1) "To resent injuries inflicted on the weak and

'S3, is the duty of all."
" That he made a is clear."
(2) very great mistake,

304 VIII. A Comma is sometimes employed when

a statement or speech is introduced as the Object of
a Verb, to mark a pause before the statement. But
this is scarcely necessary or justifiable, except where
the statement is in Apposition to a previous Noun :

(1) "Who docs not know

the well-known prrverb,
"
that seeing is believing ?
 190 HINTS ON [Par 305, 306

(2) "Some people seem scarcely aware of this prin-

ciple, that all men are better contented to make

progress in small matters than to remain at a

stand in great."

Where the Noun in Apposition intervenes "be-

tween the Verb and its Object, the Comma is justi-

fiable on the principle stated above, Par. 294; where

there is no intervening Noun, the Comma is un-

justifiable.

305 TX. It has been seen, from Example (5) in

Par. 298, that, when the same Object follows
several Verbs, the Comma is not inserted after the

last Verb ; but, when the same Object follows

several Prepositions, the Comma is inserted after
the la?t Preposition :

(1) "I am desirous of, and earnestly hoping for, an

amicable settlement."
2) "I am sent by, and acting as the representative
of, a large number of my fellow-citizens."

The reason is that a Verb, being a more emphatic word

than a Preposition, allows a greater stress to be laid upon
it. anl a
longer pause after it. The- Preposition, not allow-
ing this, roqniros the aid of a Comma to denote the neces-
s ry
i
pausp. The purpose of the pause is to summarise, as it
wprp, what has preceded, and to indicate that the Object is
the Object not of the last Preposition alone, but of all the
Prepositions.

306 Omission of the Comma. T. When (1) an

Adverb follows its Verb, or when (2) a subordinate
 Par. 307-309] PUNCTUATION. 191

sentence follows its principal Verb, there is not so

much need of a pause or division, and consequently
the Comma may be dispensed with. Compare
his health and strength re-
I"'Very
'
gradually,
turned."
0)
"His health and strength returned very gra-
dually."

" As soon as he caught sight of me, he ran

away."
' " He ran as soon as he caught sight of
away
me."

307 II. When the Subject-phrase short, and the

is

omission of the Comma produces no ambiguity, it

is omitted :

" What
(1) you say is very sensible."
" To be is to be weak."
(2) ignorant

308 III. Caution. The Comma ougbt not to be in-

serted (1) before "that" introducing an Object-
" that "
phrase, nor (2) before introducing a Subject
after
" it." Avoid the following
Preparatory :

(1) "The ambassador replied, that no interference

was needed."
" It was the common
(2) belief, 1l\ai tho house was
haunted by the ghost of a murdered woman."

309 The Colon and Semicolon. The Colon

"
or "
"
(meaning limb member ") is used after a
"
"member of a sentence ;
that is, after a portion
 192 HINTS ON [Par. 31O-313

that has a complete sense by itself. The Colon is

therefore used to shew some close relation between
two or more sentences by combining them in one.
The relation indicated may bo consequence, cause,
antithesis, similarity, &c. :

*'
How the door was opened no one knew on the :

evening of the robbery it had been locked as

usual."

310 The Semi-colon (" half-member

") is used between
co-ordinate where a shorter pause is
statements
desired than that marked by the Colon. Generally,
where there are more than two co-ordinate statements
in a graphic description, the Semi-colon would be

preferred to the colon :

"After a terrific struggle, the infantry were forced

back into the gates ; the combined fleet and
army opened fire upon the city ; and prepara-
"
tions were made for an immediate assault.

311 If the Co-ordinate Conjunction is inserted, the

Semi-colon is generally preferred to the Colon :

" Trialby jury is popularly attributed to Alfred the

Great ; but this is only an instance of the com-
mon tendency to associate popular institutions
with popular names."

The Full-Stop requires no comment.

312 The Note of Interrogation is used, not only

after questions asked for information, but also after
 Pmr. 313, 314] PUNCTUATION. 193

" where no answer ex-

questions of appeal," is

pected :

" "What can be toilsome in these pleasant walks ?

"

Paradise Lost, x. 179.

" Grave ! where is thy victory ?

Death ! where is thy sting ? "Pope.

313 The Note of Exclamation is used (1) after

Vocatives ;
(2) after words or sentences uttered with
sudden emotion (3) very rarely after semi-inter-
:

rogatory exclamations :

(1) "Go, wondrous creature I mount where science

guides ;
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state thf
tides." Ib.
" But hark I he strikes the golden lyre ;
(2)
And see I the tortur'd ghosts respire,
"
See, shady forms advance/ Ib.

(3)
' '
What sounds were heard,
What scenes appear'd,
"
O'er all the dreary coasts ! Ib.

314 The Dash is used (!) to mark a ve]7 abrupt

break in the sentence, often introducing some quite
unexpected word ; (2) in a long sentence, to mark
a return to the thread of the principal sen-
tence :

(1) Conceal, disdain do all things but forget." Ib.

"Oh come oh teach me nature to subdue,

!

Renounce my love, my lilV, myself <und you." Ib.

(2) "The strong-headed, manly, sharp-tempered,

aeenlar carpenter, with his energetic satisfaction
O
 194 HINTS ON PUNCTUATION. [Par. 31

in work, his impatience of dreamers, and his

early passion for Hetty's earthly loveliness"
(then follows a long description of the principal
characters in 'Adam Bede')
"
these, with the
but equally true outlines with which
slighter,
the picture is filled up, form one of the truest

and most typical groups of English life I have

ever seen delineated." Hutton.

315 Brackets are used to mark the insertion of a

Phrase or Sentence that is allowed to interrupt

another sentence :

"
Yesterday, Thomas (you know whom mean) assured
I
me that you were no longer in England."

This kind of insertion is called a Parenthesis, i.e.

a " side- insertion " aside enthesis, inser-

(para, ;

tion).
" "
Such expressions as said he," replied I," &c. ;

are generally marked off, not by brackets, but by

commas.

Inverted Commas, or Marks of Quota

tion, require no comment.
 SCHEME OF PARSING. 5

OWTNG to the confusion and ambiguity caused by the use

of difiVrrnt ;il>l>reviations in Parsing Exercises, the following
list is givfcn below :

316 ABBREVIATIONS.

Active Act. Number

Adjective Adj.*
Adverb Adv.*
Antecedent Ant.
Apposition App.
Auxiliary Aux.
Cognate Cogn.
Comparative Compar.
Complement Complem.
Complete Compl.
Conditional Cond.
Conjunction Conj.
Conjunct ire Conj*-
Direct Object D.O.
Future Put.
Imper.
Impersonal Impers.
lete
Tudte.
'
Object Ind. 0.
1,,-l.f.
Infinitive
Interr.

Mood M.
Noun N.
 136 SCHEME OF [Par. 317-32O
317 I. NOUNS. Mention (i) FORM ; (ii) USE.

i. FORM :
Singular or Plural.
ii. USE: (1) Subjective; (2) Possessive; (3) Vocative;
(4) Objective.

iii. SUBDIVISIONS OF EACH USE :

1. Subjective, Complete, of a
(a) Subject, Partial or
Verb; Apposition to some Subject; (c)
(b) in
Adverbial Subject, or Subject Absolute ; (d) Sup-
plement to a Vt-rh.
2. Possessive. (No Subdivision ; always defines some
Noun.)
8. Vocative. (No subdivision. )

4. Objective, (a) Object, Partial or Complete, or

or or
" Retained "
in
Cognate, Indirect, ; (b)

Apposition to some Object (c) Adverbial Ob- ;

ject ; (d) Supplement to a Verb.

318 IL < a) PRONOUNS (ordinary). i. ii. iii. same as

Nouns ; iv. stands for what Noun ?

II. (b) PRONOUNS RELATIVE. i. ii. iii. same

as Nouns ; iv. has for Antecedent ?

II. (c) PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIVE.-L ii. iu.

same as Nouns ;
iv. joins what sentences ?

319 III. ADJECTIVES. Mention (i) FORM ; (ii) USE.

i. FORM : Positive, Comparative or Superlative Degree,

ii. USE :
(i) joined to what Noun or Pronoun ? (2) Sup-
plementary to what Verb ?

320 IV. VERBS. (i) NATURE; (ii) FORM ;

iii. USB.

i. NATUKE : Transitive or Intransitive.

 Par. 321, 332] PAUSING. 197

ii. FORM : Mention (1) Voice; (2) Mood. (3) Tense and
" "
State ; (4) Person ; (5) Number.
iii. USE : A. (a) has for Subject ? (unless Infin.)

(b) has for Object ? (unless Intr. or

1
Pass.)

(c) may have Subjective Supplement

(if Intr. or Pass.)

(d) may have Objective Supplement ?

If in the Infinitive Mood, the Verb may be used

B. (a) Noun ; Subject or Object (Comple-
mentary or otherwise) of ?

(b) Adverb ; modifying ?

(c) Adjective ; qualifying ?

321 V. PARTICIPLES. (i) Nature; (ii) Form; (iii) Use.

i. NATURE : Transitive or Intransitive.

ii. FORM :
(a) Active or Passive.

iii. USE :
(a) joined to what Noun or Pronoun ?

(b) implies what Conjunctive word ?

A. If Active (see IV. above), may have Object, &c.

B. If Passive (see IV. above) may have Supplement.

322 VI. VERBAL NOUNS.-(i) Nature; (ii) Form;

(iii) Use.

i. NATURE : Transitive or Intransitive.

ii. FORM : Active 3 or Passive.

" "
A Passive Verb may have a I ot
ti, whether "Complete" with having, or
'

also be mentioned. But these

 198 PARSING. [Par. 323323
iii. USE : A. Noun-Uses. See I. above.
B. Verb-Uses. See IV. above.

323 VIL ADVERBS. -Alodifywhat Verb, Adjective, Adverb,

l
ur Sentence ?

Many Adverbs are used as Conjunctions, in which case

callthem Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs, and parse
them as Conjunctions.

Some Adverbs are used in three different ways :

(1 ) Inter-
rogatively; (2) in dependent Interrogation, or Conjunctively;
(8) Jklatm-ly.

324 V1IL PREPOSITIONS Have what Object?

-

Prepositions are sometimes used as (1) Adverbs ; (2) parts

of Compound Verbs, and, when thus used, must not be parsed
as Prepositions.

325 IX -
CONJUNCTIONS. Join what two sentences
(
together .

' It
is so seldom that a Noun is modified by an Adverb (and the
ellipsis of an Adji'ctivi- is so probable in such cases), that a Noun is
not here included in list of words mmlitlcd by the Adverb. See Par. 45.
The Degree of Comparison of the Adverb is also omitted.
 PART II.

DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES

IN MODERN ENGLISH.

326 CHAPTER L

PROSE.
PARAGRAPHS 191 230 contained a few examples
of Irregularities, shewing the method by which Irre-
gularitiesmust be explained. The present Chapter
is intended to enumerate more fully and systemati-
cally the difficulties in Modern English Prose. The
method of explanation will not be so fully given
as before, in Part I. ;
but the pupil must bear in
mind that in explaining these, and all other irregu-
larities in English, and indeed in explaining any
irregularity in any language, there is but one
method :

I. .1 '///'// the Regular Construction.

II. Ascertain the cause of Irregularity.
 200 DIFFICULTIES [Par. 327

The following is a key to the arrangement adopted

in this Chapter. But only those idioms are selected
that present difficulty to an English student :

327 Syntax of Words and Sentences.

SYNTAX OF WORDS OR, THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
;

1. The Subject, "It" (32832). For the Infinitive used

as Subject, see 3, c, below.
2. Agreement of Verb with Subject (3349).
3. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases.

(a) Uses or Cases of Nouns (3406).

(b) "against" (349) "at" (3505)
Prepositions :
; ;

"by" (3537) "for" (35864) ;"of" (365

;

" to "
372); "on" (3735); (377 9) "but" ;

(3801) used before Adverbs (3823).

;

(c) The Infinitive, used (1) as Subject or Object

(3869) ; (2) Adverbially (390402).
(d) The Participle (40412).
() The Adverb (41320).
5. The Adjective, "The" (4216) "a" (4279); the
Possessive Objectively used (432 4) ; Noun with Prepo-
sition Adjectively used (436); Appositional use of "of"
(437-9).

SYNTAX OP SENTENCES.
1. Co-ordinate Sentences. Co-ordinate Conjunctions (440
443).
2. Subordinate Clauses. Condensed Clauses (4447) ;

Subject and Object Clauses (44854) ; Adverbial Clauses

(4558); Conditional Clauses (45971); Concessional
Clauses (4727) ; Result, Purpose (47882) ; Clauses of
Comparison (48397) ; Adjective Clauses (497- 500).
For a Alphabetical Index referring to each idiom ex-
full

plained in this and other Chapters, see page 327. Without

 Par. 328, 329] AND IRREGULARITIES. 201

the aid of this Iiidox, the reader will not find it easy to
refer to a particular idiom. For example, the Conjunctional
use of "but" will not be found under "but" as a Prepo-
"
sition. But a reference to "but in the Index will at once
guide the reader to the right paragraph.

328 "It" Used as Subject.

1

" "
1. It is often used for (1) " the time, season,"
" "
&c. ; (2) matters, affairs :

(1) "It will soon "be November."

(2) "It will come to a quarrel."

This use has origin in the earliest period of the lan-

its

guage. explained not only by (I) desire of brevity,

It is

but also by the desire to express some unknown cause of

inexplicable results: "it snows, hails, thunders," Ac.
Hence also in Early English, even up to the Fifth Period,
"it shames, yearns, pities, me." The same ten-
repents,
dency observable in Latin to express feelings that are not
is
controlled by the person, by means of Impersonal Verbs. A
relic of the old usage is "methinks," i.e., "it seems to
me." Compare Shakespeare :

"
Where it thinkt (seems) best unto your royal self."

A similar explanation applies to "if (it) you please," which

is illustrated
" So him (to) come."
by Shakespeare's (it) please

329 "It" is also used to prepare the way for tLo

ject. (See Par. 151) :

" It is said that he will come."

(3)

(If the sentence ran "that he will come is said,"

* For the Infinitive used as Sublet, tee Par. 880.

 202 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 33O, 331

an undue emphasis (III) 1 would be laid on " ie

said.")
" It make a
(4) is necessary to choice."

More rarely "this" and "that" are used after

the Subject for the purpose of recapitulation :

" To fail after a third attempt that indeed would

(5)
be disgraceful."

"It" is also used to prepare the way for the

Object :

" do not think

(6) I it right to take this course."
" 1 can moke it clear that I am
(7) guiltless."

" It "
ften prepares the way for a clause intro-
330
duced by the Conjunction that :
(8) "It was then that the cavalry charged," i.e.,
" "
the cavalry's charging was then.
" When was it that "
(9) they were in prison ?

(The redundance of it here is shewn by the fact

that in the last example, which is modernised from

Robert of Gloucester, the author omits the it :
" When was that
(10) they were hi prison ? ")

Sometimes the Conjunction may be " whether":

" It is doubtful whether he will succeed."
(11)

" the the Antecedent

331 It stands for person," and is

of a Relative Pronoun in
" "
(12) Who was it that said so ?

" Thou art it that hath cut Kahab."

(13)
1
The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the "Laws of Irregu-
larity," Par. 196.
 Par. 333, 333] "IT." 203

In the earliest English (Anglo-Saxon) version of

"
the Gospel, it," or rather the Saxon equivalent of
"
it," is not placed first, and we find St. John vi. 63
in this form :

(14) "Spirit is it that giveth life."

But as early as WicklifFe the it had been

separated
from its Relative, and had been placed at the be-
ginning of the sentence.
" It is the
(15) Spirit that quickeiieth."

332 In consequence of this change of position, the

Verb " it."
agrees with the Preparatory Subject
Thus, instead of
" You were it that he laughed at,"
(16)

we say
" It was you that he laughed at." 1
(17)

333 A Noun is sometimes used as the Subject or

Object of some Verb understood, connected witl
"
another Verb by " and :

(1) (There were) "A few more struggles, and all was
over."

(2) (We must walk) "A mile further, and we shall be

at our journey's end."

Bee Par* ;
us contraction IB said not to be found fn the
eul eat English, Matzner, il page 26.
 204 AGREEMENT OF VERB [Par. 334, 33fi

334 Agreement of Verb with Subject.

1. The Verb sometimes has the Plural Inflection

to agree with an implied Plural Subject :

" Nor
(1) yew nor cypress spread their gloom," *
i.e.,
" "
yews and cypresses do not spread.
" Neither
(2) you nor your brother were mentioned,"
i.e., "you and your brother were not men-
tioned."

It would be intolerably harsh to write, however

correct it might be

" Neither
(3) you nor your brother was mentioned."

Evade the difficulty by writing :

" Neither
(4) your brother nor you were mentioned,"

so that the Verb may either agree with the Gram-

matical Subject " you," or with the implicit Subject

"your brother and you."

335 2. A Subject is sometimes introduced without a

Verb, in a parenthesis, the Verb having to be sup-

plied by repetition
" His not his recent misfortune, have alien-
(1) faults,
ated him from us."

where " has alienated

"
must be repeated after
" misfortune."

'
Campbell, quoted by Matzner.
 Par. 336, 337] WITH SUBJECT. 205

The Verb is in the Singular after a number of

336 3.

Nouns as Subject

I. When the Nouns collectively express one

notion :

(1) "Much blood and treasure was wasted in these

wars."

(2) "The poetry and eloquence of that age deserves

our study."

In these cases the Nouns are often preceded by

one Adjective, as above " much," " the."

II. When the last Singular Noun (coming at the

end of a climax) is prominently emphatic :

" derided
(3) Honour, justice, religion itself is by
such policy."

III. When
the Verb precedes a number of Sub-
ject Nouns, the first of which is singular.
" Blessed is the womb that bare thee and the
(4) paps
which thou hast sucked."

IV. When the Verb is followed by a Comple-

mentary Subject in the Singular Number :

(5) "To inferiors, gentleness, condescension, and

"
affability is the only true dignity.

4. A Collective Noun in the Singular may be

337
used with a Plural Verb, where the notion of a
number of individuals is moro prominent than the
notion of a collective whole :

(1) "The crew are rushing to the boats."

 206 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 338, 339
" The whole
(2) family are in tears."
" The
(3) majority of the inhabitants are ready to
"
petition against his return.
" The for a war."
(4) army are anxious

But where the notion of unity predominates, the

Singular of the Verb is used :

" The whole nation rouses itself like one man."

(5)
" The
(6) army is mainly composed of raw recruits."

338 There is an apparent inconsistency in

(7) "The army which a month agp was pining for

peace are now, to a man, clamorous for war."

(8) "This people, who kmoweth not the law, are

cursed."

But this is explained (III) T

by the harshness of
using a Plural Verb with a Singular
after a Relative
Antecedent. Where the Plural Verb closely follows
the Noun of Multitude, the meaning of multitude

naturally affects the Verb, but the intervention of

the Relative Pronoun 2 diminishes the effect of the
Noun's Plural meaning.

339 The following examples (Matzner, ii. 144) admi-

rably illustrate the use of the Singular where the

* The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the Laws of Irregularity

Par. 198.
- The effect of the
intervention of the Relative is seen in the,
strictly, ungrammatical passage of Pope, where the Third Person is
used for the old Second :

" Th<m
frre.it first Cause, least understood:
Who all my sense confin'd
To know but this, thatThou art good. "
 Par. 340] ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 207

notion of unity, and of the Plural where the notion

of plurality, is the more prominent :

"
(9) "There goes" (unity) "a pair that only spoil
(mutual action necessarily implying plurality)
"one another."
"
(10) "The stork-assembly meets (unity) "for many
a day.
"
Consulting deep and various (notion of plu-
" ere
rality introduced) they take
Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky."

ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
I. The Uses of Nouns.

340 The Object is used (see Par. 129) to denote

*
extent, distance, duration, or point of time :
(1) "A short distance from the town was a small
stream."

(2) "One summer's day 1 was walking in the

country."
(3) "I shall expect you this day" (point of time)
"three months" (distance or interval of time.) 3
" I saw
(4) him five days ago."*
(5) "He bathes summer and wittier"

1 loins .iro niontiniifd here. For the more

w;ulrr i- r l'J7 131.
" >c
11 or in"
won: \tiis"
v" wa Honu'tinirs Sulij.Ti in ft
inruii- tin-
" " "
ujlw day*," ago being for agone/*
th- P.-ixniv.- I'
 208 ADVERBIAL PHRASES. [Par. 3*1 343

341 ID. Early English this was expressed by what is

now the Possessive Inflection, so that the last
Example would have then run
" He bathes summem and wintem." T
(6)

In the same way they used " nightes," " dayes,"

"yeares," &c. In later times the Inflection was
" " " a- "
replaced by a Preposition on," or an," or ;

but sometimes we find the new Preposition intro-

duced and the old Inflection retained, " now-
e.g. in

And this
" in
late
" of
a-days." explains doors,"
" The old Inflection is
years," o'nights." retained,
or has been introduced, in "always," "sometimes;"
" " needs."
sideways,"

342 From a confusion (II) of "at three years of

and " he was three years (Object) old (see
" "
age
Par. 129), there has arisen the following irregu-
larity :

(7) "At three years, nine months, old."

Here " three-years-old," " nine-months-old," most

be now regarded as Compound Nouns.

43 The Object is also used to denote price :

" Mutton
(8) is eight-pence a pound."

(Here "pence" is not the Subjective Supple-

" At " "
ment. might be inserted before eight")
"a "
The distributive use of pound in the last

* Morris's Accidence, page 194.

 Par. 344346] ADVEK3IAL PHKASES. 200

Example demands attention. It may be compared

with
(9) "I ride once a day"
(10) "He gave them five shillings a-piece, or a man."

In Early English (Morris's Accidence, page 195)

this
" a " is seen to be the old "
Preposition on/'
"an," or "a." It is not (though it might seem to

be) the Indefinite Adjective.

344 The Object is also used with Comparatives, to
denote the amount of excess or defect :
" He a than
(11) is trifle taller my brother."
" The the better."
(12) sooner,

In (12) "the" is not the Definite Adjective;

it is a Use or Case of the old Relative or Demon-
" that and the meaning
strative Pronoun (our "),
is "By what (in what degree) sooner, by that (in
that degree) better."
"
(13) Thi, (or thy) sooner, thi better."

345 A Prepositional force implied in the Adverbial

"
Phrase " on this side explains the use of the
Object in :

" On this side (of) the Twetd."

(14)

346 The Object is irregularly used for the Subjective

form in :

" "
(15) Wlvm. gay ye that I am ?
 210 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 3*7
The reason is, obviously, (II) Confusion with the
regular construction :

" Whom
(16) say yo me to be ?"

But, doubtless, euphony (the same feeling that

makes the French say "c'est moi" and English
children "it's me") is the reason for such irregu-
larities as Shakespeare's :

(17) "No mightier than thyself or me."

(18) "Is she as tall as w."
(19) "Itis^clfear."

Milton has " Than whom." Perhaps, " than" and

" as
"were regarded as quasi-Prepositions.

Pope (Sat. viii. 275) has

"And lin'd with Giants deadlier Hum 'em all"

II. Prepositions.

347 The English Prepositions originally represented

local meanings, i.e. they indicated rest or motion in
place. For example, "of," "off," meant "motion
" "
" "
from ;by meant neighbourhood," and so did
" with " " for " meant " before."
;

By degrees the uses of the Prepositions were

extended to denote the relations of time as well as
"
of space. For example, " before and " after " are
used of both relations. But sometimes a Prepo-
sition assumed two forms, one to denote space, the
 Par. 348, 349] PREPOSITIONS 211

" to " for " "

other to denote time, e.g. space, til or
" till " for time. See Par. 376.
348 Then the uses of the Prepositions were still

further extended to denote other relations, e.g.

agency, instrumentality, and the like. For ex-

"
ample, we now say that a box is made of (i.e.
out
of, motion from) wood." But there is no reason
we "
why might not have used, instead of of," some

Preposition denoting "neighbourhood," e.g. "with"

or
"
by." And here also (as with " to " and " till "
above) the Preposition sometimes assumed two forms,
one to denote the local
"
original relation, e.g. off,"
" the leaves are "
falling off the trees ; another to
denote the secondary relation, e.g. " the light of
the sun."
Hence, in explaining the uses of Prepositions,
the student should go back at once to the radical

meaning of rest or motion, and thence should trace

the derived meaning, whatever it may be. 1

"
"A," "a-piece;" see Par. 343: o-ground,"
" " "
on ground," on sleep ;" Par. 127.
a-sleep," for
349 " now restricted to
1. Against," generally
space, but still rarely (once commonly) used of
time :

(1) "We shall not bo ready against the day of

battle."
1 Before the Pupil d-als with Pr<'i>f>siti<>ns nnu mur
M
nto a Proi -
ile. See Rnglith Latont for English, PtopU,
We 116.
 212 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 35O 352

It is more commonly used in modern vernacular

English as a Conjunction (like "after," "before,"
used for " after that," " before that ") :

" We shall not be he comes."

(2) ready against (that)

" At," "

350 2. meaning neighbourhood," was eai-ly

used to denote " proximity of value,"

"
equivalence,"
"
or " price :

(1) "The house is valued at a thousand pounds."

" He lends
(2) money at a high rate of interest."
" We are travelling at a ^iv;:t puce."
(3)

Hence it was used in Adverbial Phrases, where

" "
estimated," rated," can be supplied from the
context :

"
(4) (Estimating your compensation) At (the) least,
you will surely receive half the value of your
loss": so, "almost."

351 Hence it denotes (not "consequence," like "on,"

" immediate
but) proximity, consequence, or de-
"
pendence :

(5) "He fires up at a word" : "At the word he

vanished."
(6) "The tiger cleared the avenue at a bound."
" He lies at the " He is removable
(7) king's mercy ":
at pleasure."

352 Hence " instrumentality," mostly of games at which

one may be regarded as present :

" He plays at cricket, football, chess, draughts,"

(8)
&c.
" He is beaten at his own
:
weapons."
 Par. 353355] "AT," "BY.* 213

" "
Xote that at is used with reference to points,
while " on
" "
and " in are used with reference to
places. Hence "at" used for a point of time,
is

but " on," " "

by for a space of time
in," or
"
:

(9) "OTi Monday," "at dawn"; "by day," "at

"
sunset "in the afternoon," "at noon."
;
l

(10) "At first"; " at last " "a* length." ;

So also of place,
" at " is used for small places
" in "
of large places regarded
regarded as points,
as spaces :

" In London "

"at Clifton."
(11) ;

Hence, metaphorically :

" " " Skil-

(12) Distinguished in war, literature, &c. ;

ful ^jumping, dancing, &c."

354 "In" denotes the sphere of action regarded as

" in " in
influencing the agent, e.g. wrath," anger,"
"in haste." "At" denotes the point at which
one rests, without the notion of influence, e.g.

"at "at peace," " at " at

ease," liberty," large,"
"at rest," "at leisure" :

(13) "He that marries in haste will repent at

leisure."

" o"
355 3 -
By," meaning originally "near the side
"
i.e.
neighbourhood, is used to denote " time (" by
"
four o'clock "), instrumentality," and agency."

"At " " nt ni^'lit f.Ol

'

ni^'lit really III\ITIH

 214 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 356, 357

From the notion of "instrumentality," it came

to express " manner,"
u
number," &c. :

(1) "They sell corn by the bushel, drink beer by the

gallon," &c.
" He is
(2) dying by inches, is wise by fits," &r,
" The citizens streamed out hundreds."
(3) by

In Old English, the repetition of an action, e.g.

356
"streamed" in the last Example, was sometimes
expressed by repeating the Adverbial phrase "by
hundreds," so that the sentence ran
(4) "The streamed out by hundreds, by hun-
citizens
dreds by one and by one by thousand and by
; ;

thousand ; by little and little," &c.

So even Pope :

" Loth to enrich me with too

(5) quick replies,
By little and by little drops his lies."
When some of these phrases were condensed for
" "
brevity's sake, the first by was omitted :

"
(6) They streamed out one by one."
" The water oozed out
(7) drop by drop."
" He is
(8) growing stronger year by year."
(9) "The army is diminishing little by little."

357 From false analogy, i.e. Confusion (II) with

" we even
They emigrated by hundreds," say,

speaking of a single person

" He himself."
(10) emigrated by

But evenin the Earliest English we find, not the

Adjective
" self "
(i.e. same)
and the Pronoun " he,"
 " "
PAT. 358 360] BY," FOR." 215

"
he-self," in Apposition to the Subject, but a kind
of Adverb formed out of the Dative Case of " he."
" "
Consequently by himself is simply a Prepositional
equivalent of the old Case-Adverb.

" " "

358 4- For," radical
meaning before," in front
"
of ; hence (as a champion may fight in front of, or
in tlie place of, the person he is
"
championing) in-
1 " "
stead of," i.e. in the stead or as
place of, :

" She
(1) passed for his sister."
" This was meant
(2) for a joke."

359 Hence, "for the purpose of," and hence, "con-

sidered for the purpose of," or "having regard
to":
(3) "Fit for food."
" Small
(4) for his ske."
"These apples are too sour for eating," i.e. for
"
(5)
the purpose of eating, the apples are too sour."

" for the sake " because of "

Hence, of," :

(6) "All kept away /or fear of infection."

(7) "For shame," i.e. "(I cry alack) because of
shame."

Some exclamation has to be supplied, and was

often inserted in Old English.
360 It is easy to see how, after a negative, "for"
"
may assume the meaning of " despite of :

" He was not liked

(8) for his good temper," or
" He was
(9) di.sliknl/r all his #>! tamper."
"
'
II. net I Imy on a]<]<]<- fur, i.e. in the place of, or Bell It for, t*
for th. sake of, a penny."
 216 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 3*1, 362

Hence, even where there is no negative preceding,

" for "
might be thus used :

(10) "I shall succeed (and you will not prevent me)
for all your ti i

It is fair to say, however, that in Old English

" for " "
is used in the sense of prevention," with-
out any negative preceding. 1

361 From the notion of " purpose," " for" came to be

used, even in Early English, with words denoting
future time :

" I hu\v food stored up for (the purpose, or need,

(11)
of) many years."
" I will repeat the Psalter daily for a year."
(12)

"
In the same way, " for is used of space, with a
notion of motion towards a purposed Object
" am
(12) I
setting out for Paris."

362 Hence "for" came to be used of time and space,

without any notion of purpose, but with the mere
notion of extension :
" We have loved one another
(13) for many years."
" For
(14) fifteen weary miles they plodded onward."
(15) "For a short time."

Hence (II) by Confusion (where there is no notion

of " extension ") :

1
It has been suggested that "for" might derive a moaning of op-
position from its radical inraniiiK of "before," "in front of." See
Shakespearian Grammar, page 103.
 "
Par. 363-365] FOR," "OF." 217
" He now
(16) is sleeping, for the first time siuco last
Mon
" Be
(17) sensible, for once."

Th U8e f
" f r "
after
" but " is to be explained
o/3o
to the radical
"
by reference meaning of but," i.e.

"
except" (see Par. 381) :

" He would have died but "

(18) for me," i.e. except,
or only, (thatit happened otherwise) because of

" " in front " in

For," in the sense of of," i.e.
behalf of," is often used at the beginning of a sen-

tence, to call attention to that about which one is

going to speak :

" For his part, he is indifferent."

(19)

Hence
" As "
(20) for him, he is indifferent," i.e. (So far) as
(one may speak) or, i.e. in behalf of, about,

him."

"
In the middle of the Sentence " for is not now
so common as it was once, e.g. in Bacon's time :

"
(The counsel of Rehoboam) was young counsel for
(as regards) the persons, and violent counsel for
(as regards) the matter."

" For
to," see Par. 402.

5. "Of," having originally the force of off, is

still used with this meaning in

" Within
(1) t.-n inil-s nf (i.r. from) the coast"
 218 PEEPOSITION& [Par. 366, 367
" " "
(2) Of late." Of old." Of a child. "Mark
ix. 21.

(3) "Upwards of (i.e. rising from) ten years."

From " ten i.e.

" ten vut
saying, logically, of us,"
of our number," we have come to say, illogically
(4) "Allo/us."

366 " Of "

is also used with Verbs signifying " motion
"
from :
(a) deprive, bereave, strip, rob, cheat, de-
fraud ; (b) rid, deliver, acquit ; (c) cleanse, purge,
cure ; (d) beware. Also with Adjectives signifying
emptiness. This use explains
" Void " " " " She was
(5) of sense. Clear of debt.
delivered of a child."

367
"Of" fr m meaning " motion from," comes to
mean (6) "out of," (7) "belonging to," (8) "re-
"
sulting from :

(6) "This box is made of wood." "He comes qf

" Evil must come
good parentage." of evil."
(7) "The light of the sun," i.e. "the light off or
from the sun."
(8) "The canal of water," i.e. "as the resuU
is full
" He did " She
of" of malice aforethought."
it
"
died of a fever." " It smells of musk." Of
his own accord."
" "as the
Of course,'' i.e.
"
result of the ordinary course of things.

Compare Bacon's
" If
(8a) Time, of course (i.e. as the result of its or-

dinanj course) alter things to the worse."

 Par. 36S "
371] OF." 219

366 From meaning "resulting from," "of" comes to

mean " on account
(9) of," (10) "because of" :

(9) "I accuse him of treason."

" He
(10) is glad of success, afraid of death."

369 "
Hence, from meaning that which comes from, has
to do with, belongs to, or concerns," "of" has come
to mean " concerning," " about "
:

" What
(11) of John ? Tell me of his adventures."
" I am 1
(12) going of an errand."

"
Lastly, from meaning about," it comes to mean
" as "
regards :

" " Hard

(13) Light of foot." of heart."

" of "
370 Only in vernacular English is now used for

"during," a use that springs naturally from the

" " "
meaning coming from," belonging to," i.e. in,"
" on "
or :

(14) "I can't get up of a morning."

(15) "Of a sudden."

But this was once more common. Compare

Shakespeare's
"My custom always of the afternoon."
"
371 Since the action comes of, or from, the agent, " of

may be, and once was, commonly used where we

use "by":
" He was men.
(1C) despised and n-jcrtrd of

Thia might be explained by (8) "as the reiiult

 220 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 372374
" That which was spoken of
(17) it might be fulfilled
the Lord."
" When he was demanded of the Pharisees."
(18)

" of " without a

372 The Partitive use of preceding
Noun, Pronoun, or Numeral Adjective, is now rare :

" He
(19) gave us (some) of his best."
" The
(20) dogs eat (some) of Ihe crumbs that fall

from their master's table."

" What " A rascal of a
sort of" cabman," &c.
See Par. 438.

373 6. "On," "Upon." Since one event can

happen on of another, or can be based upon

the top

certain conditions it is easy to understand the use

of the Preposition in
"
(1) Upon my arrival I will give you an interview."
" He acted thus oil
(2) your suggestion."
" On he rushed out of the house."
(3) hearing this,

(4) "They suiTriuli nd the city on these conditions."

" was prohibited on pain of death."
(5) Pillage

374 As we speak of being supported or sustained by

bread,which we call the " staff of life," we naturally
use " on in the metaphorical expressions
"

" He lives on
(6) bread, feeds on success," &c.

"
taken " over or " on
"
Since an oath is a Bible,

sword, &c., it was natural to swear

" On the faith of a Christian." "
On my honour."
(7)
"
Upon my word."
 " "
Par. 375 -37] ON? TO."

"
Since an action may spring " out of a feeling,
" "
or be based on a we can purpose, say
" He did "
on purpose."
(8) it of malice," but

375 " On "

is often abbreviated into " a-
"
:

(9) "A-board," "a-sleep," "a-live," "a-ground."

Shakespeare also has

" "onend." 1
(10) A-land," "a-sea," "an-end," i.e.

"
376 7. Till," which is now used only of time, was
once used of space :
"
(1) They went til Snowdon."
" Tille him came his son Richard."
(2)

" To," "

377 8. meaning toward," is sometimes used,
without a Verb of motion, to denote " neighbour-
"
hood or " equivalence," where now " for would
"

be more commonly used :

(1) "I call God to (i.e. as) witness."

In the last Example, motion may possibly be

" call "
implied in ;
but there is no motion implied
in
" The seven had her to wife."
(2)

378 "To"
seems to mean "up to," "as far as con-
" as to " in
cerns,"
" To all
(3) appearance he is guilty."

* Even Pope has

"A littl* house with tree* a-row."
 222 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 379381
" To " was
379 early used (in the sense of neighbour-
" toward " or " about " of
hood) for past time, as
" to-eve "
well as of future, e.g. (yesterday evening).
This explains the modern
" I saw him
(4) to-day."

"As to." See Pars. 487489.

" But." See Alphabetical Index. When used

380 " but " should be followed
as a Preposition, by the
Objective form; but, probably owing to confusion
between the Prepositional and the Conjunctive
"
usage, but," even when a Preposition, is often
followed by the Subjective form :

" And was not this the Earl ? 'Twos none but he."
Philip Van Artcvdde.

381 In explaining the many idiomatic usages of "but," two

should be borne in mind (1) that the radical meaning
tilings ;

of "but" is "leaving out," and that it w-as a Preposition;

(2) that a negative is often omitted, for shortness, before it.
The transition from the Preposition to the Conjunction is
wi-11 illustrated by the following modernised examples from

Layamon :

" Buten, laeve," i.e. "without leave."

(1) (Prepotition.)
" He saw that the
Britong must fall buten heo rsed haveden,"
(2)
i.e."without, or, nnlett they had counsel (rede)." Subordi-
nate Conjunction.
(3) "If you do this, well; buff (i.e. otherwise), he will never
deliver Evelin to thee." Co-ordinate Conjunction.

The omission of the negative was facilitated by the blend-

ing of the negative ne with the Verb, so that nam meant
"am not."
 Par. 382384] PEEPOSITIONS.
" A'abbe we
(4) buten the west end," .. we have but the west
end."
(5) ".Viw he there bute one night," ie. "he was there but one
uight."

382 9. Prepositions are sometimes used with Adverbs

(used as .Nouns) for their Objects :

(1) "What kind of country is it between here and

"
Dover ?
(2) "The light comes >'/:>m behind, not from above."
(3) "Until quite recently." "Since then." "For
once." "Of yore."

The older and preferable forms "Whither?"

" Whence ? " seem in danger of being supplanted
" " " "
by the modern Where-to ? Where-froin ?

" \Vhere does this road lead to t

"
(4)

383 Sometimes the Preposition precedes not an Ad-

verb, but an Adverbial Phrase :

(5) "The mountain trembles from on-high."

(6) Prom beneath-the- ground. "
' '
From beyond-tlw- ' '

seas."

(7) "Not till about-six-years-aftcrwards." "Till

uithin-a-feW'Weeks-of'his-dcath."
" It was sold
(8) for under-half-its-valite."

384 The Object of a Preposition is sometimes

10.

omitted, (1)when the Object is a Relative Pro-

noun, (2) when the Preposition completes a Verb
in the Infinitive :

"
(1) The will (that) I told you of is lost"
"
C2.) He lent me bis horse to escape upon."
 224 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 385, 386

Such sentences as (2) are found without the

Relative Pronoun in Old English ; it seems best
to consider the Preposition in such cases as part of
a Compound Verb"
escape on," like
" ride on."

In Shakespeare we should often find " thereon "

inserted
" to
escape thereon."
" " each
385 One other," have
another," now come to
he regarded as Compound Pronouns :

1'

(1) "They looked at one another, or, each other.

But the explanation of the construction is as

"
follows They looked one at another, or, each
: at
"" one " and " each "
other being in Apposition
to "they," while "other" is the Object of "at."
See Pars. 223, 531.

Preposition omitted; see Pars. 127 131.

The Infinitive. 1

"
386 The " is omitted, not only after the
to Auxiliary
Verbs, but also in a few very common idioms :

(1) "Better (to) 3 wait awhile."

(2) "Yon had better (to) be quiet."

Here " had

"
is Subjunctive, meaning
" would
"
have ; and the sentence would be in full

* For
convenience, the Infinitive, even when not Adverbial, is di
cussed here.
* This was the Infinitive, not the Imperative.
 Par. 387, 388] "TO" OMITTED. 225

(2) "You would have (find) it better (to) be quiet."

(3) "I had rather (to) be a doorkeeper," i.e.
" I sooner
('rathe' (Adj.) meant 'early,' 'soon') would
i.e.
" I prefer (to) be a doorkeeper."
have,

" To " is also omitted after "have "

in

(4) "I must have you (to) attend."

(5) "You will have your father (to) blame you."

impossible to tell whether "Please help me" is for (1) "May

It is
it YOU to help me," or for (2) " IMp me, please," which is an
pica.--'
"
abbreviation of Help me, if you please, or, so please you."
originally meant "cause," e.g. "dome drenche,
'

"cause (some one) to drench me." About the thirteenth century it

began to be used for simple emphasis, and in the fifteenth century,
was regularly u>nl thus.
" How do
In you do," the first do is the ordinary one, O.E don, the
"
second is O.E. dugan to be good, or worth." (MORRIS).

"
387 The omission of " to after such Verbs as let, bid,
make, dare, see, hear, feel, may be explained (1) by
the desire of brevity manifesting itself, specially in
the use of words so com-mon as these are ; and (2)

by the fact that old constructions (i.e.

the Old In-
"
finitive without to ") are to be looked for in
common words. (See Par. 95, 96.)

38 8 But this explanation does not explain the omission

of "to" after such uncommon words as "view,"
"behold," "mark," "watch," "observe," "pel
ceive," &c. The explanation here is perhaps as
follows when the " to " form of
: the Infinitive
came in, the construction w. Id become
(7) "I observed him to com*
Q
 226 "TO" OMITTED. [Par. 389
But, side by side with this, there would be the
Old Participial or Verbal construction :

(8) "I observed him coming or a.-coming."

In (7) the Object of the Verb a fact, viz. " the

is

fact that he came." In (8) the Object of the Verb

is a person.

But between these two constructions a com-

promise or confusion of thought was made, in
which it was left uncertain whether the fact or the
person was the more prominent ; and, to represent
this confusion of thought, there was made (II) a

compromise or confusion of language, in which (I

brevity) "to" was omitted as in (8), and "come"
was substituted for '* coming," as in (7), the result
being
" I observed him come." *
(9)

The confusion between the Infinitive and the Participle or

Verbal would be facilitated by the similarity of sound 1

the old Infinitive in -en, .and the Participle in -nd, or the

Verbal in -ng. See Pars. 5856.

389 The "to "is often omitted after " than," where
it can be supplied from some other clause in the
sentence :

" Sooner than

(1) (I am prepared to) make this con-
cession, I am prepared to go to law."
(2) "I will (i.e. wish Par. 93) (to) die sooner than
;

(to) desist."
* This Infinitive would be rendered in Latin and Greek by a Par-
ticiple.
 Par. 390392] THE INFINITIVE. 227

III. Infinitive with " to."

"
380 (1) I was given to understand by him."

The Active form is

" He
(2) gave me to understand,"
"
where " me the Indirect Object, and " to under-
is
"
stand the Direct Object, of " gave." Consequently
the correct Passive form would be

(3) "To understand was given me."

But " give to understand " being loosely treated

as a Compound Verb, " me," in (2), has been taken
as the Direct Object of the Active ; and therefore
the same Person, "I" in (1), has been made the
Subject of the Passive.
391 This may be illustrated by
" So am '
(4) I given in charge."

The modern meaning of " I am given in charge "

would be " I am placed in custody." But, in the
"
foregoing example, "to give-in-charge is treated

as a Compound Verb meaning "to charge," "to

commission," so that the sentence means, in Shake-

" I am or
speare, charged, instructed."

" "
392 To follows naturally after " come," but ex-

presses not a purpose, but a result, in

hind?"
(6) "Itcameto/XMs."
' 2 Henry VI. ii. 4. 80.

Q 2
 228 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 393395
After several Intransitive Verbs of the feelings,
" " " " to " followed
e.g. wonder," rejoice," sorrow,"
"
by a Verb is used, or "at followed by a Verbal
Noun :

(7) "I wondered, rejoiced, laughed, &c., to see him

"
there," i.e. at seeing."

(8) "I blushed, was ashamed, angry, sorry, &c., to

hear it."

393 After Adjectives, the Infinitive is sometimes used

" to "
to limit the scope of the Adjective, being used
" in "
very much like :

(9) "Sad to relate," i.e. "in relating,"

1
rather than
" for the
purpose of relating."
" He was the first to i.e.
" in
(10) come," coming."
(11) "You are unwise to speak so hastily," i.e. "for

speaking."
(12) "This was strange to hear, after all his profes-
sions."

" To "
394 is also used after many Nouns resembling
or implying Verbs that would naturally take "to"

after them :

" have no wish, hope, ambition,

(13) I desire, &c., to

" Give me to obey.

1 '

(14) your promise

" to " after Nouns

395 Somewhat different is the use of
" the "
preceded by :

(15) "He had the sense

to perceive his mistake," i.e.
" the sense or to perceive."
necessary, enough,

Compare
'
mirabUe dictn."
 Par. 396, 397J "TO." 229

Some " "

Adjectives, such as necessary," fit," have
to be supplied in such cases :

(16) "I have the pleasure, honour, &c., to inform

you," i.e. "the pleasure, honour, that goes so
1
far as to," &C.

396 In all the above Examples there are two causes

for the use of "to" instead of "at," "for," "of,"
&c. (1) A
Transitive Verb is often implied ; (2)
" to "
being constantly used with the Gerundive of
purpose, came to be used with the Infinitive (used
for the Gerundive) even where there is no sense of
purpose. See Par. 94 ;
also 585 6.

397 "So as to." "To" is often found after

"so... as" :

"
(17) Be so kind as to excuse me."

This might have been written without " so. .as " . :

" Be kind to excuse " Be kind to the

me," i.e.
"
extent of excusing me ; and this idiom is actually
with " "
found, only enough added :

"
(18) Be kind enough to excuse mo."

"
In Early English " so was added in the sense
"
of " to that extent so kind to excuse me."
: "Be
Afterwards, to join together the two parts of the
" " as "
sentence, the, Relative form of so," viz. (see
cted.

aul tterfor. i itli.-r t<. I,.- A.|J.-.-I

:
V;I. th.u. A-lvi.-rJ.ial.
 230 Tfi<E INFINITIVE. [Par. 398, 39S

" To " in Questions and Relative

Clauses.

398 There appears to have been an old Interrogative

use of the Infinitive, of which we still retain rem-
nants in such expressions as
" Where to How "
(1) ? begin (to) excuse myself?

In dependent questions this Infinitive was, and

is, very common :

" know not where how

(2) I to begin, nor to excuse

myself."

No doubt this idiom by the analogy

is facilitated

of " I know not nor the way to

the place to begin,

excuse myself," which may be compared with the

Noun-use of " wherewith," e.g. " I have not t ie !

wherewith to keep a carriage," " I must know the

how and the why." Add
"
(3) I know not whether to term it a fault or a mis-
fortune."
" The how to teach him that he needs
(4) difficulty is
teaching."

"
399 The sentence " I have no money to buy food is
logically correct, but is felt to be unsatisfactorily
incomplete. It has therefore been completed in
different
" I have no to buy food
ways :
(a) money
" I have no
with, or withal, or therewith;" (6)

*
Although the words are not inserted, yet one feel* that this is a
short way of saying : "Where (am I) to begin? How (am I to) excuse
myself?"
 Par. 400, 401] THE INFINITIVE. 231

money with which I may buy food;" and the con-

fusion between (a) and (6) has resulted in

(1) "I have no money with which to buy food."

"
(2) I have no object for which to strive."
"
(3) I want a place in which to feel at rest"

400 The Infinitive in Exclamations.

1
The Subject, not the Object, is usually found
before the Infinitive in exclamations :

" I to be so
" " He to desert me "
(1) happy ! !

401 The Parenthetical Infinitive.

This is an Infinitive of purpose :

"
(1) To you the truth, I was not up," i.e. "in
tell
order to tell you the truth (I must say that), I
was not up."
" To be not to be tedious, the expedi-
(2) brief, or,
tion failed."
" To be sure he is not very clever, but he is
(3) very
kind-hearti '!."

"Will you help me ?

" " To be mre I will."
(4)

The meaning of "

"
to be sure seems to be " cer-

tainly," but used in (3) concessively, in (4) emp/iati-

cally. Compare "to wit," i.e. "to know (the

truth.)"
.-i
Suhjeet nsrd absolutely with th<- Tarti-
1
ireek usage w>ull jirrjian- oin- In rxjirrt soin"
ith the Parti^nle Absolute ; but
thin is a Latinism. See Par. 408.
 232 THE INFINITIVE. [Par.

The Subject of the Infinitive, in "to be sure"

and in " be the person addressed,
to wit," appears to

"that you may be sure," " that you may wit."

402 The Infinitive with " for to."

In the Bible, the old Infinitive with " for to "

is

still found :

" What went out to sect"

(1) ye for

In Old English this Infinitive was used as Com-

plement to a Noun, in the Object clause, just like
the Infinitive with " to," e.a.

(2) "A many of rude villains made him for to

bleed."
" If he will not suffer
(3) my people for to pass."

We still, unconsciously, use this idiom, e.g.

" It is rare for a man
(4) to starve in this country."

Here the meaning is, not that " starvation is rare

"
for a man (for of course a man can only starve
once), but that "a man's being starved, or, that a
man should be starved, is rare." But, as this idiom
is completely forgotten, we seldom use it, except
"
where " for
might take for its Object the Noun
preceding the following Infinitive, as in
" The is too dark us to travel"
(5) night for

Here " us "

may be called the Object of
" for."

But, in reality, the sentence owes its origin to the

 Par. 403] THE INFINITIVE. 233

" It is impossible to treat " for'*

old use of for to."
as governing a Noun Object in the first or third,
and it is difficult in the second, of the two follow-

ing Examples :

(6) "He was too much accustomed to deeds of

violence for the agitation he had experienced
to be of long continuance." SCOTT. x
" The wind
(7) sits fair for news to go to Ireland."
(8) "He belonged to a race that was too much
detested outside the cities for him to hops
anything from charity." Spectator, 1874.

The Complete Infinitive.

403
Hopes and wishes about what is completed are
necessarily reserved for cases where one has failed,
and not fulfilled one's purpose. Hence with Verbs
of hoping, wishing, intending, the old and correct
use of Complete Infinitive (which it is most
desirable to retain) expresses an unfulfilled pur-

pose :

" to have succeeded, but

(1) I
hoped I failed."

(2) But, on the other hand, "I hoped to succeed,

and I suet-

So with ?ome other Verbs :

(1) "I could I tire repeated all Homer by heart once,"

i.e. "if any one had challcn^rd m,-, but no one
'

did.

*
Mtttzner, Vol. iii. page 58.
 234 THE PARTICIPLE, [par. 4O4, 4O5

(2) But, on the other hand, "I could learn a

hundred lines in an hour once," i.e. "and I
sometimes did."

404 IV. The Participle.

The Participle qualifying a Noun is sometimes

incorrectly used, instead of a Verbal Noun qualified
by a Possessive Adjective or Possessive form of the
"
Noun, e.g. In consequence of the king saying this"
for "In consequence of the king's saying this."

"Trusting to the certainty of the old man (for

man's) interrupting him." This is rare, and not to

be imitated. " me " instead of " "
Putting king or
"man" above, you see the incorrectness of the
idiom. It is not now English to say " in conse-
"
quence of me saying this :
"my" would be required
in both cases.
405 The Passive Participle is perhaps allowable in
this construction, e.g.
" He insisted on the match being deferred"
(1)
instead " the match's
of, being deferred"
(2) "In consequence of this motion having been
brought forward without due notice."

These are not exactly Participles. For example,

" He insisted on the match when
(1) does not mean
it was being deferred," or, "that was being de-
"
ferred :but " He insisted on the-match-being-de-
ferred" i.e. "the deferring of the match." This
 Par. 406, 407] THE PARTICIPLE. 235

(which may be called the Noun-use of the Parti-

1
ciple) a Latin construction, alien to the genius
is

of the English language; the native Verbal use

should be retained, wherever euphony and clearness
allow:
" He insisted on the man's being reprimanded."
(3)

The Participle with Conjunctions.

" Walk-
406 The ambiguous ; see Par. 66.
Participle is
"
ing" may mean "though he walked," because he

walked," &c. Partly to prevent ambiguity, and

partly by (II) Confusion of Construction, we blend
"
together (a) Walking on the ice I slipped," and
"
(6) While, or when, I was walking on the ice,
"
I slipped ; and, combining the clearness of the
latter with the brevity of the former, we say

"
(1) While, or when, walking on the ice, I slipped."
"
(2) Though walking very carefully, I slipped."

07 would be convenient to say " because walking ;"

It
but "because" and "since" 2 are not used with
"
Participles. We "
sometimes, however, use as in

.
us,, of tlio P.irf iriplf. ('.< nm-
divc mean* " ilwriliinj.'
'
s had a
See GloKsnry.
a Preposition, w'itli a Verlal Noun as it
'

it niied, as
"
ii nlcM"aro
i
rarely used
with
 236 THE PARTICIPLE [Par. 4O8, 4O9
"
this way, generally with being," more rarely with
other Participles :

" He was
(3) exempted from serving on the
jury, as
being over sixty."
" Our
(4) remaining horse was unfit for the road, as
wanting an eye."
(5) "If conquered, I am at least not disgraced."
(6) "I should never have attempted it ti/dess per-
"
suaded by you.

(7) "I always failed till helped by my brother."

408 The Participle used Absolutely with

Subject.

In Early English the Objective form of the

Pronoun was used, e.g. by Wyckliffe :

(1) "Him speaking these things," i.e. "while he

"
spoke.

Milton (probably imitating the classical usage)

uses " him " and not " he " in
(2) "Him destroyed . . . all this will soon follow."

The Participle used Absolutely.

409 Some Participles, through frequent use in certain

expressions, have come to be used even where the
Noun or Pronoun qualified by them has been
 Par. 410] USED ABSOLUTELY. 237

dropped out, so that some of them have almost the

force of Prepositions :

1
Regular Construction. (1) "Concerning you the decision
is as follows."
"
Irregular ,, . .
(1) We talked for some time con-

cerning the arrangements."

"
Regular . .
(2) Considering the circumstances,
I do not think him to blame."
"
Irregular . .
(2) Considering the circumstances,
it was thought that he was
not to blame."

Respecting, regarding, and touching, are thus used.

More rarely we have
" a very rare book."
(3) Talking of books, here is

(4) "Judging from his own behaviour, he cannot be

a desirable companion."
"
(5) Granting that you are right, what do you infer
from this?"
"
(6) Assuming that he is guilty, what ought to be
"
done ?

410 In most of such cases the Infinitive might be

substituted for the Participle ; and it is possible
" talken "
that the old sound of the Infinitive being
"
like the sound of talking," may have facilitated
the introduction of the latter but it is more pro- :

bable that the direct cause of the construction is

(a) the frequent use of the Participle regularly,

and
(6) its retention when the Pronoun is changed :

" of I must tell &c."

(a) Talking books, you,
"
(6) Talking of books, there is a very fine copy of,"
fte.

may be said to qualify "decision."

1

concerning"
 238 THE PARTICIPLE. [Par. 411,

"In talking," or "a-talking" (compare the French "en

attendant " talk-
"), might also naturally be contracted into

ing," and might then be confused with the Participle.

The Participle with Implied Noun.

411 It i8
scarcely correct, though not very uncommon,
to say

(1) "Having disposed of his first argument, his

second argument remains to be considered," in-
stead of "we have to consider."
"
(2) My farm consisted of twenty acres of excellent
hiinl, (/) having given a hundred pounds for my

predecessor's good wilL" GOLDSMITH.'

412 Where a Possessive Adjective is used, e.g. " his,"

it may be sometimes said that " his " is the same
as "of him," and that the Participle qualifies "him,"
which " his "
is implied in :

(3) "Having finished his breakfast, his thoughts

began to run on dinner."
"
(4) Repulsed at all points, their courage grew
cold."

Adjectives, as well as Participles, are thus

used :

(5) "Once free from debt, his best course is to

"
emigrate.

Such an expression as the following is by no

means to be imitated :

listener, VoL iii., page 80

 Par. 413, 414] ADVERBS. 239
" He has a certain which cannot
(6) grandeur of soul,
be contemplated unmoved," i.e., "by any-one
unmoved."

V. Adverbs.

413 Some Adjectives appear to be used as Adverbs,

e.g.

"Heran/otf."

The explanation of these forms is as follows :

In Early English an Adverb was often formed by

" "
adding -e to an Adjective, e.g. bright Adjective,
" "
bright-e Adverb. In Modern English the -e has
been dropped (with many other Inflections), but
several of the old Adverbs are retained, "
e.g. quick/
"
sweet," &c.

" There " redundant see Par. 152.

;

414 So " is used (1) for an Adjective, (2) for a Noun.

' '

The explanation of this is as follows " So " means :

"in this way," and is a less emphatic form of

"also," "ail-so." Hence
" He is an Englishman, and 90 (also) are you,
(1)
" and
i.e., you also are an Englishman."
" I am sorry, and so (also) is he," i.e., "he also
(2)
is sorry."

"
In time this restricted use of "so (restricted to
indicate the repetition of a previous statement) was
 240 ADVERBS. [Par. 415417
" so" was used in other
forgotten, and constructions,
e.g.
" The
(3) prince (for so he was) threw off his mask."
(4)
'
The blest to-day is as completely 50
'

As who began a thousand years ago."

"
In the two last Examples " so must be parsed
" " "
as put for prince and blest" respectively.
"
In " I thought so, did so, said so," *' so may
s

often be treated as an Adverb, and also in "It is

" matters are in that condition."
so,"i.e.

415 So is sometimes used, not for the preceding Noun,

("in the same way as ")
T
but for something like

the preceding Noun, i.e. for a preceding Noun modi-

fied by some Adverb, such as "about" "nearly" :

(1) "I am going out for a minute or so (about a

minute.)"

416 "Other" is used for "other-how" 2

(compare
" other-wise
") in the expression

(1) "I must help you some how or other."

417 "No" is often used with Comparatives, e.g.

"no better," i.e. "in no degree better," and hence
(1)
*'
We saw him no more,"
where the Adverb " no " modifiesthe Adverb
"more." "No," ("na," or "ne") was used for
See Par. 203.
2 " Ho\v" is used as a Noon in " I must know the how and the
why." See Par. 398.
 Par. 418, 419] ADVEtiBS. 241

" " Old English, and

not (" no-whit," naught ") in
is as correct as
" not "
in :

" Whether he comes or no, it matters little."

(2)

"
418 "
Why " and " well are used as expletives :

(1) "Why?" appears to have been originally thus

used as an exclamation of impatience or surprise,
"
equivalent to Why do you say this ?
Why are
"
you surprised 1 Why are you acting thus 1 (2)
" Well " seems to mean " This
having been well
settled," and is used in the sense of " enough of
"
this," to pass on," &c., in order to prepare the

way for a new point :

(1) "Snakes Why,

! there are no snakes in
"
Ireland.
" now let us come to 'more
(2) Well, practical
matters."

419 Some Adverbs, especially those of place, are used

with Nouns almost like Adjectives, except that they
rarely come before the Noun :

" Ood above knows best."

(1)

(2) "What is the cause of your arrival here t I

thought your education abroad would prevert

"
your return homeward.

It is allowable to put the Adverb first in " Thn

above argument" " The tJien f
Byron also writes
"
toorA/," My almost drunkenness of heart." Shake-
1
Thto construction, sanctioned by Byron and Thackeray, IB too con-
voient to be given up
 242 ADVERBS. [Par. 42O
" " our
speare has thy here- approach," liett.ce-
going"
" till
Harry's back-return."

420 Adverbs repeated. Many Adverbs are re-

peated, sometimes to denote repetition, sometimes

for emphasis. Thus we use " again and again"
" /// and /// "
(of horse-breeding), "over and over ,"
logically ; for the repetition of the action requires
the repetition of the Adverb. But we also illogi-
" " out and
cally list-
through and through," out,"
and Pope has. :

" Know there are rhymes which fresh and fresh '

applied."

This explains " by and by." "

By
"
meant " near,"
either of space or time. Hence " by and by " meant
" Chaucer
very near," either of space or of time.
uses it of space and speaks of " two knights sleep-

ing by and by, i.e. close by." But we now use it

only in the sense of " very soon." In early English
(Layamon ii. 447) we find "urith and mth" for
" 2 1
again and again.'

1 So a dinner is served up " hot and hot."

Tbe later text has one "with" only.
 Par. 421, 422J "THE." 243

ADJECTIVES.
"The" and "A."
" "
421 The is often used to denote "that which
is known as," e.g.
" The hero differs from the brute."
(1)

" The earth

"
means " the planet, known as
" the earth known as distinct from the
earth,"
sea,"'&c. "Earth" means "our Parent Earth"
personified :

" The earth

(2) is larger than the moon."
(3) "Earth smiles around; with boundless bounty
blest"

"
We still use " the Noun denoting a
before a

class, to define the individual selected out of that

class
" The " " the Astronomer Adams "
Prophet Daniel ; ;

i.e., "the astronomer known by the name of

Adams."

Also, in the case of foreign titles, e.y.

" The "the Consul Appius "
Tycoon So-and-so" ; ,
tf
the Centurion Paullus."

22 But a fenribar title is treated as a part of tht

BMOD uyi " Tht

(subttanc* known at) matter IB in a perpetual
flux."

R 2
 244 ADJECTIVES. [Par. 433, 424
" the."
proper name, and therefore dispenses with
Compare
"
The Centurion Paullus," with " Captain Smith."
"King Edward," with "the Emperor Napoleon."
In the earliest English, before this distinction was
recognized, "the" was before "king,"
inserted
" but Chaucer often omits " the."
bishop," &c. ;

423 Some epithets are distinctive of certain persons.

For example, " Alfred " is Tcnown as " the Great " ;

" " "

Minos as " the
"
Wellington as the victorious ;
inflexible*." (1) In cases of great notoriety, "the"

may come after its Noun ; (2) in other cases before

Noun
its :

(1) "Alfred the Great is wrongly supposed to have

lisli.nl the form of trial by jury now existing

among us."
" The classical Addison
(2) did not disdain to write
a commentary on the ballad of Chevy Chase.' "
*

On the other hand, an epithet (like a title) is

often treated as though it were part of the name,

especially in Poetry, e.g. "god-like Turenne," and

" the " is
consequently omitted. See Par. 523.
424 Sometimes a proper name is used for a type of
character ; e.g. " Rupert
" "
is used for a dashing,
leader." In such cases " the "
impetuous may be
prefixed, and we can say
"
(1) Lord Derby was called the Rupert of debate,"
(2) "He was (hf. Thersitea (i.e., wrangling reviler) of
the assembly."
 Par. -435, A2GJ "THE." 245

"The" is used before names that are regarded

not so much as names as epithets, e.g.
" The Thames "the Atlantic
(river) ;" (ocean) ;"
" the Mediterranean " the "
(sea)
(range called)
;

"
the (district known as) Crimea,
Chilterns;"
1
Tyrol, Netherlands, Levant, Palatinate."

"The" is omitted before names of towns, coun-

tries, and isolated mountains, all of which may be
"
regarded as individuals requiring proper names,"
" " " Saddle-
e.g. Paris," England," Snowdon,"
back."
" The "
in
" the Rigi," "the Matterhorn," " the Schreck-
hom," &c. is probably of foreign origin.

425 "The" is the old Demonstrative and Eelative

Pronoun " by how much "
and " by so much " (See
Par. 344) in
"
(1) The sooner he leaves, tlic better for everybody."

There no fixed rule " the "

426 is repeating as to
between two Nouns, both of which are intended to
be defined. Compare
" He arose and rebuked the \viud-s and the sea," St.

hew, with St. Luke viii. 25,

viii. 2<J, "He
commandeth even the wiuds and water."
" "
The perhaps more often omitted than in-
is

serted, provided the omission causes no am-

biguity :

" Thr. "

(1) ]iriiico and princess arc r\|.ri-ted ;

"Durin. Hd M'<-<>ii<l r. mm
" The "
"Ti, !s"= Low Lands
 246 "A." [Par. 427, 428

427 "A" is used before "dozen," "hundred,"

" "" " "
thousand," million," few," great many ; all

these words being half Nouns, inasmuch as they are

"
preceded by a," and half Adjectives, inasmuch as
" of." See Par. 193.
they are not followed by

Anomalous uses of " a," or rather of Numerals

"
preceded by a," arose very early :

"A(n) 5 mile;" "a(n) 2 furlong;" "a(n) seven

mile ;" "a(n) twelve year."

" " a
Here, as in a sennight (seven-night) ", fort-

night (fourteen-night)", (Shakespeare uses " one

seven years"), the Numeral and the Noun seem to
form a Singular Compound Noun. But we some-
times meet with " a nine, or a ten, of men," where
the Numeral by itself is treated as a Noun.

428 " A"

appears to have (but has not] the meaning
of " one
"
in
"a "a man."
(1) "Five-pence a quart," year,"

For in Early English the Preposition "on,"

" " an " was used in such
in," or cases :

(2) "Once in or on the year;" "I fast twice in

the week;" "if he sin against thee on day
seven times."

Hence " a " must here be regarded as an old

Preposition.
 Par. 429, 43O] ADJECTIVES. 247

" " the "

429 A" (like above) is used before names,
when the name represents a character, e.g. "a
i.e.
" a man of immense wealth,"
Croesus,"
"A little." See Par. 217.
With many Adjectives that from use or termi-
"
nation approach Adverbs, " a is often placed after,
instead of before, the Adjective, e.g. " many a" l
" what " such " half a." In Early English
a," a,"
we also find " each " which a."
a," Hence, though
we cannot " severe a we can " so
say man," say
severe, too severe, as severe, a man."

"A" is for "oiie"in "all of a sort, a piece." Com-

pare :

"And surely, Heav'n and I are of a mind?" POPE.

Other Adjectives.

430 Very once meant "genuine" (Lat. verus). Hence

came mean " "
it to itself," themselves," &c. ; e.g.
"
(1) Your very looks betray you."

The Adjective follows, instead of dividing or pre-

" " "
ceding, something," anything," everything,"
and other similar Compounds of " tiling." The
reason seems to be that in Early English these
words were sometimes used Partitively and followed
by of," thus:
"
(1 ) "Of Nazareth may something of good be ?

WYCKI.M |

* See Shakespearian Grammar, Paragraph 81 ;

See also Par. 218
 248 ADJECTIVES. [Par. 431, 43*

This has been shortened into

(2) "I have heard something good."

431 The Superlative form of the Adjective is some-

times used as a Noun, e.g.

(1) "He plunged into the thickest, hottest, of the

fray."

This is easily explained by the confusion (II)

with such expressions as "the best (Jish) of your
" the of streets." Here
lisli," finest (streets) your
the Noun can logically be supplied, and the
construction (owing to its convenient brevity (I) )

has encroached, where, logically, it is unjustifiable.

A few Adjectives of French origin follow their Nouns,

accordant with Fivnch usage, e.g. " heir apparent, "blood
"

royal," "prince rcyrnt." In poetry the transposition is

common, for emphasis. See Par. 515.

Possessive Adjective, &c.

432 The following curious idiom requires explana-

tion :

(1) "That ugly face of his quite frightened the

child."

" that
The regular construction would have been
"
ugly face of him ; and, in the same way, instead
of saying

(2) "This news of John's is very strange."

(3) "A friend of mine is here."
 Par. 433, 434] "THAT FACE OF HIS." 249

the regular construction would be " this news of

John," "a friend of me."
"
*33 In it (3) be said that " mine
may is for put
"
friends;" but this explanation will scarcely
my
" that
apply to (2), and certainly not to (1) ugly :

"
face of his (faces) !

The truth is that " of him "

and " of me," used
Possessively, are intolerably harsh ; and ambiguity
also might often result from the regular construc-
" this news "
tion ; for of John would naturally
mean " news about John."
Consequently, partly
to avoid the
ambiguity caused by the double
" of " " "
meaning of (viz. belonging to and
"about"), and partly to avoid harshness of sound,
we adopt the following illogical but serviceable
device to make our meaning clear we retain the ;

Possessive " of," but we also add the Possessive 's.

Thus we combine the French Prepositional Idiom
>, tf<>Kn'jlish Inflectional Idiom.
434 A similar desire to avoid harshness (III) has
made us add an but euphonious 's to
illogical

"your" and "our,' which are severally the Pos-

sessive Inflections of "you" and
" we." "Your"
sounds harshly at the end of a sentence, and re-

quires some modification. Then steps in (II)

and "
"
confusion between " this is your this is

Jnhn'a, William'*,the man'*," &c. "Your" has

been treated as though it were a Noun, and hsis
"
been changed into " your'* or " your*." But,
 250 PREPOSITIONS [Par. 435, 436
" " " "
logically, your's is as absurd as of of you ;
for " your
"
means " of you," and the addition of
's adds a superfluous " of."

435 "These forma were confined in the 13th and 14th centuries to the
Northern Dialect, and are probably due to Scandinavian inllucnces."
MoRHia.
The more ordinary form in the Southern Dialect omits the t.
" I wol be
your in alle that ever I may." CHAT <

The vulgar yourn is an old provincial form, and exemplifies the same
tendency, viz. , to emphasize an unemphatic termination, where emphasis
Is required.

(Prepositions in Adjective Phrases).

436 A Phrase consisting of u Preposition between two
Nouns (especially when the former Noun is pre-
"
ceded by " the or " a ") often has the force of an
Adjective, the Relative being implied, e.g..

(1) "A bird (that is) in the hand is worth two (that
are) in the bush."

Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to tell

whether the Preposition is thus used to connect
two Nouns, or to connect a Verb with an Adverbial
" Send back the horse from the Red
phrase ; e.g.
Dragon" may mean
" Send back
(1) tht-horse-from-the-Red-Dragon" i.e.,
"the horse that has come from the Red
Dragon," or :

" Send-back the horse

(2) from-the- Red-Dragon," i.e.,
"
"send back from the Red Dragon my horse

In the same way there is an ambiguity in

" Did "
(3) you see my agents- at- Portsm-out/i f
" Did "
(4) you see my agents at Portsmouth ?
 Par. 437, 438] ADJECTIVE PHKA8ES. 25i

437 "Of." When a name is given to a place, the

name being regarded as the name of a person, and
the town, land, castle, &c., as belonging to the
person, the Preposition "of" was used in early
times to denote the relation between the two :

" The " " the isle "

(1) city of London of Wight ,
;
" river "
o/Cydnus (Shakespeare) "the lake oj ;

Gennesareth."

" "
Hence, in the same way, of is used after other
words denoting a class, to prepare the way for the
particular name of the individual :

(2) "The month o/May"; "the hour of three'*;

"the feast Tabernacles"; "the year of
of
Jubilee" "the name of George"; "the cry
;
" "
the play o/ 'Hamlet'" ; " the
'

of 'breakers !
;

art of medicine "; " the element of fire ; " the

"

virtue of resentment."

438 It is not so easy to explain

"
(3) He is Ajewel-of-a man."
"
(4) This scamp-of-a, coachman."

Probably "of" is here partitive, as in "What

sort , kind) of man is he ? " The " man " is the class ;
" "
the " sort or " kind is a part of the class, and
therefore is naturally followed by the partitive
"of." The answer to this question will necessarily
be some part of the class " man he is " a good
"
:

"
sort, bad sort, rascally sort, precious sort, of man ;
" He is a rascal, or jewel, of
hence, for shortness,
 262 CO-ORDINATE [Par. 439,
"
But, owing to the Semi- Adverbial use of What,"
" "
What sort," the Indefinite Adjective a " is in-
serted before "man" (see Par. 219), so that the
notion of class is lost, and " a man
appears to
"

denote an individual, and " what"a sort of,"

jewel
of," &c., come to be regarded as Compound Semi-
Adverbial Adjectives.
39 The use of " of " after " whole," " all " :

" The the

"
"all
(5) whole-of day ; of us,"

may be accounted for as a natural extension of,

and confusion with, similar expressions, e.g.
(II)
"half, quarter, &c., of the day;" "ten, eleven,
almost all, &c., of us."

SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
Co-ordinate Clauses.
" "
440 And sometimes joins a sentence to a previous
sentence implied but not expressed. It is often used

in passionate exclamations :

" "
(1) (Is it true ?) And will you then desert me ?

"And" sometimes comes between an Adverb

the force of
repeated twice, the repetition having
T
emphasis :

" More and more " worse and "

;" worse.
(1)
i See Par. 420.
 Par. **l, 442 J CONJUNCTIONS. 253

" " " "

441 Remembering that by means near of space,
" "
but also may mean near of time, we car under-
stand
"
(2) By and by," i.e. "near, very near (of time),"
1
or, "very soon."

An Adverb, when introduced emphatically, might

be emphasized by the repetition of the Verb and
" and " "I must see
Object with him, and see him
:

quickly." Instead of this, "that" was often in

early times substituted for the previous phrase
" it " is a
(just as preparatory substitute for a sen-
tence or phrase ; see Par. 151) :

" I must see him, and that quickly."

(1)

Relatives used Co-ordinately.

" " "
442 WJ>(lt is sometimes used instead of " both
and "and" :-
" What with his
(1) persuasive eloquence, and wha
with the presence of his armed followers, he
soon overcame all opposition."

This might naturally be explained as a con-

densation of "Reckoning what he effected with,"
&c. ; but, more probably, "what" is to be treated

Both "by and 1

.viiiK to tli" natur.-i:
of e xaggerv ich less tlmu
'"
they once meant Presently" used to mean "at
 254 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 443, 444

as a kind of Noun meaning "part," and used

" " some-
what."
Adverbially, like partly." Compare
" What " had
come, very early, to be used as a
"
Noun, so that men could say, not only aome-wJiat"
but also "a little wliat." x

443 " Whether "

is sometimes used with
"
or," not
to introduce an indirect question, but (like " what "
" both
above) as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, to mean
" either... or "
...and;" :

(1) "The landlord reserves all game, whether birds

or ground-game."

The full construction would be " whether it be ;

"

but " whether has so completely assimilated itself

"

to " either in such expressions that it seems best

to
" whether " as used for " and
parse either,"
" birds "
as Object, in Apposition to " game."

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
Condensed Clauses.
444 1- Some Conjunctions are formed from Preposi-
tions or Adverbs followed by "that," e.g. "after
" before " now
(that)," (that)," (that)." In such cases
" that
"
is often omitted 2
:

"
(1) Now (that) we have arrived," But

Shakespearian Grammar, page Compare5. in Latin

"quum turn."
"qua qua."
3 In Shakespeare, "that" is used after "when," "while," "whe-
ther,"
" " if
"
and also after the Prepositions in, for.
because," ;
 Par. 4*5, 446] CONDENSED CLAUSES. 255
"
(2) On the day that thcu eatest thereof thou shalt
"
surely die.
"
(3) The instant (tliat) he saw me, he retired."

445 2 -
CoDjunctions used with Participles : see Par.
406.

Conjunctions are also used with Adjectives and

Nouns, the Verb being omitted :

" This
(1) news, if (it be) true, will alter our plans."
"
(2) Though (he was) honest, he was not trusted."
" However
(3) thoughtless (he may be), he is at least
not deliberately mischievous.*"'

(4) "Although (he is) a rascal, yet he's a very

amusing rascaL"

In parsing Conjunctions so used, the Verb should

"be supplied.

" "
446 3. As is used with Nouns, (1) sometimes for
as being," i.e.
" since he is " sometimes it
; (2)
seems loosely used for "like," "in the character
of":
(1) "As (being) a foreigner, he claims our special
consideration."
" As an author, he did not
(2) (in the character of)
"
succeed.
"
(3) They regarded him as (in the character of, like)
an adventurer."

Such sentences can generally bo reduced to their

regular construction by bearing in mind the radical
 26G CONJUNCTIONS. [Par.

" " in that or " in

"
meaning of as," viz. way which
" in the which "
way," or, as here, way in :

In " He claims our special consideration in

(1) full,
the way in which a foreigner (would naturally
claim it)."

(2) In full, ''He did not succeed in the way in

which an author (would be said to succeed)."
"
(3) In full, They regarded him in the way in which
(they would regard) an adventurer."

With " possible," after Conjunctions, ellipses are

very common :

" Come as soon as

(1) (it is) possible."
" Come
(2) if (it be) possible."

" "
447 That sometimes implies a principal Verb
before it in passionate exclamations :

" "
(1) Oh, (I would) that I had wings like a dove !

" "
(2) (To think) That it should come to this !

Object Clauses.

448 "That" (the Conjunction) often introduces a

Clause as the Object of a Compound Transitive
Verb implied x
For example,
in a previous sentence.
" I am " I had no " I have some
sure," notion,"
" I have
hope," evidence," all suggest the question

*
Compare the use of the Infinitive after the implied Transitive Verb
Par. 392.
 Par. AA9, 450] OBJECT CLAUSES. 257
" Of what " " That "
? after them. is here equivalent
to " of the fact that."
" that "
Distinguish the above use of from its
use when introducing a Clause in Apposition to a

previous Noun, as in the following Examples :

"
(1) They made an agreement that they would share
equally."
(2) "The axiom, that a whole is greater than its
part, seems so true that its statement seems, at
first sight,
unnecessary."

449 On the other hand, " that " seems used for " for
"
that," "in that,"
1
because," after Verbs of rejoic-
ing, sorrowing :

"
(1) I am sorry that (i.e. because) he failed."

" not "

Also, in parentheses after :

(2) "I must go now, not that (i.e. because) I want

to go, but I have an engagement"

In
"Did you see John ?
" " Not that I recollect
"
(1)

" that " is a Relative

Pronoun, and the Antecedent
must be supplied from the previous sentence " not :

(a seeing) that I recollect."

" But that," in its radical meaning, was " except

450
that ;" hence " barring," " to the contrary of." This

explains
"I cannot IIP
(1) persuade.! lut that (to the contrary
of the belief that) hr meant mischief."

Con ;
 258 OBJECT CLAUSES. [Par. 451,

(2) "We did not know but that (to the contrary of
the knowledge that) he might come."

"
Here " but was originally a Preposition having
for its Object the sentence following it.
" " "
Sometimes " what is used for that :

" Not but what he meant mischief," i.e. "I do

(3)
not admit, however, anything to the contrary of
his meaning to do mischief."

This may possibly be a confusion arising from the gram-

matical constructions :

(4) "Hesays nothing but what is true."

" Not a man
(5) (was there) but what cried shame."
" Not a tree but what has suffered from the frost."
(6)

" "
From these uses, perhaps came to be used
not but what
ungrammatically to exception," "with-
mean "without any
"
out any doubt but I have been unable to trace this con-
;

struction. Yet it seems to be iilust rated by the change from

the / ;hat" in " For all that you did," to the Con-
junctive "that" in "For all that you tried so hard." See
Par. 475.

452 In time the "that" was omitted for brevity; and

then " but (though really a Preposition with the
"

"
meaning of prevention ") appeared to be an ordi-
nary Conjunction :

" Not but there are who merit other palms. "-
(6)
POPE.

which originally would have meant, "I do not

say anything but (i.e. to tbe contrary) that there
" I
are," &c., but it gradually came to mean deny it
 "
Par. 453, 454] BUT THAT." 269

not; but, so far from denying, I admit that there

are," &c.
" Never dream but
(7) (i.e. anything buf., except, or to
"1
prevent that) ill must come of ill. SHELLEY.

(8) "Who knows, but (anything but, except, or to

"'

prevent that) he'll come yet ?

" " but came to be used "

453 Hence, after doubt not,"
regularly with its ordinary adversative force, so that
there is no difference between

(
" Doubt not that God will help you," and
(9)
" Doubt
( (10) not, but God will help you."
" It cannot be denied he is a rascal."
(11) but, orthat,

The curious inconsistencies of idiom are illus-

trated by comparing
(1) "He is all but perfect," and
" He
(2) is anything but wise."

In "
He is altogether (perfect),"
(1) the meaning is

"all except (being absolutely) perfect;" 2 in

(2) the
"
meaning is He is anything except wise."

454 The Prepositions "of" and " about '

are (rarely) used before

Object-sentences :

(1) "Ho tells us a good deal about why he travelled,

but nothing of how he travelled."

The Adverb " where " is not only used as a Noun

Compare too* \>

B 2
 260 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. [Par. 455, 466

(Par. 398), but also as a Noun and Relative Adverb

together :

" From
(1) "He
lives about ten miles from here."
"
where f
" He lives ten miles from where I am
(2) living," i.e.
"from the place in which or where I am living."

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
" That." Instead of "when" used Eelatively,
455 " that " is used
sometimes the Relative Pronoun
(Par. 444) :

(1) "He never (at no time) sees mo that (at which

time) he does not mock me."

Compare, in Early English

"
(2) Scarcely was this speech finished that (i.e. when)
l
they saw Hengist approach."

456 " But " being used after negatives to intensify an

" This is
affirmative, e.g. nothing but the truth," came
to be irregularly used, in Shakespeare's time, after

Negative Cwnparatives, e.g.

"This is no more but
the truth."
" no-
This seems to be a (II) confusion between
" no more than."
thing but" and
" "
Hence (in colloquial English), after not," no
sooner," "scarcely," and other words implying a
i 202.
Layamon, 11.
 Par 457, 458] ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.. 261

" but "

negative, is used, partly as an Adversative
Conjunction, and partly with a Kelative force :

(1) "No sooner did he hear her but he burst into a

passion."
"
(2) "I had scarcely gone a mile but I met him again.

In the last Example the negative is implied:

" I had not
gone a mile." In Modern English it
will be advisable to treat " when thus but," used,
as an Adversative Conjunction, as though the sen-
tence ran, "He had not fully heard her; but (before

fully hearing her) he burst into a passion."

" "
457 Since once meant " later-than," hence " after,"
hence "because;" (Early English, sith than, i.e.
" later

than.")

"Until" is the same as "unto;" "til "being

"
often used lor " to in Early English. Par. 376.

" " because "

That," used for : see Par. 449.

" " "

That is used for " so that in impassioned

questions :

"
(1) Is he an oracle, (so) that we are to regard hinc
as infallible?"
"What were you doing, m
(2) (so) that you were not
time to-day ? "

458 "
Forasmuch as "
and " Inasmuch as "
=
" for " in "
that," that," i.e. because."
 262 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. [Par 459
"
As," in virtue of its radical meaning, is often
interchanged with "that:" Par. 205. The "as
much " appears intended to emphasize, and give
importance to, the cause.

"Seeing," like "concerning," "considering"

(see Par. 409), has come to be used as a Con-
" since." The
junction, meaning Kegular Con-
struction would be
"
(1) Seeing that you are a foreigner, I will strain a
"
point for you.

Hence comes the Irregular Construction, by con-

fusion :

(2) that you are a foreigner,

"S'-'-ini/ you are entitled
to special consideration."

Conditional Clauses.

459 " If " is sometimes used of a supposition made

for the sake of argument hence of a concession ;
;

hence (190) of an admitted fact :

" I am I am honest."
(1) If poor, yet

" If"
(like other Conjunctions ;
Par. 445) is often
used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs, the
Verb being omitted :

(1) "If somewhat slowly, he at least did his work

"
thoroughly.
" we shall at all events arrive
(2) If not to-morrow,
next day."
 Par. "
SO THAT," " SO AS."
460, 461] 263
" On condition," " in case," " provided," " sup-
" "
posing," are often used as Conjunctions, tliat

being omitted after them :

" In aue
(1) (that) you come early, we will have a long
walk."
" Provided
(2) (that) you agree, it matters little who
disagrees."

and " provided (that) " may be

"
"In case (that)
treated as Conjunctions ; or, in the last Example,

"you agree" may be regarded as a Subject- clause

used absolutely, and qualified by the Participle
"provided."

" So that "

460 is sometimes used to express con-
dition :

" You may go where you

(3) like, so that you are back
by five."

In Elizabethan and earlier English the Subjunctive

would here be used :

(4) "It is a pleasure to see the errors of others, so

always that this prospect l> witli pity," i.e. "yet
<x:h a way in which way the
prospect may be
with pity."

" ^ "
61 as * 8 ^ ess common in the sense of con-

'ii, and is now restricted to vernacular Eng-

ii. But Shakespeare has
(6) "&>cwthou livcst in peace, die five I'mm strife."
 264 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. [Par. 462, 463
"
Sometimes neither " that nor " as
"
is inserted
in Elizabethan English (the Verb being in the

Subjunctive) :

" So how
(6) it be new, there's no respect vile."

This brief idiom is still used colloquially, with

the Indicative for the Subjunctive.
462 The Imperatives "suppose," "admit,"
" "
grant," say," are used to introduce conditional
clauses :

(1) "Say I fail at first, I hare another chance."

463 A question may be used to introduce a Con-

dition, thus :

(1) "Did you not know his intention? Then, of

course you were surprised."

It is an easy transition from this to the use of

the Conditional Mood (Indicative form in Ante-
cedent, the "shall-form" in Consequent), retaining
t/te Interrogative arrangement of tJie words :

"
(2) Did I not know his intention, I should of course
be surprised."

This also explains the Interrogative arrangement

of the " shall-form
"
in the Antecedent :

" Should much

(3) you see him, you would find him
changed."

The original use of

Interrogatives to express
Condition may explain the following :
 " "
WOULD."
Par 464, 465] SHOULD," 2S5

" Whether he said it or denied the facts remain

(1) it,
" Whether said he
the same," i.e., it, or denied
"
it ? In either case the facts remain the same.
" Whoever said it was a mistake," i.e.,
(2) this,
" Who in the world said this ? It was at all
events a mistake."

(3) "However hard it may be, you must try,'' i.e.

" In whatever x
it may be hard (in that
degree
degree, i.e. none the less) you must try."

In Early English this use was more common :

" Knew I her name, I were happy."

" As " seems used for " though

"
464 in
" as am cannot be deceived by this."
(1) Young I I

The fuller construction is "As young as I am,"

and this appears to be an abbreviation of " (Be I)
as I am,"
"
as young i.e. though I be."

465
"
Should " and " would " are often used where
a Condition is implied though not expressed :

" I wish summer would come."

(1)

This is a confusion between "I should be glad

if summer would come " and " I wish summer to

corned

(2) "I am willing that he should receive the money."

Confusion of (1) "7 am willing that he shall"
and (2) "I should be willing, if, or that, he
to*
How" and "why " are old caaes of
"
who."
 266 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. [Par. 466, 467
" It is shameful that he should be treated thus."
(3)

Confusion of (l)"It is shameful that he has

been" and (2) " It would be shameful, if, or that, he
should be."

(4) "It is not strange that he should have suc-

ceeded."

Confusion of (1) " It is not strange that he lias

" " It
succeeded and (2) would not Jiave been strange,

if, or that, he should Jiave succeed'

" It will be better that I should withdraw."

(5)

Confusion of (1) "It will be better that I (shall)

withdraw" and (2) " It would be better, if or that, I
should withdraw."

466 Unless " was once " on less," and followed by

"
than," e.g.

(1) "This cannot be, on less than (i.e. on a less con-

"
dition than this, viz. that ) we gain the battle.

The notion of comparison falling out of sight, the

" that " was substituted for "
Conjunctive than,"
and " that "
lastly was omitted for brevity.

467 "But," meaning radically "except," was very

" if We
early used for not," with the Subjunctive.
still retain this use in
" It never rains but it pours."
(1)

(2) "Ten to one but he comes."

* See Par 236, note.

 "
Par. 468, A69J Jll'T THAT." 267

This last sentence is a confusion of " I lay ten

"
to one that he conies and " I'll pay
you ten to
" or but he
one if he does not come," i.e. except
"
conies :

" Beshrew " if

(3) my" soul but I do love," &c., i.e.
" I'll be
I
"
do not love compare our ; hanged but
&c.

468 "But that" is to be explained as "except

"
oecause :

" But that he has a family, he would have left

(1)

England long ago."

Just as " as
"
(Par. 205) is used for the Relative
Pronoun "that," so "but" is used for "that
not":
" There is no one but hates me," i.e. "that hates
(2)
me not."

469 "But" ("except," "unless," "if not"), used

without a Verb, generally in connection with some
Preposition, e.g. "but for," "but to," &c., may be
explained either as a Preposition governing an
Adverbial phrase, or as a Conjunction with tho
Verb omitted :

" for you, we should have "

(1) fiiif failed," i.e. if it
had not been (otherwise) for (because of) you, we
should have fa

(2) "To whom can he be referring but (i.e. if he is

his brother?
"
not i
>
 268 CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES. [Par.

sometimes used for " unless

" " "
470 Without is :

(1) "He will not come without he's compelled."

But this is not to be imitated.

" Save "

471 seems originally to have been used as
a Passive Participle, like "except," "provided,"&c.,
with a Noun used as a Subject absolutely. 1 But now
"
(like except ") it is used as a Preposition, and is
followed by an Object.

Concessional Clauses.

472 A Concessional Clause is sometimes expressed by

the old Subjunctive used interrogatively (Par. 463)
without any Conjunction :

" Be it a
(1) trifle, it should be well done."
" Which refuseth to hear the voice of the
(2) charmer,
charm he never so wisely,"

" charm
i.e. (though) he (should) so wisely (as) never

(he charmed before)."

(3) "He will never equal his brother in singing, sing
he ever so well."

473 The last Example, which is the modern idiom,

appears to have arisen from a misunderstanding of
the old negative. We " He was
say, colloquially,
"
ever so ill ; but the correct (though old-fashioned)

i "All the conspirators tave only he." Julius Ccetar.

 Par. " FOR ALL THAT." 269
474, 475]

idiom would be "He was never (before) so ill (as

then)," or "he was so ill as (he was) nevei

before":'
" Were
(4) you a millionaire, you could not afford
SHdi expense as this."
" C&me who "
(5) may, I am not afraid," i.e., (though
"
there may) come who(soever) may (come).

"
474 Here the Antecedent " understood is the Sub-
" come " but sometimes the
ject of ; Subject of the
Verb is omitted, as in the following :

(6) "Do (I) what I may, I cannot persuade him of

my innocence."
" what you will fail."
(7) Say (you) will, you

In such sentences as the last it is not easy to

tell whether the Verb is Subjunctive or, as in

Par. 462, Imperative.

"However," as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, is a contraction of "how-

" how-
ever be," sometimes found in the form "how-be."
it Compare
beit," "albeit"

475 "For all that," in the Antecedent part of a

"
sentence, naturally acquires the meaning of al-

though," when there is a negative in the Conse-

quent. The transition can easily be traced :

(1) "He will not change his mind for (i.e., because
of, to oblige) you."
' He will
(2) not change his mind/0r all your efforts,
or, for all that you can do."

Thfi full ifliom is found in Layamon, vol. Hi. page 4, where it is said
that soldiers assembled, " swa muchel swa J>er novere cerer,," i.e.
" M
'before."
 270 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 476, 417
" that "
In the last Example is a Relative Pro-
"
noun, having for its Antecedent " all ;
but it is

an easy transition (the "all" being irregularly re-

" "
tained for emphasis) to the use of for all that
" "
as a Conjunction, where that is Conjunctional

(as in "after that,"

"before that;" see Par. 444:
and compare the change of " not but what
"
into a

Conjunction; Par. 451) :

(3) "He will not change his mind for all that you
tried so hard to persuade him. "

476 This emphatic use of "all" in Concession Clauses

may be illustrated by its use in "although," i.e.
" "
ail-though," which is sometimes written though-
all" in Early English. Compare also "al(l) be it,"
i.e.
"(though) it be all, i.e. altogether true that."
In Early English we sometimes find "all-if" used
like "ail-though."

477 "Notwithstanding" is rarely used as a Con-

junction :

(1) "Notwithstanding (that) he is so rich, he is ex-

cluded from respectable society."

This Conjunction is, by derivation, a Participle

used absolutely with a Subject sentence " The :

fact that he is so rich not withstanding, i.e.

being
no obstacle, he is still excluded," &c.
 Par. "80 " 80 THAT."
478, 479] AS," 271

Result ; Purpose.
4/8 A result following an action is naturally expressed
" the action was done
by stating that so '(i.e. in such
a way) that (in which way) the result followed."
Hence "that" and "as" (both of which mean "in
which way") are Conjunctions naturally used to
introduce sentences expressing result.
" That " was
once used for " so that," and is

found so used in Shakespeare :

(1) "A sheet of paper

Writ on both sides the leaf, margent and all,
(So) That he was fain to seal on Cupid's name."

This irregularity (of which (I) "brevity" is a

sufficient explanation) was common in Early Eng-
lish, and might perhaps explain
" He never sees me that he doesn't mock me."
(2)

But "that" here is more probably "when."

See Par. 455.

" As " used after " so," to denote, not exactly

479 is

resultant facts, but results regarded as possible or

" "
future ; hence as is used before Infinitives :

" He was so kind a* to

(1) promise."

This " he was so kind that

nearly the same as
is

he promised," but not quite so strong. 1

ith tlx- -Infinitive f. .1 imt,. pei$fblt
Coippar-
and wnl. to denote fact. See Par. 204.
 272 CLA USES OF COMPARISON. [Par. A8O-483
480 In Elizabethan English " as " is used, where we
use " that," before an Indicative :

(2.) "Thou hast given the house of York such head

as thou shalt reign but by their sufferance."
(3) "Such signs of rage they bear as it seemed they
would debate with angry swords."
(4) "If a man have that penetration of judgment as
he can discern what things are to be laid open."

This use of " as "

is now a vulgarism.

" So that" (= "in that way, in which way")

481
naturally expresses purpose with the Mood of Pur-
pose :

" Work so (in that way) that (in which way) you
(1)
may earn your bread."

482 " Lest " is a contraction for " by which the least
" "Be
or less" (compare the Latin quominus ").

careful lest you may make a mistake, i.e. by which

(care) you may the less (probably) make a mistake."

Clauses of Comparison.

483 "As" is a contraction of "ail-so," "alse," and

means sometimes " in which way," sometimes (like
"so") "in that way." Consequently "as" is, by
derivation, an emphatic form of "so." Hence the
words are sometimes very similarly used :

" He is not so clever as you."

(1)
" He is as clever as you.
"
(2)
 " 273
Par. 484-486] SO," AS."
"
" so into " as
"
The reason for altering (except
is, perhaps, that the notion of
after negatives) simi-

larity favours the repetition of the same word. But

the "not," introducing the notion of dissimilarity,
favours the retention of the old dissimilar forms.
Sometimes both forms are retained :

" know."
(1) So, or as, far as I

484 Any Relative Adverb (compare Latin "quum...

turn," "qua... qua," and the use of "what with...
what with," Par. 442) may naturally be used with
its correlative to express "both... and." Hence the
following idiom :

(1) "As (in tJie way in which) he was first in the

field, so (in that way) was he preeminent in the
council-hall."

485 "As" (Par. 205), being often used to express

Relative Adverbs, came sometimes to be used for
the Relative Pronoun :

(1) "Tears such as (i.e., which) angels weep."

(Shakespeare uses "which" 1 and "that" thus,

after
" such :
")
" He is the same as or that he always was."
(2)
"
(3) Bring such books as you have."
486 "
As," in a Conditional Sentence, often has a Con-
sequent implied after it :

"
(1) H: looks w? (he would have looked ) 1

if he had
"
seen a ghost.

ETen Pop* has :

t wh teach others who themselves excel."

T
 " A3. " 487
274 [Par.

The "if" was sometimes omitted, the Condition

being expressed by the old Subjunctive ; aiid this
omission is still sometimes found in modem

poetry, e.g. in Byron's :

(2) "And half 1 as (if) they wore come

felt
To tear me from a second :.ome."

"As" = " in the character of: " see Pnr. 446.

used with " yet," to remind the hearer

" "
487 As is

that the statement is limited to a certain time, and

does not extend beyond it. Compare
have never been beaten yet."
I

"I have never been beaten as yet," i.e., "so

!" far as concents past time, but not the future."

This use of the word was common in Early Eng-

lish with dates :

(2) "He died as in twelve hundred year and eight

and no more."
" "
Here the " as and " no more seem to have the
same force, viz. that of limitation Compare
" He wished to chastise him
(3) discreetly as (i.e., so
far as he could, only) by word and not by deed."

(4) "You must be very secret as in this case," i.e.,

" so "
far as concerns this case.

In the last Example and many others, "as" is

equivalent to our "just." Compare

(5) "Though in mysterious terms judgM, as then,
best," (MILTON) i.e., "just then," "at that pre-
cise time."
 Par 488-491] CONJUNCTIONS. 275

"
488 There seems to be a (lillVrent use of as," still current in
some parts of England, Derbyshire, where the word
e.g.,

implies that a time mentioned is not vouched as accurate by

the speaker, but is merely mentioned by another :

" He come as to-morrow."

(6) says he will

" As "
489 is generally used in the sense of limitation

before "for" and "to":

" As
(7) to your you must decide
affairs, ; but as for
myself, I shall remain neutral."

490 " The " is not the ordinary Adjective, but a form

of the Demonstrative and Relative Pronoun, mean-

" "
ing by how much," by so much," in
" The sooner he
(1) comes, the better it will be," i.e.,
"
by how much the sooner he comes, by so much
the better it will be."

" The "is to be parsed in the same way in

" the

more," "the less," &c. See Pars. 344, 571.

" "
491 Morethan," from its ordinary use in more
than man," came to be used as part of a Compound
Verb in
"
fl) He more-than-hesitatfd, he refused."

Beware of supposing that you can supply a Verb

>re
" more " He refused more than
than," e.g.
itated;" that is not the meaning hen;: the
is
" Ho did something-more-tfian-Ju'sitot' ."
meaning
In the same way, " More than " is of a Com-
part
pouml AdjiTtivi- in
"
(2) This i Jiiore than ridiculous, it is immoral"
T -J
 276 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 492, 493

Compare Byron's use of "less than woman" as

a Compound Noun in
" Go
(3) ! let thy less-than-woman's hand assume tk
1
distaff."

"
492 Than," when followed by a Noun or Pronoun,

requires care; for, as the sentence following "than"

is generally abridged, it is impossible to tell whether
the Noun or Pronoun is Subject or Object, tilt we
have supplied the implied Verb or Preposition :

"
(1) I like you better than (I like) Thomas," Ob-
ject
(2) "1 like you better than Thomas (likes you),"
Subject.
( Thomas (respects you),"
(3) "There is no one re- J Subject.
spects you mor than \
(he respects) Thomas,"
( Object.

" " "

493 Than," meaning in which degree," where-
"
as," may loosely be used like whereas," and join
together two sentences in which the principal Verb
"
is not the same, e.g. Whereas John has given good
counsel, there is no counsel better;" i.e.
(1) "There is no counsel better than John has

It would seem easy to explain the above Example

(and many others of the same kind) by supposing
the Relative Pronoun " that to have dropped out
"

t Matzuer, Hi. 410.

a See Layainon, iii. 275 for a precisely similar example.
 Par. " THAN."
494-496] 277

" " than the counsel that) John

after than," i.e. (is
but the use of " than
" "
has given ; without the
Relative Pronoun in Early English is so common
that this easy explanation does not seem to be
correct. Compare :

" This is as fine a horse as I

have ever seen," i.e.
(2)
"As (in what
degree, whereas I have ever seen
(a fine horse), this is as fine a horse."

494 After "than "the Conjunction "that" is some-

times omitted, perhaps for euphony as well as for

brevity :

(3) "Kather than (that) he should be punished I

would make any sacrifice."

"
495 Other," conveying a notion of comparison, is
"
followed by " than :

" This no other than

(1) boy is my long-lost son."

But here it is difficult to supply the Verb omitted

"
after than." It seems as though it would logically
be "Whereas my long-lost son (is
of a certain nature)
John is no other, i.e. in no way different." But
more probably the sentence is formed by Confusion,
on the analogy of "no taller than, shorter tlian,
&c. ;" "other" being felt, by its termination, (<>

have a re force.
"
496 Than" in this phrase (and sometimes in others)
 278 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. [Par. 497

has occasionally assumed the force of a Preposition,

e.g. in Shakespeare :

" Elect no other

(2) king than him."
(3) "And lin'd with giants deadlier than 'em all."--
POPE.

"
Hence sometimes " other
"
but or " other from
is used for "other than." "Who else tha?i," though
" else "
supported by Byron's authority, (and though
is, by derivation, an Adverb meaning " otherwise,")
is scarcely to be imitated; it is more customary to
u who tlse but."
say

Adjective Clauses : Relative Pronouns.

497 The use of " the... that," with a Superlative be-

tween them, seems to require explanation. Com-
pare
" He
(1) is the old man that I saw yesterday."
" He is the oldest man that I know."
(2)

In (1) the Antecedent of "that" is "old man."

and you can substitute " old man" for "that"
"
thus He is the old man which old man I saw
:

yesterday." But substitute similarly in (2), and

what is the result ? " He is the oldest man which
oldest man I know." This is at once felt not to be
the meaning : the meaning is
" He is the oldest nmu
of the men that I know."
 Par 408-500] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 279

Howthen account for (2)1 The explanation

appears to be as follows It was usual (and logical) :

to say (a)
" He is the oldest man in
England among
my friends, acquaintances, &c." But "a man among
" "
my acquaintances is the same thing as a man
that I know." Hence came " He is the oldest
(6)
But " man that I know" is a sort
man-that- 1- know"
"
of Compound Noun, and the Antecedent of " that
not " oldest but " man."
"
is man
An Antecedent is rarely implied in a Possessive Adjec-
tive :

" Theirs is the fault, who began the quarrel"

But this is common in Shakespeare : see Shakespearian

Grammar, Par. 218.

" But " wten used for tlie Relative and " not>"
498
is generally Subject. It is rare to find :

" Who ne'er knew

joy but friendship might divide."
POPE.

" " " for "

499 That is (rarely) used for which," why,"
in
(1) "This is the reason that I sent for you (for)."

" that were more "

In early English the different uses of
numerous the word represented (2)
;
"where ;" (3) "when;"
(4) "with which:"
" In the
(2) place that they were."
(3) "At the first sight that (i.e. when) men see the souldan."
(4) "With the loudest voice that (i.e. with which) they could."

"
500 "
That " in " It is you that. . . : see Par. 159.

From the Rolativ' use of "that "in "It is you

280 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [Par. 6OO

that," we must distinguish the Conjunctive use

in

(1) "It was then that the Danes first came to

England."

Here the words "that the Danes... England" are

" The Danes' invasion of "
equivalent to England ;
" it " is redundant Par. and the sentence is
(see 162),
" The Danes' invasion i.e. took place, then."
was,
But " that seems not a
"
Conjunction but a Rela-
tive Pronoun in
" It was of you that I
(1) spoke."

This is the same as

"
(2) It was you that I spoke of, or mentioned," where
"that" is clearly Relative.

Hence it would seem that "

It was of you that
a transposition of " It that I spoke of
"
I spoke is

was you." On the other hand, in " It was owing

to you that I failed," the meaning is " My failure
was owing to you," and " that " would appear to
be a Conjunction.
 CHAPTER II.

POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.
501 The object of ordinary Prose is to give informa-
tion, but the object of Poetry is to give pleasure.
Hence Poetry is
(1) archaic; (2) irregular; (3)
terse.

I. Poetry is archaic, because pleasing associations

are often connected with many old-fashioned words
and forms that may have fallen into disuse in Prose,
as not being the fittest to give information.

"
II. Poetry is irregular, because it is more pas-
"z
sionate than Prose. Hence it readily breaks the
rules that bind Prose, wherever these rules hamper
the expression of passion.

III. Poetry, disliking lengthiness, abridges gram-

matical constructions (though it expands, and dwells

on, ornament, e.g. preferring the expanded form of

tin- Simile to the compressed form of the Metaphor).

Pope speaks of :

" Prose swell'd to verse ;

verse loifring into prose."

*
Poetry, according to Milton, ought to bo "simple," "sensuous,'
i.. appealing to the senses, " and passion..-
 282 POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. [Par. 5O2-5O5
The reader should commit to memory the following de-
scription of the Thames (as it was) by Denham, a model of
terse yet varied clearness, repeatedly imitated by Pope :
" clear ; though gentle, yet not dull
Though deep, yet ;

Strong without rage, without o'er-flowing full"

I. Poetical Archaisms.

502 Archaisms may bo (1) of words; (2) of con-

structions.

Archaic words are such as " hallowed," " sojourn,"

"woe," "ire," "wrath," "a-weary," "ken," &c.
" Thou " for " " " " "
you Singular, and ye for "you
Plural, are also archaic.

503 Instances of Archaic Construction are

"Meseems," "methinks,"t.e. "it seems,

1

(1) thinks,
to me."

504 The use of the Subjunctive to express a wish :

" Pcriah the man whose heart is backward now."

(1)
"
(2) Ruin sn'ze thee, ruthless king."
" To White's a bull fo led."
(3)
" '
And rest we here Matilda '
said." SCOTT.
(4)

505 The use of the Subjunctive to express a Con-

ditional Antecedent, and of other old Conditional
forms :

(1) "His spear, to equal which the tallest pine

Were but a wand." Paradise Lost, i. 294.
" Else I often had (should have) been miserable."
(2)
1 " To think " nnce meant "to seem " sec Par. : 328.
 Par 506-509] AROHAISMS. 283

(3) "I am content, so (i.e. "so that," "provided

that," Par. 460) thou wilt have it so."
"
(4) Ami into strange vagaries flew,
"As (if) they would dance." Ib. vi. 615.

506 More rarely the Subjunctive is used with Con-

junctions of time :

(5) "Erethongo."
" Bidotta
(6) sips and dances till she see." POPE.

507 The old Interrogative (without "do") is used

modern lengthy form. This is both archaic
for the
and terse :

" Gives not the hawthorn-bush a "

sweeter shade ?

" Breathes there a man with soul so dead ?

"

" " " " them-

508 Him," them," are used for himself,"
selves." This again is terse as well as archaic :

"The poor contents him with the care of heaven."

POPE.

509 The old use of the Interrogative, or semi-Inter-

where the moderns use the Rela
rogative Pronoun,
tive and Antecedent :

" church to God, and not to fame

li'ho builds a
Will never mark the marble with his name."
POPE.

This use, being (III) terse, is a favourite use

with Pope (though his style is by no means archaic)
and is extended to that cannot bo resolved
I
 2MPOETIVAL CONSTRUCTIONS. [Vvr. 51O-513
into question and answer. In Pope it is perhaps
an imitation of Latin usage :

" To
help who want, to forward who excel,"
"In who (i.e. those that) obtain defence, or who
defend."

510 The Relative, in Milton, often precedes the Ante-

cedent, according to Latin usage :

" Whom none on their

they hit, feet might stand."
Paradise, Lost, vi. 592.

511 The old demonstrative use of "he" combines

archaism and " sensuousness," i.e. picturesqueness,
in
"He of Titsculum" for Cicero; "He of Marengo's
"
field for Napoleon I., &c.

" The demonstrative character of this Pronoun is seek in such ex-

pressions as He of tho bottomless pit " MORRIS.
' '

" Or " is used for " either "

512 :

" But or
they underground, or circuit wide
With serpent error wandering."
Paradise Lost, vii. 801.

II. Poetical Irregularities.

The Subject is sometimes put first, because it

is uppermost in the Poet's mind ; then, after a

pause, a Pronoun is introduced, as the legitimate
subject of the Verb. It is as though the Poet
 Par 514, 515] IRREGULARITIES. 285

were half in doubt whether to speak of a thing as

Subject, or to it Vocatively :

" The
(1) Pope he was saying the high, high mass."
SCOTT.
" The man he."
(2) smith, a mighty is

514 The Verb is sometimes (a) placed after the Object,

sometimes (6) The arrangement
before the Subject.
is subordinated to emphasis. In the following
" stalk " seems to
Example the Subject gain em-
phasis from its position, and so does the Verb
breathes":
(1) "So from the root
Springs (I) lighter the green stalk, from thence
the leaves
More aery ; last, the bright consummate flower
Spirits odorous (a) breathes."
Paradise Lost, v. 480.

The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb,

and the Subject after the Verb, the whole sentence

being reversed :

" Such
(1) resting found the sole
' '

Of unblest fee t. Him, followed his next Mate.

H. i. 238.

515 The Epithet is often placed after the Noun.

Indeed, great license is assumed by Poetry as to
the position of the Epithet; for this reason, that
th'> Kpithet is used as a substitute for Participles,
Verbs, Conjunctions, &c. (see Par. 525), so that
 "
286 POETICAL PASSION." [Per. 516

it has a larger and more varied use than in

Prose :

"
(1) They ended parle, and both addressed for fight
Unspeakable" Ib. vi. 297.
"
(2) A stream of nectarous humour issuing flowed
Sanguine." Ib. vi. 333.
" Nox from the
(3) Holy One of Heav'n
"
Refrained his tongue blasphemous. Ib. vi. 360

Even a Noun in Apposition may be placed

before the Noun with which it is in Appo-
sition :

"
(1) Two broad suns, their shields
Blaaed opposite." Ib. vi. 305.
" All heart
(2) they live, all head, all eye, all ear."
Ib. vi. 350.

516 The irregularities of Poetry, though very nume-

rous and manifold, can generally be readily explained

by reference to the meaning, which ought to be rather

made more clear than less clear by the irregularity.
The following is a good instance of " passionate "
irregularity. Satan is speaking, under the influence
of strong " passion," pouring forth " words inter-
wove with sighs," and, though his meaning is

clear, his sentence cannot be grammatically anal-

ysed :

" Thrice he assayed, and thrice, in spite of scorn.

Tears such as Angels weep burst forth at last :

Words interwove with sighs found out their way.

'
Myriads of immortal Spirits, Powers
 Par. 517-520] ABRIDGMENTS. 287

Matchless, hut with th' Almighty and that strife

Was not inglorious, though th' event was dire,
As this place testifies, and this dire chunge
"
Hateful to utter :
but,' &c. Ib. i. 622.

" "
Here the speaker is led away by passion into
a Parenthesis, which prevents him from continu-

ing the address he had begun to the "immortal

Spirits."
Many of the Irregularities of Poetry will find
"
their place under head III., " terseness ; see
Pars. 517532.

517 III. Poetical Abridgments.

"
Poetry chooses short forms of words, e.g. ques-
tionless" for "unquestionably;" "altern," "marge,"
" " " "
scarce," vale," for alternately," margin," &c.
518 The Verb " is," or "
was," is sometimes omit-
ted :

" his name." "Cruel (was) his eye."

(1) Dagon (was)

519 Sometimes the Subjunctive "be" is omitted :

" Woe " Peace "

(1) (be) to the man." (be) to his bones

520 The Relative Pronoun is omitted, even when it

would be the Subject, if it had been expressed :

(1) "Tis distant (that) lends enchantment to the

view."
" What mo
(2) is this (that) ahsorbs quit.',
"
Steals my senses, shuts my sight ?
 288 POETICAL CONSTR UCTIONS. [Par. 521-523
" that " " so
521 The Conjunction is used for
that":
"With high woods the hills were crowned
With borders long the rivers (so) that earth now
:

Seem'd like to heav'n. " Paradise Lost, vii. 328.

522 The Adjective is used for the Adyerb, partly to

avoid the lengthy Adverbial form, partly because
Poetry dwells rather on distinguishing marks than
on methods, and therefore prefers Adjectives to
Adverbs :

" While the billow rolls."

(1) mournful
"
(2) My wedding bell rings merry in my ear."
" human
(3) Hope springs eternal in the breast'*
" Less
(4) winning soft, less amiably mild."

In the last Example certainly, and probably in

the others, the Adjectives should be parsed not as
Adjectives, but as Adverbs. In Old English it was
common to form an Adverb by adding -e to the
Adjective, e.g. "bright," Adjective; "brighte, Ad-
verb." See Par. 413.
523 "The" is often omitted before an epithet, the

epithet being treated as part of the name :

" See
(1) god-like Turenne prostrate on the dust."
" On such a stool immortal Alfred sat."
(2)

Also before names of rivers, which, in Poetry, arc

often personified :

(3) "Firm reedy Simois:" "The flies and gnats of

Nile."
 Par. 534-526] ABRIDGMENTS. 289

" Neither " " "

524 is omitted preceding nor :

(1) "Helm nor hauberk's twisted mail."

"
(2) Sigh, nor word, nor struggling breath."

525 Poetry dispenses, as far as possible, with de-

1
pendent Conjunctional sentences and Relative
Pronouns, avoiding them by means of (a) Appo-
sition, (b) Adjectives and Participles, (c) Paren-
theses, or co-ordinate sentences :

" Next Chemos

(a) (who was) th' obscene dread of
Moab's sons." Paradise Lost, L 406.
(a) "The fiend,
Mere serpent in appearance, . . where he miglit
find
The whole included race, his purposed prey."
Ib. viii. 416.

id) "(He) each perturbation smooth'd with outward

calm
Artificer (i.e., since he was an a.) of fraud."
75.iv. 121.

526 (b) "See that your 2>olfch'd arms be primed with

" be "
care," that is, polished and primed.
COWPER.
"
(b) Lely on animated canvas stole
The sleepy eye which spoke^the melting soul."
POPE
That is, "the canvas that assumed animation under his
pencil"
" And reck'nest thou thyself with spirits of
(b)
Heav'n,
Hell-doom* dl" Paradise Lost, ii. 167.
That is, "whereas, or though, thou art hell-doomed.''
in la in accordance with Milton's dictum that Poetry must be
'in
 290 POETICAL CONSTRUCTION'&[Par. 527-529
(b) "(while) Alive, ridiculous; and (when)
forgot(ten)." POPE.
" Hel1
527 (<)
their frown, so matched they
Grew darker at
stood." Paradise Lost, ii. 719.

(
c) Eve separate he spies,
' '

Veil'd in a cloud of fragrance where she stood,

Half-spied so (hick the roses blushing round
About her glowed." Ib. ix. 426.

That "or rather only half spied, because the roses,"

is,
&c.
" Down he fell . .
(C )
.

Reluctant, but in vain .... a greater power

Now ruled him"Ib. ix. 576.

528 Hence Poetry prefers the Participle Absolute to

a Conjunctional sentence, and occasionally even
places the Participle before its Noun :

" An Iris sits .... and, unworn

Its steady dyes, while all around is torn

By the distracted waters, bears severe

Its brilliant hues." Childe Harold.

529 The Epithet is substituted for the thing denoted

" " " "
Thus Milton uses " the dank for water the ;

for "land." This is both terse and "sensu

dry"
"
ous :

" Below the chestnuts, when their buds

(1)
Were glistening to the breezy blue."
TF.NNYSON.
" Neither keen
(2)
Nor solid might resist that edge."
Paradise Lost, vi 328.
 Par. 530, 531] ABRIDGMENTS. 291

530 The principal Verb is omitted, and the question

is expressed by the Infinitive (possibly an old form ;
Par. 398) :

" " "

(1) Why longer dwell on horrors ?
Why still
"
delay ?

The desire to be terse produces countless irregu-

larities in Poetry, even in a polished and fastidious
Poet such as Pope. His meaning is transparent,
but his grammar is (pardonably) most irregular :

" O'er the

(1) pale marble shall they join their heads
And drink the falling tears each other sheds."
POPE.

(2) "Though there's a difference in each other's

"
loving. Hamlet, First Quarto.

531 Woare accustomed, in Prose, to the condensed

" "
expression (see Par. 223) they loved each other;
hut this is a condensation of " and drink the falling
tears each (shall drink the tears that the) other
" each
sheds." Practically, no doubt Pope regards
"
other as a Compound Pronoun.

" Who has the vanity to call you frieud

(3)
But wants the honour, injur'd, to defend." Ib.

That is, "to defend you when you are injured.''

(4) "Who first taught souls enslav'd, and realms

undone,
"
Tli' enormous faith of many made for one t Ib.

ibnormal belief that the governed arc made

for the governor."
u 2
 29* POETICAL ABRIDGMENTS. [Par saa
" And on the
(5) washy ooze (the waters) deep channels
wore ;

Easy (i.e., an easy task), ere God had bid the

ground be dry." Paradise Lost, vii. 304.
" 'Gainst
(6) Pallas, Mars ('gainst) Latona, Hermes
;

arms." POPE.

532 Terseness is aided by the license of making (a)

(b) Transitive Verbs

Verbs out of Nouns, out of
Intransitive :

" And as
(a) they please
They Limb themselves." P.L. vi. 352.

That is, "endow themselves with limbs."

" Hull saw
(a)
Heav'n ruining from Heaven." Jb. vi. 868.
"
Part, huge of bulk,
Wallowing unwieldy, enormous in their gait,
Tempest the ocean." Ib. vii. 412.

" The terms we sent were terms of

(b) weight
And stiiHililnl many." Ib. vi 624.
" That be assured" " know that for certain. '
(b) i.e.,

Ib. ii. 685.

 APPENDIX I.

ON THE GROWTH OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Chronological Summary.
533 A. D. 450 The English language was brought
547.
into Britain. It adopted a very few Celtic terms,
and one or two Roman local names.
A.D. 596. Christianity was introduced, and with
it several Latin ecclesiastical terms.
A.D. 878. Cession of Northumbria, East Anglia,
&c., to the Danes, and
534 A.D. 1017 A Danish dynasty reigns in
'42.

Hence the introduction of several Scandi-

land.
navian terms and a general unsettling of Inflections
in the Northern Dialect. Hence (in part at
1

least)
"
A.D. 1 100. The " Period of Confusion begins,
first orthography of Inflections, and
affecting the
afterwards dispensing with the Inflections.

It has been asserted that, rvrn in parts of HH- North wl

traces of Danish influence can bo inspected, the i-
r.Hcttled. But there is difficulty in proving
 294 THE GROWTH OF[P*r. 535,

535 A.D. .* The Norman Conquest introduced,

in course of time, some terms belonging to the
church, chivalry, the law, the chase, and cookery.
Norman-French was established as the language to
be used in the law-courts and the records of state.

For some time the nobility retained French as their

language, and hence the English was little influenced
by the French ; but, by degrees, the coalition be-
tween the nobles and commons in King John's
time, the loss of Normandy in the same reign A.D.
1204, and the French wars of Edward ill. A.D.
1339, brought about a degradation of the French
from "French of Paris" to the French after the
"
school of "Stratford atte Bowe
(Chaucer, Pro-
logue, 125), and, still lower, to the French "of
1.

"
the farthest ende of Norfolke (Piers the Plowman,
Passus v. 238, Ed. Skeat). By degrees, French was
not only debased but disused. Hence, not to con-
ciliate the lower class, but to suit the higher

536 A.D. 1362. An Act of Parliament directed that

;dl pleadings in the law courts should be conducted
in English and not French, inasmuch as French had
become " much unknown in the realm."
Naturally, when the higher classes adopted Eng-
lish as their native tongue, there came at once an
influx of Norman-French words, and an increased
degradation of the English Inflections.
i The date is purposely omitted lest the reader should be led to
suppose that any sudden change took place in A.D. lOM. The Norman
Conquest was very slow in its results on English.
 Par. 537-542] THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 295
637 A.D. 1500. The revival of the study of Latin
Literature introduced a vast number of Latin words
direct from the Latin. The English Inflections were
now but the sense of
lost, Inflections, and the con-
sequent license, remained.
538 A.D. 1600. A reaction set in against the ex-
cessive Latinisms and licenses of the sixteenth
century. This reaction was aided by
539 A-.D. The Restoration, which brought
1660.
French influence to bear on the language, partly in
words, but more by favouring a lighter structure of
sentences, and increased regularity in grammatical
construction.
540 A.D. 1800. The study of chemistry, geology,

zoology, &c., has introduced a vast number of

scientific terms, mostly compounded from the
Greek.

The Vocabulary.
541 Celtic. The Celtic words introduced into our

language directly are very few. They mostly relate

to (1) coarse dress and rough household work or
agriculture ; (2) to wild scenery :

(1) 1
irn, clout, mop, pillow, cradle, crock,
mattock, kiln, basket.
(2) Crag, glen, pool.

542 ' icncli introduced some of these

words borrowed from the old Gallic ; most of these
 296 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 543-5*6
are of Class but some
(1), relate to (3) petty
trade :

(1) Bonnet, bucket, button, chemise, mitten,

gown,
ribbon, bag, basin, IMHV], pot, varlet, v

rogue, i-ur, i-itrt, gra\vl, marl, bran.

(3) liar-ain, barti-r.

543 Danish. Several words in common use, e.g.

"scold," "shy," "sly," "fellow," "cake," "call,"
"
cast," are of Scandinavian as also is origin , -by
in "De%,"
"Apple6#," &c., meaning "town."
"
Are," the 3rd Pere. Plur. Pres. of " be " is also
I )anish.

544 French. French words came into the language

in small numbers until the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries ; then they were plentifully introduced,
e.g. in Chaucer's time. The earlier importations
were mostly terms of war, and literature.religion,
But in the fourteenth century there was an influx
of the technical terms of law, art, commerce, medi-
cine, astrology, and the other sciences ; and these
technical terms (compare the history of Latin tech-
nical terms, such as " influence,"
"
triumph ") when
incorporated in the language often assumed meta-
phorical and wider meanings. 1

545 Latin (First Period), A.D. 43 426. From the

Koman occupation we have borrowed -cester ("camp"),
* See English Lessons for English Penph, Paragraph 37, page 51.
 Bar. 546-548] VOCABULARY. 297

e.g. in
"
Glou-cester," "Chester" " Doi-chester," &c.;
also the words
" street " and " wall "*
(vallum).
(Second Period), A.D. 596 1200. The intro-

duction of Christianity introduced (a) a number of

" 2
religious technical terms, e.g. preach" (prcedicare),
"mass" (missa), &c., together with a few names of
" butter " " "
(b) food, e.g. ; (c) trees, e.g. fig ; (d)
" camel "
animals, e.g. weights and measures,
; (e)

e.g. "pound," "ounce," "inch."

547 (Third Period), A.D. 1200 1400. Indirectly

through the French ; see above.
French words were not freely admitted into the
language till the upper classes began to adopt
English as their native tongue, i.e. till A.D. 1300
"
1350. In the earlier text of Layamon's " Brut
(A.D. 1205) there are only about 112 Norman- French
words throughout the whole of the poem. See the
lists of Norman-French words in Morris's Historical

Outlines.

548 (Fourth Period), A.p. 15001660. Direct im-

portation of Latin words, through the revival of the

study of Latin Literature. Many of these Avmds

have changed their meaning, either (1) narrow H<J
"
their meaning (e.g. " extravagant no longer means
" 3 but "
wandering outside," simply wandering be-
yond the due bounds of expense "), ox (2) c.rtindi<i
'
I liav.- Y .
tl, r ins.Ttiii* 1l:is \vnnl, H*
borrowed from t),< :i
ramiKirt."
a "
I'rcach" has roni to ua through l>ut it is also 1<>uid

The extravagant and erring spirit."

 298 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 549-551
their meaning (e.g. " influence
"
no longer means
" the
power that flowed from the stars on to men,"
but " from a
any modifying power "), narrow techni-
cality to a broader and metaphorical meaning.
549 A few French " words of society "
and military
terms were introduced during the eighteenth cen-
tury. Later introductions have been for "the most
part technical terms of philosophy and science,
formed from the Greek.

Inflections.

550 Six Periods may be marked out in the growth of

the Engl-ish language : I. A.D. 4501100; II. A.D.

11001250; III. A.D.12501350; IV. A.D. 1350

-1500; V. A.D. 15001600; VI. A.D. 1600 to
present tima
551 First or " Synthetical Period," A.D. 450
1100. This may be called the "Inflectional or
"
Synthetical Period ;
for during this period the
language shewed a power of construction (syn, con ;

thetical, structional) so as to represent Tense, Person,

Number, Gender, Case, &c..,by Inflections. In
particular, the distinction was carefully observed
between
 Par. 553, 553] INFLECTIONS. 299

To LOVE.
Gerund, or
Noun Infinitive. Infinitive of Purpose. Active Participle,
lufi-an (to) Infl-anne lufig-ende.

552 But already, towards the end of this period, there

seems to have arisen, partly perhaps owing to the
influence of the Danish invaders, some confusion
among the Inflections, and a tendency to simplify
them by assimilation. See the extract from the
Gospel of St. Mark in Par. 558.

It has been asserted (but see Par. 534, note) that, apart
from Danish influence, there was a tendency (a) in the North
to discard Inflections while retaining old forms ; (b) in the
South to cling to Inflections while freely modifying forms.

Second Period, or "

553 Period of Confu-
sion," A.D. 11001250. This may be called the
" Period of Confusion "
for
; during this period
(perhaps partly in consequence of political con-
fusion) the language began to assimilate forms by
confusing sounds and Inflections. In particular, the
vowel sounds of Inflections were assimilated so that
a, o, and u frequently became indistinguishable by
1
being all changed into c.

"Mtneconf': '- nrnl di].hthnnps is found in tho Greek

\
 300 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 554-556
554 The following
tlii's
.
!
mentioned as orrurrm^ in
period l.y [)r. .Morris (Histurivtil Uutlincf, p. 62), to which the
reader is referred for fuller information on this subject :

1. Dative Aim used for Accusative.

2. The n in ruin, thin, dropped before Consonants, but retained in
the Plural and Oblique Cases.
3. The Infinitive (even in the South) often drops final -11. To is some-
times iued before ordinary, as well II :iidial Intfnit..

4. Tim Gerundial or Dative Infinitive often ends in -en or -e (the

ordinary Infinitive ending) instead of -enne (-anne).
r
. >. 'i in -inde (instead ot
ami is frenuVntly used tor the (iennnlial Infinitive, .;;. " to swimhuZc"
i

"
used for to IWuMML* The Participle 1'assive often drops -n.
6. Nominative Plural Inflections in n or i/, and Dative Plurals in
-mu, were supplanted by -i or -en. Genders began to IH; confused.
7. Skull and will began to be used as Future Auxiliaries.

555 A
specimen of the tendency to drop Inflections
is given in the two following extracts from the
earlier and later texts of Layamon, the earlier

written about A.D. 1200, the later about A.D.

1250 :

1. Early ...
"Up heo dude* heora castles giten."
Later " dude
2. ... Up hii hire castles geate."
8. Modern... "Up they did their castle's gates."

Note also the approximation to modern usage in

the dropping of the o in " heo," " heora." similar A
approximation may be noted in the following Ex-
ample which observe "
(in the later form of alse,"
" al-swa :
")
1. Early ... "And ferden ut swa stille swa Two stolen wolden."
2. Later ... "And werde ut so stille alse Ae(?W) stele woldr"
" And "
8. Modern... they marched out as still as (if) they would steal.

556 Third, or "Analytical Period," A.D. 1250

1350. As the First Period was called Synthetical,
 Par. 557, 358] INFLECTIONS. 301

so the Third may be called Analytical, the tendency

being developed to take the language as it ivere to

pieces, dropping Inflections and using existing words,

e.g. Prepositions and Auxiliary Verbs, to replace
them. The Present Participle in -inge appears about
A.D. 1300, and the ordinary Infinitive takes
" to "

before it.

French words now became so common as to be

estimated at 4 per cent of the Vocabulary.

557 Fourth,or " National Period," A.D. 1350

1500. This period witnessed the decay of the last

refuge of many Inflections, VIE. final -e. During the

earlier part of the period, -e was used according to
rule, and represented

(1) The mark of (a) the Plural Adjective; (6)

the Definite Adjective :

" " "

(a) smale fowles ; (6) "the grete see."

" "
(2) The mark of the Adverb, e.g. brighte
;

(brightly).

(3) The mark of the Infinitive, and of the Past

Tense '
:

" Him 2
thoughts that his herte wolde breke."

558 But, towards the end of this period, the use of

final -e became uncertain. Also the Present

It rapraentod the Floral of Past Tense of Strong Verbs, the

<

.vl of tin Past Tense of Weak Verbs, also some

Choicer, quoted by Morris, Historical Outline* of Englith Aoc*.

302 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 558

Participle in -ing (inge) had now become the usual

form.

Before this period many Passive Participles of Strong

Verbs dropped the final -; and it is curious to observe that

the anti-iiitloctional tendency reached lengths from which it

has retrograded in modern English. Thus the -n or -en was
dropped not only in fought, bound, shrunk, sunk, but also
in spoke, broke curtailed forms that are found even in Milton
and Shakespeare, but are not accepted in modern English.
" " "
Chaucer (who drops -n as a rule) even uses be for been."

Note that we retain some of these old Participial forms

as Adjv'tici's "a molten image;" "our bounden duty;"
:

"a "
foughten field "a drunken man ; " "a sunken ship."
;

It may be useful to compare the early part of

this period, when English had been just recognized
by royal edict as the language of the realm, with
the language of the First or " Synthetical Period." z

i Mr. Skeat suggests the following alternative names for the six
Fori.xls. They may conveniently be aet by the side of the names sug-
gested above.

1. Anglo-Saxon, or Oldest English. 1. Inflectional.

2. Late Anglo-Saxon. 2. Period of "Confusion."
8. Early English. 3. Analytical
4. Middle English. 4 National.
5. Tudor English. 5. Period of " License."
OL Modern Englitk. . Modern English,
Par. 559] INFLECTIONS. 303

St. Mark i. 6, 7 ; 34.

WYCKLIFPE,
A.D. 1380.
 304 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 56O, 561

(d) instead of the Present Participle in -ende

(bugende), we have the form in -inge (kneelinge) ;

notice also (e) the change from " sprec-an " to
"
sprecew," and thence to "for to speke."
560 As English was recognized as the language of the
whole nation soon after the beginning of this period,
and was so far settled that the Vocabulary (as dis-
tinct from the Orthography and Inflections) of

Wyckliffe differs little (except in scantiness) from

our own Vocabulary, we may call this period " the
National Period." A
glance at the three columns
above will suffice to show the great difference be-
"
tween " the National Period and " the Inflectional
Period," in point of Vocabulary.
" Period of
561 Fifth, or License," A.D. 1500
1600. Before the end of this period the use of -e

(which fell into disuse or abuse soon after Chaucer's

time) became quite forgotten. Indeed, there was in

this period a tendency to carry the disuse of In-
flectionseven to a greater degree than has been
sanctioned by modern English, e.g. "spoke" 1 for

"spoken;" so "chosen)," "rode "(for "ridden),"

" " " To " as the
drove," took," &c. sign of the
Infinitive was used irregularly, "I saw him to
" You
walk," but ought not walk." This therefore
" Period of
(like Period II.) was to some extent a
" I have
Confusion." In Shakespeare we find
warn, spake, fell, droven, strucken, splitted, beated."

The n had been dropped as early aa the thirteenth century.

 Par. 562-56A] INFLECTIONS. 305

The -y that is historically an Adv. 1 prefix in " y-

" "
wis (i.e.
Germ. gewiss," certainly) was, by mis-
" I " in " I wis."
understanding, changed into
The "of" that is regularly and intelligibly used
" the
after a Verbal Noun, is a-blow-
e.g. shepherd
ing, i 1. (in-blowing) of his nails," was retained even
when the Verbal had been completely confused
" The shepherd
with the Participle : is blowing of
hia nails."

562 Tne old power of forming Adverbs from Adjec-

tives by adding -e (once sonant) was extended to
the license of using any Adjective as an Adverb,
and this oven with Latin words, so that " honour-
" could be used as Adverbs. Even
able," excellent,"
Latin Inflections (where they fell in with the Old
English Inflections) were experimented upon, so that
" " " " "
Shakespeare uses deject for dejected," infect
" infected."
for

563 Generally it may be said that in this period the

'cticnis had departed, but the sense of Inflections
still remained, causing many curious irregularities
and licenses, and adding to the obscurity and to
the vigour of the sixteenth-century English. Hence
this may be called the " Period of License."

564 It may be added that this period witnessed (1)

Bee Mr. Skeat's Index to Fieri (h* Plowman : "y-, prefix ; answer-
ing to O. and A. -3. ge-, which is etymologi
mm..- usually pret to Past Participles, but olg< .sea, In-
m " I wis "
ftnltivr H, word was commonly written
"
" is the sania
eren in I wto

prefix as the "a" in "aware."

 306 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. [Par. 565, 566

a great influx of Latin words, (2) an introduction

of the periodic structure, involving a freer use of

Conjunctions and of the Subjunctive Mood.

Sixth " Period of
565 Period,
ot Settlement,"
A.D. .1600 to the Present Time. This was a period
" Period of License." The use
of reaction from the
of "shall" and "will," variable toward the end of
the " Period of License," was defined in the seven-
teenth century. Many old licenses (e.g. the use of
" of " after
(what are now) Participles) were discarded
as vulgarisms, or as unjustifiable irregularities. 1 The

periodic structure wa simplified by the easy vigour

of Dryden and the incisive French style. Several
566 superfluous words of Latin importation were rejected.
Many Elizabethan usages, theoretically accurate,
had become practically inconvenient. For example,
" so " " as "
being by derivation connected with
" " als
(" al-so," alse.," "), had been, in Elizabethan

times, freely interchanged with "as;" "which"

being the original co-relative to "such," had been
used where we use "as," e.g. "such which" for
" such as " " as " its force of
; retaining original
"in which way," had been used as the natural
"
sequel to "so ("so... as," where we use "so that")
all theoretically legitimate usages, and based on

ancient derivations :
but, as the derivations were

i
Pope even discards the use of mine and thine before a vowel, pre-
ferring "my eye," "thy eye." In revising a Concordance to Pope,
I have noticed thin* twice* nine (as au Adjective before a Noon)
nover.
 Par. 567-569] INFLECTIONS. 307

forgotten, and greater clearness was required to

make up had become
for the disuse of Inflections, it

necessary that the province of each particle should

"
be narrowed and denned ; e.g. that " as should no
" "
longer bear the burden of that so as to denote

567 consequence and purpose. Thus, in many respects

the language of Pope is less ambiguous than that
of Bacon or Shakespeare. But unfortunately, in
sweeping away monopolies, the old distinction,
generally observed by Shakespeare, between the
Relative Pronouns "that" and "who," fell into
oblivion; and, in the course of a reaction against
"
the excessive use of " that," " who was allowed
1
unduly to encroach. This is the most serious blot
in Modern English.
568 More recently, the Inflections of the Participles

(after a long-continued fluctuation) have been settled

so as to prevent ambiguity, e.g. we have rejected
the Participle " chose," " spoke," though sanctioned
" "
by Pope, and the Past Tenses sung," rung,"
2
though sanctioned by Milton.
569 Some specimens of the Accidence of the First or

i Who introduces a new fact about the Antecedent : t\at

completes
the Antecedent. This IB the general rule subject to a few ex
arising from the desire of euphony. See How to Write Clearly. }

Addison, in his Humble Petition of Who and Which, all<^

petitioners to say, "We are descend families, u
up our dignity and honour many years, till the Jac-k-s;
planted us." But That was the legitimate sovereign and Who and
Whbh were the Jaek-tpraU.
However, Pope, perhaps in consequence of Addison's mistake, often
-
MM'^who-foPfiuUl
The forma mug, rung, in the Plural, are sanctioned by the usage
In Early Knlish. 8i-f M-iri^ itutli,,, ,, ],V ' l.v.'

x 2
308 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 569
" "
Synthetical Period are given below, to show the
extremely complex nature of the language before it

was simplified in the " Period of Confusion."

MTOUN8.
Par. 360] NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 309

PRONOUNS.
 310 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 570, 571

570 To explain the modern forms "she," "that,"

" "
they," them," we must have recourse to the
old declinable Definite Adjective:

DEFINITE ADJECTIVE, Modern "THE."

 Par. 573] PRONOUNS. 311

liable to confusion with "he" than "heo") sup-

" "
planted heo in the North, and subsequently also
in the South. Hence our " she."
In the same way " tha "
"
supplanted hi," and
made our " they ; " " th&-m " supplanted " hem,"
and made our "them;" " thara " supplanted "hira,"
and made our " their.**
Note also the Instrumental form "the"," which
still exists in our " The sooner the better." See
Par. 344.

572 Changes in the Relative Pronoun.

In the First Period " "
was the Definite Adjec-
se

tive, and "the" the Relative, Later/ the form

" the "
came to be used as the Definite Adjective,
and consequently ceased to be used as the Relative,
" that "
being supplanted by the heavier form (the
Keuter)j which had become the ordinary Relative
in the fourteenth century. When the need of a
Possessive and Objective Case for the Relative was
felt, the Possessive and Objective Cases of the In-
" whose " and "
terrogative, whom," were used as
" who "
early as the thirteenth century ; but was
not common as a Relative till throe centuries later.
As to the way in which the Interrogative came to
be used Relatively, see Par. 27.
rth.
"
the" appean early u the Definite Adjective, eToo
to the tenth century.
 312 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 573

573 VERBS.
THE VERB "BE."
It is curious to note the multiplicity of forms, as

compared with the barrenness of Tenses, in the old

Verb " be." Our modern Verb contains remnants
of three distinct roots :

I. AS (18). II. BE. III. (WAS).

INDICATIVE MOOD.
 "
Par. 57* -576] "IS," "BE" WAS." 313

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
 314 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD.[**r. 577-579

Anomalous forms of " Be."

577 Are. Our "are" represents the old Northern

"
aron," and Is therefore a lasting monument of the
influence of the Northern dialect.
578 Be. The Southern " be "
is now banished from
the Indicative (except in vulgarisms), but it is
" if it be
retained in the rare Conditional true,"
The retention of be in the Subjunctive may be
explained by the fact that the Verb beon in A.S.
from the earliest times had a future force.
Even in Shakespeare and Milton we find a kind
of transitional use of " beest in hypothetical sen-
"

" "
tences, the form be being used to denote hypo-
thesis, and the Indicative Inflection to denote the
truth of the hypothesis :

" If thou beest lie."

1
Paradise Lost, i. 84.
" If thou beest
M
ii. 104.
Stephano. Tempest, 2,

579 The Indicative "be" in the Plural and in the

1st Person Singular remained in use long after the
extermination of the 2nd and 3rd Persons Sin-
gular; seemingly because the absence of Inflec-
tion assimilated these forms to the Subjunctive

(which was spared for the present), and thus

i
Perhaps this use may be in part accounted for by the feeling that
"thou," having a Verbal inflection of its owu, and a very marked one,
ought not to be deprived of it even when the Verb ia in the SubiunC-
' "
Compare wert below
'
tive. .
 "
Par. 580-583]" WAST," WERT." 315

allowed them as it were to exist under this dis-

guise.
"Be" in Modern English, as Indicative, is an
archaism.
580 Bi-n, used by Shakespeare as the 3rd Person
Plural of "be," is the Midland form. There
are

^1) Bes, Northern.

(2) Ben, Midland.

(3) Beth, Southern.

581 Was-t. In Early English the 2nd Person Sin-

gular Past Indicative of a Strong Verb had e- for
its Inflection, e.g.
" thou " thou
heold-e," and, above,
waer-e." But in the fourteenth century the Inflec-
tion in Strong Verbs was varied with, and finally
assimilated to, that of Weak
HenceVerbs, i.e. -est.

"thou heold-e" became "thou held-es*;" and in

the same way " thou were
"
became " thou
wast."
582 Wert is even more anomalous than the Con-
ditional "be-est" above. The old Subjunctive
form " were."
is But, apparently, a sense that the
" thou "
murked Verbal Inflection usually following

ought not to be dispensed with, even when the

i> is in the Subjunctive, led to the construction
of a new word, similar to the modern Subjunctive
in form, and to the modern Indicative in Inflection.
From this confusion resulted wert, which is now
 316 SYNTHETICAL PERIOD. [Par. 583

established English, so that no one but a pedant

would venture to write
" if thou were"

The Regular Verb.

It may be useful to compare the scanty Tenses of
the Verb in the First Period with the developed
Verb as we now have it :

FIRST PERIOD.

533 Luf-^an = " to love."

INFINITIVE.

Noun Form. Form of Purpose (Gerund.)

luti-an luli-anne

PARTICIPLES.

Active. Passive.

lufig-cnde luf-o-d

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present and Future Tense. Past Tense.

Sing. Plural. Sing. Plural.

1. lufig-e lufi-ath 1. luf-o-de luf-o-den
2. luf-ast lufi-ath 2. luf-o-det luf-o-den
8. luf-ath lufi-ath 3. luf-o-de luf-o-den
Pmr. 583] THE REGULAR VERB. 317

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
 31S THE MODERN PERIOD. [Par. 584

584 "TO
ACTIVE
 *84] THE REGULAR VERB. 319

HELP.'"
VOICE.

Complete,
Complete. Post-Continuous.

MOOD.
(to) have helped (to) have been helping

C1PLES.

having helped having: been helping

MOOD.

has helped has been helping

^
(he) (he)
(he) had helped (he) had been helping

fti^ i

MOOD.

(he) have helped (he) have been helping

DITIONAL MOOD.

has helped has been helping

had helped 3 had ben helping 2
should have should have been
h.-lped* helping
were to have been
3
helped helping

" "
which Is quit* unnecessary) the difficulty of pronouncing helped

OM in committing them to memory. But it is useful to see th logical

th.- Auxiliary VcrlH
THE MODERN PERIOD. [Par. 584

ACTIVE
 Par. 585] TEE REGULAR VERB. 321

VOICE.

Complete,
Complete. Post-Conditional.

DITIONAL MOOD.

(he) would have been help-

(I) should ing

PURPOSE.

may have may have been

helped helping
I! might have
helped
uiipht have been
helping

TIVI: MOOD.

have helped

Future Indicatiyc.

585 The Infinitive.

The results of the confusion between the Noun

Infinitive, the Gerundial Infinitive, the Active Par-
j'lo, and the Verbal Noun, are so important in
their influence on modern English that they deserve
special mention. The old forms of the Infinitive
mentioned in Par. 551 had been modified as fol-

lows :
 322 INFINITIVE, GERUND. [Par. 5 8<S, 587

A.D.
 Par. 588,589] PARTICIPLE, VERBAL. 323

1. The Participle (1) in the twelfth century, in the form

nde, (-) in the iourtrciith century, in the form -inge, in-

l the
province of the Gerundive; and we find "for to
i.e.
witie/wfe," "to guard;" "to \\itinyc," i.e. "to wit:"
"the night that is to comi/ng," i.e. "to come ;" "to ber-
1
inge," i.e. (ready) to bear." But in the fifteenth and
following centuries these forms died out.
2. In the latter part of the fifteenth century we find an

attempt, on the part of the form in -ing, to appropriate the

" Our lord will
province of the Noun Infinitive yeuyn<7 :

(= yevcn) hym pardon." But this is both late and ex-

1
ceptional.

588 But the great and important change was the

assimilation of the syntax of the Verbal Noun to
the syntax c i the Participle. At first the uses were
distinct :

PLE. I VERBAL.
" H /." *
"He went on huntinge."
'*
Lesende ane finger." " a
Up peyn of losing oj
finger."

While this distinction was preserved, the Verbal

589
;n was not usod (according to Dr.
"Morris) after
" is
"
or " was," except in Passive signification :

"The churche was in byldynge; tf

"As this was
a (i.e. t, on, or or?) doyng."

* V T'.-W 177.
So Also " 1 'he vat on huntir

of Lajnunon. a '
:..;.-.. n t-T .
in MK- ]Rt BeFu >.i --.rt,i-
t ^ M >
tut | r. ,- .
bf hill ft kwi rdtfty r. n .M .-.mi
Co., NW
York
r 2
 324 INFINITIVE, GERUND. [Par. 59O-593
But in course of time the two usages became
contused.

590 ! Hence, Ben Jonson, while carefully selecting tlw

(then) archaic termination in -and, with tJie intention

of representing tlw old Participle, places "of" after

it, just as though it were a Verbal Noun :

" With all the barkawi

parish-tikes set at her,
While I sat whyrland of my brazen spindle "
Sad Shepherdess, i. 2 ad fin.

591 2. On the other hand, Shakespeare, while in-

serting -a, as though he were using the Verbal

Xoun nevertheless omits "of" using the Verbal just
" " "
like the Active Participle, even after is and " was
in Active signification :

" He's " " When

a-birding ; green geese are a-breed-
ing."
" The slave that was a-hanging thce" '

592 3. Again, sometimes the "of" is inserted, but

the a- omitted :

" The nails."

shepherd blowing of his

and " of
"
593 4. Again, sometimes both -a are

1
See Schmidt's admirable Shdketpean Lexicon for these and many
other instances.
 Par. 594,595] PARTICIPLE, VERBAL. 326

" the "

omitted, but is inserted, indicating the Noun
nature of the word :

"
Nothing in his life
"
Became him like the leaving it.

594 5.Further, to such an extent had the Verbal

encroached under the Participial mask, that
,11

we not only have the legitimate uses " a rid ing -

" a
whip," walking-stixk" but also in Shakespeare
and Bacon :

"A trembling contribution," i.e. "a contribution

"
that has to do with trembling.
"The loading side," i.e. "the side that has to do
with loading."

These and other idioms give the impression that the .\

Participlemay be Passively used, e.g. that "loading" is
put fur "laden;" and perhaps this in part expla
" " " " "
apparent use of seeing for it being seen
pro- ;

14" for "it being provided;" "considering" for "it

being consider

595 The modern result of all these confusions is

this : our modern Participle often represents a intent

Verbal Noun and an omitted Preposition^ and is

therefore used where, in strictness, a Partial -lo
cou*d not be used :

" I shall
(1) go (a-) fishing."

:ititf."
" saw him
() (Perhaps) I (a-)
326 MODERN PARTICIPLE. [Par, 693
" "
(4) Speaking roughly, there were about a hundred.
"In speaking," or "it being spoken," or "to
speak."
"
(5) (On) walking on, you will see the river."

It is not at unlikely that in (3) and (4) there

all

are also traces of some confusion with the Infinitive,

such as is mentioned in Pars. G7, 68, Note 388.

Dr. Morris gives instances of "he fell to, of, on, a fight-
ing," which shew the diversity of the Prepositions that may
te supplied before the Verbal
 INDEX.
(For an Explanation of Grammatical Terms, see the Glossary,
page xvii.)

A.
328 INDEX.
Adverbs, repeated, 420. Antecedent, in Conditional sen-
used as Nouns, 382, 454. tence, 167.
in -e, old form, 413, 522. Antecedent (of Relative),
used like Adjectives with omitted, 25.
Nouns. 419. implied in Possessive Adj.,
in -e, 557. 497.
Adjectives used as, 562. Apostrophe, when inserted and
Adverlnal i
8. omitted, 37.
Phrases, 340 -420. in './*, 5(39, Note 4.

Phrases, omit Preposi- Apposition, 137143.

tions, 131. with implied Noun, 143.
Phrases, containing In- Apposition, with Ind. Obj.
finitive, 98. and Possess. -Case, rare,
Against, a Conjunction, 349. 141, 142.
'fire days a'/o,' Appositional verbs, 147160.
Agreement of Verb with An'/taimns, 1'oetical, 502612.
Noun, 78, 7!. Are, origin of, 577.
not truo of the Impora- At, radical meaning of,
Mood, 91. 203.
apparently violated, 86. used for Rel. Pron., 205.
violated after " nor," 228, vulgar use of, 27.
334. parenthetical use of, 208.
violated in use of redundant, liuy.
" "that"
none," 227 for (Conj.), 480.
A-fjrounU, 348, 375. in condensed clauses, 446.
476. "so cw" = "provided
Almost, "my a Imost drunken- that," 461.
ness of heart," 419. in K.u-ly English, 487.
All, "all of us," 199, 215, "<w fa* as I know," 483.
" as so " = " both
"for
"
all that," = and," 484.
though," 475. "tw good as" but "not
AU,"aU-\t," like "a/though," so good as," 483.
476. " as
for if," 486.
" as " as
Analysis, scheme of, 265. yet ," then,"
of Sentences, 239266. 487.
meaning of, 253. "a? for;" "<w to,'
at structure of 489.
" this will serve as ink,"
language, 656.
And, "and will you leave 209.
me?" 440. "<w " os though,"
if,"
"and that, quickly," 441. 211.
" and " " This is of fine a horse
by 441.
by
ant and -ent, 2S8. <w I have seen," 493.

OT the references are in all cases to the Paragraphs and not tc

the pages.
 INDEX. 329
" he was
As, so kind as to Beest, "if thou beest" 578.
pnpmise," 47'J. Ben Jonson used Participle
provincial, "he says he'll in a7irfbefore"of,"i>90.
come as to-morrow, "488. Better, origin of, 43.
i.smuch as," 458. "you had better," 386.
"cw far as," &c., 53. "better wait a while,'*
" 386.
young of I am," 464.
" as
being," 407. B\n, origin of, i'80.
" the
Ascendant, used by Pope as Blue, breezy blue" 629.
Adj., 228. Brackets, when used, 315.
hc asked me a question," (Preposition), 3801.
lt
AsJk, But
11-9. Radical meaning and
"I tf(w ashed three ques- uses 381.
" 'twas of,
none but /te," 380.
tions," 122.
"he was asktd to explain," transition to adversative
103, 105. use, 452.
.348. But, (Conjunction) put for
At, 350-353. "that not," 202.
difference between at and ^for," 469.
'

.
353, 354. ="*Aa< not," rarely as
old," 342. object, 498.
Auxiliary (Verbs) take the "we did not know but
old Infinitive, 9396. that." 450.
used Conditionally, 170. "not but what," 451.
used Indirectly, 174. " not but there
are, &c,"
used in Past Tenso after a 452.
Past Tense, 180, 181.
" it cannot be denied
but," 453.
"it never
rains but it
B pours,'-' 467.
" I'll be hanged but," &c.
Be, an App> rb, or 467.
" there is no one but hates
.
, 147
150. me," 468.
" No sooner
"
takes a Supplement," lut," 466.
" I had tcanvly gone a
148.
old form of, conjugated, milt-, t'lt-t.'

"ho is all

in the Indicative, 378 "air,-.

"/... :;G3.

'junctive modern, 168, Bnt tl has a

note. family," 463.
omittod"woc to the man," i

'

reneM are in all OASM to the Paracraphs an

II..-
ptfOi
330 INDEX.
By, 355357.
" little
Comma, 294.
by little," 356. reneral rules for. 294-
" 308
\>y himself,"
"
"By
By and by," 420. Complementary (Infinitive), 97
By and by, change in m
meaning (Infinitive) as Subject,
o^ 441, Note. 106, 107.
Complete, the Complete
" "
State of an action,
72.
CuM/.lex (Sentence), 250.
Came, "It came to pass," Compound (Sentence), 247.
Concessional (Clauses), 472
Car din l
(Numbers), see 482.
Glossary. Condensed (Clauses), 444
Cam, 32.
meaning of term, 83. Conditional (Mood) 163180. ,

Cawatice " anomalies of, explained,

lay,"
"full/ "raise," "set," 231-238.
&c., 76. difference between Mood
Caxton, his romarks on the in Antecedent and Con-
.-h of his time, 82. sequent,why,231 233.
c, 'liconc,'' "li-
,
with " *hould," 236.
cenM," 290. (Clauses), 459471.
Charge,
'
I am given in Conjunction
c/.'irye," 391. used with Participles, 407.
(V^/c terms, 533, 541, 542. Co-ordinate, 246, note.
289. Sub-ordinate, 249.
Clauses, Subordinate, 444 Considering, Participial Pro-
500. position, 409.
"
I could have," 403.
Condensed, 444-447. Could,
"
t, 448-454. Course, Of course," 367.
"
Adverbial, 455-458. Courtesy, discards thou,"
tional, 4594*71. ML
Concessional, 472482. substitutes "will" for
"
Comparative, 483. shall," 87.
(A.liei-tive)with Relative
Pronouns, 497500.
Clear. <lebt," 366. D.
Collective (Noon) with Plur.
and Sing. Verb, 337, Danish influence on Inflec-
tions, 534, 543, 552.
"
Cognate (object), 125. Dare, with and without to,"
Colon, 309. 96, note.
" he is
Come, come," 62. Dash, used as stop, 314.

3T The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, aud not to

tha pagag.
 INDEX. 331

Dative, Early English, 126, \m, represents not the-m but

Am, 569, note 4.
" him "
used, for Accusa- -en. Participial Adjectives in,
tive, 554. 558.
Plural in -urn supplanted, Infinitive termination, 94
96, 5S5, 586.
Dependent, and dependant, 288. -ene, enne, Gerundive termi-
Do, original meaning of, 386. nation, 585, 586.
"
hpw do you do,'' 386. Enlargement, of Subject or
"do what I may," 474. Object, 263.
Done, "this done, they de- English, Periods of, 533-595.
parted," 135. recognized as the Nation-
l<
Doors, in doors," 196, 341. al language, 536.

Doubt, "doubt not but," or <>n'sremarkson,82.

" not "
that, 453. Enovgh, 216.
Keep," 193. "kind enough to," 397.
" it was a short rfw- used for thing de-
Distance, Epiihtt,
off," 340. noted, 529.
Drier, spoiling of, 268. -er, suffix for Comparative, 43.
Verbs ending in -er ac-
cented, double T in
Pres. Part., 277.
Ever, "he was ever so ill,"
473.
- final dropped and retained Every, "every hundred years,"
before affixes, 270. 225.
what it represented, 557. Exclamation, note of, 313.
used for -en, e.g. " bro- Extension (of Predicate), 263.
."558 Adverbial Phrases of,
.

Each, n.,t with Plural 340.

v hated each other,"

Each other, "each other sheds,"

530. Feel, followed by Passive Par
-ede, -t"l, spelling of, ex- iO, Note,
288. a /tip men," 217.
Either, ''either a or b ww," ! idhand and foot,"
not" were," 228. 128.
lulling of, 283. For, 358-364.
;oublo "/w a year," ' 'for onco,"
/ in Pros. 362.
Particij.lf.
.% see At, 1
"for my part.""364
iiC. "for shame 359. !

are In all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to

332 INDKX.
For, "far all," &c. 360.
"for all that" = though,"
' '
 INDEX. 333

//, of adm 159. Infinitive, changes in Inflec-

445. tion, 551559.
Impt, defined, 70. , changes table of, 585
always in Second Person, 586.
88.
" "
after Verbs
Complete
-, 89. of hoping, &e., 403.
generally omits Subject, as Noun, Adverb, Adjec-
90. tive, 98100.
or Subjunctive, doubtful, afterNouns, 394, 395.
474. Exclamatory, 111.
used to express condition, in exclamations, 400.
462. Parenthetical, 110, 401.
See " to for examples.
"
Inn^rs'-nuil (Verbs), 328.
In and "at," difference be- Inflections, see Noun, Fer6,&c.
tween, 353, 354. confused, 668.J
Inasmuch as, 458. ing represents -ung, -inde,
Incomplete, State of action, -ene, and perhaps -en,
585-588.
Indefinite (Article), see Glos- Intma, "I intended to havt
sary, Article and /Tick- come," 403.
Interrogation, note of, 312.
state of action, 72. the old, without
lut, n-<',</ative,
Mixxl) defined, 70. "do, "507.
used Ulogically, 80. used to express condition,
"
even after hope," 463.
"
fear," &c. 184, Note, (Adverbs) used Relatively,
after "if," illogical, 189. &c.,49.
117-120. .junctivc). 47-2474,
after Passive Verb, 122. at may.'
1 1 1

"ret:i (Pronoun) supplants Rela-

"
rarely admits apposi-
141. Intransitin -58.
Injinitiw (Mood), 92-113,
pleinents," 147149.
defined, 70.' Irregti n explaine<l.
Ten** of, 92.
" 390 Xoto.
preceded by to," bre.ll.y.
of w
it "to," 93 96. in
jKXJtry,
513-
ordinary, in -ing, very 289.
rare, 687.
af- s, 108,893.
use of, ex- at ..\ ntvxdcnt, "who wns
plained, 109. it that you MW?" 158.

OF Th referenoM are in all CAMS t.. the Pararaph- an..

th- Pftf v
334 INDEX.
It, at Antecedent, "it is you -II, modified before affixes, 275.
that say so," 160. Lose, "this will /<>,t you your
pivpuratory, 329. friends," 117.
" it was thon
that," &c.,
162, 330.
" it is said that he is com- M.
r
ing," l. .l. "
" itwill soon bo Novem- Make, they made him king,"
148.
ber.
" man a," 218.
i/
it pities me," 328.
" thinks" for 1 '
it Mat/, double meaning of, 170,
it seems,"
175-6.
ni-s, 328.
Jze or -ise, 289. " that "
Might, aft-er
-it, Verbs in-it accented double ;

t in Pros. Part. , 277. "should," after "lest,"

166.
" he
might have helped
mo," 172.
K.
"a king, who miqht keep
u- in order," 185, Note.
<
own to be
different meanings of,
honest," 1<>7.
-6.
Milto on poetry,:i

501, Note.
words derived anomalies in, 568.
Latin, from,
533-548. "than whom," 346.
of. 76.
AMative Absolute,
Lay, principal parts
" li 408.
live of .

texts compared, 555.

.
197, 560.
,

'''-afire, &a,
t
Participle rare in,
70.
588. Note.
" More, used as a Noun.
Less than, thy less-than wo- " h" more than
191. hesitated,"
Lett, derivation of, 482. " " some
followed by
" should in-
moi-e pudding,"
166. 219.
..f '"iniifht," "
Let,
" let me see," 88. asking for more," 221.
My, old form of, 554, 569.
"*}. 109.
Lie, ]
''is of, 76.
ith "lay, "76. N.
Like, rascal to be
punished," 97. -n final, dropped in Pas-
sive Participles, 554,
I'.a; Note, 356. 558.

Thf rf fori-nws are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to

the ]
 INDEX. 335

* dropped in min and Northern Dialect, 583-S83.

t'nu, 554, 569. Not, a contraction for
dropped in Infinitives. "naught," 417.
544. "not but what," 451.
" not
. for ".Tin not," 381. but," 4.VJ.
S 230. Notwithstanding, 477.
. 417. Nouns, Uses and Inflections
the "National" of, 3037.
Period of the English Plural Inflections of, 34
Language, 535. 36.
-ne, the old -ne retained for of the Synthetical Period,
emphasis in "none," 569.
"
mine," &c., 197. Noun-object, 81.
Near, derivation of, 197. Noun-phrases, containing In-
" I must needs come,"
Needs, finitive, 98.
341. X i>nn-subject, 81.
" now
Negative, before "but," 381. iVoir, ^that) we've
Neither nor, followed by come," 444.
Plural Verb for Sin- Now-a-days, 196, 341.
gular, 33, Numeral (Adjectives), why
' '
Never, though you were Irregular, 1.93-212.
never so ill," 473. Number, "agreeing in num-
" he never sees me Mat
ber," 78.
hedoesnot lau^l
.Vo, Adverbial, 230.
"
you are no soldier," 230.
"whether he comes or 0.
417.
"he slept no more," 220, Object, 1220.
and " none," difference of meaning of, 13.
different forms of, 15.
i
Is, changes "governing an '

554.
See also Subject, and with Ver eforo
Cl.-S.iry.
&o*>, for "no. "197. 229. (Indirect), see //

Cognate, l

used a-s Mural. 5 1-J7 I'M.

Adverbial, 229. usf Mil-
'
nor yew nor cypress
'

i
Poetry.

-872.

The reference arc In all PMC* to the Pararraphs, and not t

:!.. ;.... -i
 INDEX.
Of, after Participial Verbals, Our, old form of, 5G9.
501. Oars, 435.
"all 'jMi>," 199. Ourselves, derivation of, 569.
" ho i> a " 0iYr and o~oer"
jev.el of a man," Over, 420.

" he tells us P.
nothing of
how he travelled," -154.
" that face
ugly of his," I 'aint, " I
painted my house
white," 149.
"th>- city of London;" if, 816 825,
" the
/, 6369.
'

cry nf breakers,'"
437. no tenses, 261.
imply (1) Adverbial, (2)
:.
course," .'.ivalPbrase8,261.
ht of foot," 369. table of
"to out of tho crumbs," cliuuges in, 585, 586.
followed by "of," 590.
"blowing of his nails," modern results of old
59 confusions, 595.
Off. emphatic form of "of," confused \vith Gerundial
Iiifinitiv. , ;"51.
" ten
Old, years old," 129. in it . 558.
" at three rare in Layamon, 588.
years old,"
" in
342. conse(juence of the
kiiitf mi ,i!ii this."
'ommr.66, 404,412.
my honour ;" "on in -en, -e,
purpose," 374. xised as Gerundive, 405.
abbreviate' 1 to "a," 375. with implied Noun, 411
ion of, 19d. 412.
"at with Adverbial Suoject,
One, various uses of, i! 135.
young ones," 226. with Conjunctions, 406
One, "one another," 385.
. . .

anomalous use of, 45. used Absolutely with Sub-

" eitfier A or B
Or, wot," ject, 408.
not " 228.
were," as Preposition. 409.
<wr, spelling of, 284. 404,
" no other than," 495. Passive (Form), 5962.
CAer,
.how or other," 416. (Voice), an imposture,
"
they hated e;ich other," 584.
223, 385,5:;".
"
Verbs, followed by Ob-
Ought, you ""<//</ not (to) jects and "Supple-
walk," 561'. 93. ments," 147 149^

The references are in all oases to the Paragraphs, and Lot to

the pages.
 INDEX. 337

Periods, of the English lan- Possessive (Adjective) irre-

guage, 633595. gularly used, 432435
Person, explanation of term, "that ugly face of his"
433.
" in
agreement Person," implies Antecedent of Re-
78. lative, 497.
Personal endings in Past Predicate, 263.
a of Strong Verl .s, 5, see a- above.
581. alter spelling, 275.
Persi'Kul Pronouns, 38, Prepositions, 5051 ,
349
569. 383.
IT, &C. original meanings of,
239. 347.
Noun Phrases, - derived D . 348.
rei.
pmi"
s, 242. in Adjective Phi
Bab ambiguous, 436.
me," 328. with Adverbs as Ob
he played me a trick," 382
119. Objects omitted, 384.
Please, "pleate help me," I
>arts of Compound V
386. 384.
"if you vltate" 328. followed by "that," In-
" I have the plea- come Conjunct:
Pleasure,
sure to inform you," f. used for Future, 189.

used indifferently with

', Inflections of Nouns, Future by Pope, 191.
36. Presently, change in meaning
-) with Singular of the word, -14-
Nouns, 86, 836, 338, expressed 1

33:. Object, :

Poetry and Prose, difference J'mnouns, uses and Inflections

between, 500. of, 38.
archaic, irregular, terse, Personal, Reflexive,
500.
Pf-f, ongrammatical, /">:', of :

338, Note. 569-

'in 'em oil,' Prose
H (of wor between.
.tii-n, hint* on.
315.
Purpose, conjunctions of, 478

fMrort character,"] i-J.

arc iu all catea to the Paragraphs and uut to

UM
338 INDEX.
S.
K.
" "
-i in unaware*," now-a-
" I had
Rather, rather," 336. day*," 196.
"
Reduplication, of inflections, in your*," 197, 434.
"
196197. Xanij and s\in^," 7 >, 5 (

Reflexive (Pronoun), 569. Save, ",({'- oiilv /" ," -171 Note. ,
"
omitted in 1'oetry, 508. Say, " say I fail at first," 462.
,
"I rejoiced to see he is said to bo coming,"
him," 392. 98.
Relative Pronoun, old form of, "whom say ye that I

570. ami"
changes i-i, 572. -se, -ce, "license," "lie
how to purse, 21- 24.
use of " will
"
for
omitt.-d. ,
11
Antecedent omitted, 25. shall," 170, Note.
dunt iin|-!: "it issomel&te,'
onco Intern See, "Isan'himshot <lt>n /

" I saw Lim com-

08, 51. ,

omitted, a.s Subject, in Seeing, irregular use of, 458.

, 520. Si?, Selves, 569.
iini .tions omitted in poetry, 508.
in Adj-.-ctivo i- olon, 310,.311.
e, defined, 239.

supplant.-d by Interroga- Simple. 'J

(
'o-ordinato, 246.
" the oldest man that I 217.
Compound,
know," 497. 1'i-incipal, 248.
"there goes A pair that Subordinate. 249.
only spoil one another," Complex.
Contractor 1, 252.
" who"
difference between see Clause.
and "that," 567, Note. Shakcswan anomalies , in, 561,
Phr;
ject), 123. Shall and mil. distinction be-
Rtfnlt, conjunctions of, 478 tween, 87.
482. introduced as Auxiliaries,
" the " inserted 554.
Rivers, before,
424. originallymeant "I owe,''
omitted before, 523. " I am l>ound." 177.
" blood " " John
Roi/ul, royal 431. says he shall help
" '

for rang," 76, 568. c

77.
if he shall come," 236,
237.

The referenceH arc in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to

the pages.
 INDEX. 339

SJtf, origin of, 569-571. SomeUdnq, "something good,"

ise of, 465. 430.
' ' "
af t might Sometimes, explanation of,
"that," 167.
i- 341.
i in Antecedent, Songster, 197, Note.
' '
would " in consequent, " I was
Sorry, sorry to see it,"
393.
different meanings of, 177, Sort, "what sort of a man,"
438.
" John said ho should
help Spelling, hints on, 266291.
me," 178. influenced by pronuncia-
"It is a shame that I tion, 207,271, 273.
"
should bo insulted, 1 88. influence 1 l>y earlier or
"should 1 see him, later introduction of
Note. wor : -J84.
" he ordered that no old Feminine termina-
frog -ster,
should croak, "157, Note. tion, 37, Note, 197.
" if should have taken
you Stop*.
-eance," 236, Note. Strong Verbs, assimilated to
S?u>rt, "they shouted ap- VV, f.31.

plause/' Subject, 111.

Stfe,"on thisjufe the Tweed," omitt
345. position of, 810.
"he stood this tide of dilK-n-nt forms of, 11.
me," 131. with Vei }>, omitted before
Sideway*, explanation of, 341. "and," 333.
Since, derivation oJ Adverbially used with
Singular (Nouns) with Plural Participle, 135.
(see Agreement}. used with the Infinitive,
86, 337, 338. 400.
Smell, "it tmells of musk," repeated, 513.
'. 514.
So, why changed into 'a in Parei.t:
" to as = 168190.
"pr Subjnnftive (Mood),
'461.
is to," 203. used '
. 188.
joao,-<.
"the r to ho 472.
rrogativcly,

!sof, 189.
" aWas),
t

minute or to," 415. Anoinali'-s ot", o\\

Some, "*m more pudding,"

1 twcn
" U sonu 11
It late," 222. "bMMOb, 107.

ff The reference* are in all OIMM to the Paragraph*, and not to

340 INDEX.

Subjunctive (Mood) in Poetry,

to express a wish, 604.
 INDEX. 341

7TkU(Conj.) omitted in Poetry, Till, once used of space, 376

Time, Adverbial Phrases of,
The, 1 340.
" the sooner the better," 377379.
To,
344, 490, f.71. used before Infinitives.
,
ij it,
"593. 554, 556.
"
during the first and se- used irregularly, 561.
cond centuries," 4 '26. omitted or inserted, 93
" the astro-
"the earth," 96, 386389.
nomer Adams," 4 '21. after Intr. Verbs of feel-
"the classical Addison," ings, 392.
423. after Verbs of the senses,
"the Rupert of debate,"
424. afterVerbs of asking,105.
after
"
"the Thames, Chilterns, than," 889.
1-24. pleasant to see/' 108.

The*, "it is thee I fear," "ho was ordered to come,"

346. 107.
Their, old form of, 669. r to drink," 110.

Them., old form of, 569, 570. "willing to help," 104,

origin of, 571. Note.
" to think that he should
spelt 'em, 569, Note 4.
,
"the tfi world," 419. say so," 111.
" there was " to. tell you the truth
"
, preparatory, ;

once a boy," L'l. "to be sure," 110, 401.

1-1 form of, 569, 570.
" I know not hov
to, vhe-
origin of. ther to," &c., 898.
Case of "the "in "the "I have no object for
sooner the better," 571. which to strive/
" we
Think, thought her fool- \vas the first to
ith,' come," 993.
"where it /ufcbeflt,"32. me your promise
394.
'h,'f day three months,"
'
"be V h to ex-
340. oust
rra of, 569.
" \V1, !" 398.
f.:. V. T K-il In- "I call Qod towitneat,"
flection in -,581.
replaoed by "you," 569, tvo the pleasure to
5. inform v,,,;.
" to all
>
ough conquered," appearanco," 878.
407. a*d tobeooming,"
"M though," >m.
"nothing to do," 109.

gf Th reference are in all cam to the Farmeraph, and not to

342 INDEX.
To-day 379. Verbs, omitted af.er " if,"
,
"
Transitive (Verbs), 55, 58. though," etc., 445.
omitted in poetry, 518,
U. 519.
Verbal Noun, 54.
Karly Dative Inflection, confused with Participle,
126, 128. 585-94.
'ires, 196. counterfeits a Passive
" I was
.
given to Participle, 594."
390.
" a />'.)!.
,
preceded by
un<j.
Milton and preceded by "the," 593.
" used after
Pope, e.g. sung," 76, "went,"
5tb. "fell," &c., but not
after
"
Unless, derivation of, 466. is," "was,"
, 37:35. except in Passive sig-
"
my word," 374. nification, 588,
"
589.
Upioards, upwards of ten Very, your verylouks betray
B65. you," 430.
"years,"
wo used to walk," 11)4,
Use, Void, "widof,"3G6.
Note. Vovxls, assimilated, 553.
i'tu/na, Moro's spelling in, changed in Plurals of
267. Nouns, 3-; 553.
changed in Strong \\-rl>s.
V. See Glossary* "Strong."

Verbs, see Transitive, Strong, W.

Weak, kc.
old. conjugated, 573, 583. /', he " waited an hour,"
modern, conjugated, 584. 131.
" If I ions
agreement of, SL-- Was, you," 168,Nctc.
>n' /,/. Wast, 581.
" he came the
Negative and Interroga- Way, '
shortest
tivo f.rmof, 77, 381.' l."d.

emphatic form of, 77. Weai-\ Glossary, and

:
n^r fooling, hearing,
. 581.
&c.,6U Week, month, &c., "this day
of Motion, used Passively, 340.
08L Well, as Conjunctional Ad-
of asking, commanding, ,
verb, 418.
&c., followed by "to," Were, Subjunctive, 168, note.
105.
" if he were
to," 1-!'.
made from Nouns, 532. IT. ,- ,for " wa-it,"681.
Plural for Singular, 22 Wert, anomalous, but now
88, 334339. correct, 582.

The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, ami

the pages.
 INDEX. 343

What, how used Relatively, Wttling, "willing to wound

27-8. and yet afraid to
used in d> jx?ndent ques- strike/' 104, note.
" I
, 2. Wis, vri$," 561.
" what with what with," Wit, "to wit "401.
With and mih, 420.
" not Imt what he meant "
Without, for unless," 470.
mischief," 451. Wortii, followed by Object,
<*a,"218. 129.
" when different
When, walking," 406. Would, meanings of,
Wh#u ;ntod by 1778.
" whei-o used in
from," 883. " Consequent
" from where I" 454. " should
Where, in Antece-
1 know not where to dent, 237.
begin," 398. ='usod to," 179.
t-to,
for v, hither, 382. "Othat he twncW,"185,
r, once Interro Note.
463. after " " be-
prayed,"
used as Co-ord. Conjunc- ht," &c., 167, 185,
tion.
"
modern "
"
as in I wish he ironlil conie."
Shakespeare, 206. 465.
"
ive no money with II'-
thought lie would
vhich to buy food," take a walk," 173.
MB, use
i
of for
" which
a," 218. "should," 170, Note.
" while 408, 558.
, walking," 406. ,

r, supplanted by
"Wla:-. -t..."3S4.
Who, how used Relatively, 27.
used in dependent quos- Y.
. 28.
three centuries later than y, changed in passing from
"whose" as a Rda- -. to I'lur., 287.
r
Ye, o .
i)9.
'
ho that," 609. once otily used as Sub-
Whom, "*h<m say ye that I
am?" 346. You, substituted forfAow,569,
tr.'.v. M OonfanottoMl Ad- note 5.
,38.
Toitr, o

vocn, 87. "thl

"Ir. ..ill will- 436.
) !.;'.:'

M.I | H -a. in all MM to the Paragraphs, and not to

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