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Jiri Van den4HE ,YCURGUS #UP )NTRODUCTION
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP G REPRESENTS ONE OF THE OUTSTANDING
! 2OMAN ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ANCIENT GLASS INDUSTRY 4HIS LATE 2OMAN
CUT GLASS VESSEL IS EXTRAORDINARY IN SEVERAL RESPECTS RSTLY IN
.ANOTECHNOLOGY THE METHOD OF FABRICATION AND THE EXCEPTIONAL WORKMANSHIP
INVOLVED AND SECONDLY IN TERMS OF THE UNUSUAL OPTICAL EFFECTS
DISPLAYED BY THE GLASS
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP IS ONE OF A CLASS OF 2OMAN VESSELS KNOWN
)AN &REESTONE .IGEL -EEKS AS CAGE CUPS OR DIATRETA WHERE THE DECORATION IS IN OPENWORK
-ARGARET 3AX AND #ATHERINE (IGGITT WHICH STANDS PROUD FROM THE BODY OF THE VESSEL TO WHICH IT IS
LINKED BY SHANKS OR BRIDGES 4YPICALLY THESE OPENWORK CAGES
#ARDIFF 3CHOOL OF (ISTORY AND !RCHAEOLOGY #ARDIFF COMPRISE A LATTICE OF LINKED CIRCLES BUT A SMALL NUMBER HAVE
5NIVERSITY #ARDIFF #& %5 7ALES 5+ GURATIVE DESIGNS ALTHOUGH NONE OF THESE IS AS ELABORATE OR
$EPARTMENT OF #ONSERVATION $OCUMENTATION AND AS WELL PRESERVED AS THE ,YCURGUS #UP #AGE CUPS ARE GENERALLY
3CIENCE 4HE "RITISH -USEUM ,ONDON 7#" $' 5+ DATED TO THE FOURTH CENTURY !$ AND HAVE BEEN FOUND ACROSS
THE 2OMAN %MPIRE BUT THE NUMBER RECOVERED IS SMALL AND
PROBABLY ONLY IN THE REGION OF
EXAMPLES ARE KNOWN ;
= 4HEY ARE AMONG THE MOST TECHNICALLY SOPHISTICATED GLASS
OBJECTS PRODUCED BEFORE THE MODERN ERA
4HE OPENWORK DECORATION OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP COMPRISES
A MYTHOLOGICAL FRIEZE DEPICTING THE LEGEND OF +ING ,YCURGUS
FROM THE SIXTH BOOK OF (OMERS )LIAD 4HE GURES CARVED IN
DEEP RELIEF SHOW THE TRIUMPH OF $IONYSUS OVER ,YCURGUS
(OWEVER IT IS NOT ONLY THE CUT
WORK DESIGN OF THE #UP THAT
SHOWS THE HIGH LEVELS OF SKILL INVOLVED IN ITS PRODUCTION 4HE
GLASS OF THE CUP IS DICHROIC IN DIRECT LIGHT IT RESEMBLES JADE
WITH AN OPAQUE GREENISH
YELLOW TONE BUT WHEN LIGHT SHINES
THROUGH THE GLASS TRANSMITTED LIGHT IT TURNS TO A TRANSLUCENT
RUBY COLOUR &IG A AND B
4HE CUP WAS ACQUIRED BY THE "RITISH -USEUM FROM ,ORD
2OTHSCHILD IN WITH THE AID OF A CONTRIBUTION FROM THE
.ATIONAL !RT #OLLECTION &UND ;= 4HE MYTHOLOGICAL SCENES ON
THE CUP DEPICT THE DEATH OF ,YCURGUS +ING OF THE %DONI IN
4HRACE AT THE HANDS OF $IONYSUS AND HIS FOLLOWERS ! MAN OF
VIOLENT TEMPER ,YCURGUS ATTACKED $IONYSUS AND ONE OF HIS
A B
&IGURE A AND B
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP IN REECTED A AND TRANSMITTED B
LIGHT 3CENE SHOWING ,YCURGUS BEING ENMESHED BY !MBROSIA NOW
TRANSFORMED INTO A VINE
SHOOT $EPARTMENT OF 0REHISTORY AND %UROPE
4HE "RITISH -USEUM (EIGHT CM WITH MODERN METAL MOUNTS
DIAMETER CM 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE "RITISH -USEUM
'OLD "ULLETIN
&IGURE
MAENADS !MBROSIA !MBROSIA CALLED OUT TO -OTHER %ARTH
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP SCENE SHOWING $IONYSUS INSTRUCTING HIS
FOLLOWERS TO DESTROY ,YCURGUS 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE "RITISH -USEUM WHO TRANSFORMED HER INTO A VINE 3HE THEN COILED HERSELF
ABOUT THE KING AND HELD HIM CAPTIVE 4HE CUP SHOWS THIS
MOMENT WHEN ,YCURGUS IS ENMESHED IN VINES BY THE
METAMORPHOSING NYMPH !MBROSIA WHILE $IONYSUS WITH HIS
THYRSOS AND PANTHER &IG A 0AN AND A SATYR TORMENT HIM FOR
HIS EVIL BEHAVIOUR )T HAS BEEN THOUGHT THAT THE THEME OF THIS
MYTH
THE TRIUMPH OF $IONYSUS OVER ,YCURGUS
MIGHT HAVE
BEEN CHOSEN TO REFER TO A CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL EVENT THE
DEFEAT OF THE EMPEROR ,ICINIUS REIGNED !$
BY
#ONSTANTINE IN !$
.O PRECISE PARALLELS OF THIS DEPICTION OF THE MYTH EXIST BUT
A NUMBER OF VERSIONS OF $IONYSIAC THEME RELATED ARTISTICALLY
OR ICONOGRAPHICALLY TO THE #UP ARE KNOWN IN MOSAIC
DECORATION SCULPTURE COINS AND OTHER DECORATED VESSELS ;=
!CCORDING TO (ARDEN THE DEPICTIONS THAT ARE PERHAPS THE
CLOSEST IN TERMS OF THE DRAMA OF THE SCENE ARE THE ,YCURGUS
AND !MBROSIA GROUP IN THE CENTRE OF THE FRIEZE ON THE ND
CENTURY "ORGHESE SARCOPHAGUS NOW IN THE 6ILLA 4AVERNA AT
&RASCATI AND THE MOSAIC DECORATION IN THE APSE OF THE
TRICLINIUM OF THE TH CENTURY 6ILLA 2OMANA DEL #ASALE AT 0IAZZA
!RMERINA IN 3ICILY
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP IS RST MENTIONED IN PRINT IN AND IS
THOUGHT TO HAVE BEEN ACQUIRED BY THE 2OTHSCHILD FAMILY
SHORTLY AFTERWARDS BUT THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE CUP IS UNKNOWN
AS IS THE ND SPOT ; = (OWEVER NO DETAILED STUDY OF THE
#UP WAS UNDERTAKEN UNTIL WHEN IT WAS EXAMINED AT THE
REQUEST OF ,ORD 2OTHSCHILD BY (ARDEN AND 4OYNBEE RESULTING
&IGURE A AND B IN THEIR DENITIVE ARTICLE IN !RCHAEOLOGIA IN "ECAUSE OF
&RAGMENT OF DIATRETUM H CM D CM IN REECTED A THE HIGHLY UNUSUAL COLOUR AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PIECE
AND TRANSMITTED B LIGHT $EPARTMENT OF 'REEK AND 2OMAN !NTIQUITIES
THERE WAS INITIALLY SOME DEBATE OVER WHETHER THE #UP WAS
4HE "RITISH -USEUM 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE "RITISH -USEUM
INDEED GLASS AS IT SEEMED IMPOSSIBLE WITH THE TECHNICAL
KNOWLEDGE OF ANCIENT GLASS
WORKING AT THE TIME TO PRODUCE
SUCH AN EFFECT (OWEVER ALTHOUGH NOTING THAT IT EXHIBITED A
NUMBER OF CURIOUS PHENOMENA $R ' & #LARINGBULL +EEPER
OF THE $EPARTMENT OF -INERALOGY IN THE "RITISH -USEUM
.ATURAL (ISTORY CONCLUDED THAT IT WAS MADE OF GLASS RATHER
THAN OPAL OR JADE ;= A RESULT THAT WAS LATER CONRMED IN
BY 8
RAY DIFFRACTION ;=
!LTHOUGH NOW LOST DUE TO BREAKAGE AT SOME POINT IN THE
PAST THE CUP MUST ORIGINALLY HAVE HAD AN OPENWORK BASE AND
MAY HAVE HAD A TALLER RIM ;= 4HE CURRENT SILVER
GILT FOOT WITH
A OPEN
WORK VINE LEAVES AND THE RIM MOUNT OF LEAF ORNAMENT
ARE THOUGHT TO DATE TO THE EIGHTEENTH OR NINETEENTH CENTURIES
/N STYLISTIC GROUNDS AND ALSO FROM THE DATES OF COMPARATIVE
PIECES SOME OF WHICH ARE ASSOCIATED WITH MORE EASILY DATED
OBJECTS THE #UP HAS BEEN DATED TO THE TH CENTURY !$
(ARDEN AND 4OYNBEE SUGGESTED THAT IT IS PROBABLY OF )TALIAN
MANUFACTURE ALTHOUGH THEY CONSIDERED AN !LEXANDRIAN ORIGIN
ALSO POSSIBLE
4HE COLOUR OF THE #UP
B
4HE MOST REMARKABLE ASPECT OF THE #UP IS ITS COLOUR /NLY A
HANDFUL OF OTHER ANCIENT GLASSES ALL OF THEM 2OMAN CHANGE
'OLD "ULLETIN
COLOUR THIS WAY ;= SEVERAL OF THESE ARE DIATRETA WITH THE FORMATION OF MINUTE SUBMICROSCOPIC CRYSTALS OR COLLOIDS OF
MORE TYPICAL GEOMETRIC DECORATION BUT TEND TO SHOW A LESS THE METALS #OLLOIDAL SYSTEMS CAN GIVE RISE TO LIGHT SCATTERING
SPECTACULAR COLOUR CHANGE SEE &IG A AND B )T IS THEREFORE PHENOMENA THAT RESULT IN DICHROIC EFFECTS )T WAS SUGGESTED
LIKELY THAT THE ,YCURGUS #UP WAS A SPECIAL COMMISSION THAT BOTH THE GOLD AND SILVER CONTRIBUTED TO THE COLOUR THE
PRODUCED BY A WORKSHOP WHICH ALREADY MADE HIGHLY GOLD COMPONENT BEING MAINLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE REDDISH
SPECIALISED AND EXPENSIVE GLASS PRODUCTS TRANSMISSION AND THE SILVER FOR THE GREENISH REECTION
7HEN THE GLASS RST CAME TO SCHOLARLY ATTENTION IN THE 4HE WORK OF "RILL AND '%# SUGGESTED THAT GLASS CONTAINING
S THE BASE WHICH HAD ITSELF BEEN ADDED SOMETIME IN MINUTE AMOUNTS OF GOLD AND SILVER HAD BEEN HEAT TREATED
THE EARLY MODERN PERIOD TO COVER OR REPAIR EARLIER DAMAGE USING SUITABLE REDUCING AGENTS TO PRODUCE COLLOIDAL METALLIC
WAS REMOVED AND SOME LOOSE GLASS FRAGMENTS FROM THE PARTICLES WITHIN THE GLASS WHICH RESULTED IN THE GREEN
RED
ORIGINAL BASE WERE FOUND ONE SHOWING SIGNS OF DECORATION DICHROIC EFFECTS 4HE COLOURS PRODUCED IN SUCH A PROCESS
BUT THE OTHER TWO BEING AMORPHOUS &OLLOWING PRELIMINARY WOULD HAVE DEPENDED UPON THE PRECISE COLLOIDAL CONCENTRATION
STUDY AT THE "RITISH -USEUM INCLUDING QUALITATIVE AND THE PARTICLE DIAMETER AND ARE HIGHLY DEPENDENT ON THE
SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS THE "RITISH -USEUM SENT A SAMPLE IN PROPORTIONS AND OXIDATION STATES OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS THE
TO THE RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF THE 'ENERAL %LECTRIC TIME AND TEMPERATURE OF HEATING AND PROBABLY THE
#OMPANY ,TD '%# AT 7EMBLEY FOR MORE DETAILED MICRO
ATMOSPHERE DURING HEATING ;=
ANALYSIS TO TRY TO DETERMINE THE COLORANT ;= %VEN AT THIS 5SING THE THEN AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY "RILL WAS UNABLE TO
STAGE "3 #OOPER AT '%# NOTED THAT THE PRESENCE OF TRACE DEMONSTRATE UNEQUIVOCALLY THE PRESENCE OF METALLIC PARTICLES
QUANTITIES OF GOLD SILVER AND OTHER ELEMENTS IN THE GLASS 4HE RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SILVER AND GOLD TO THE COLOURANT
MIGHT BE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COMPLEX COLOUR AND SCATTERING EFFECT AND WHETHER THE INFERRED METAL COLLOIDS WERE A GOLD
EFFECTS OF THE GLASS AND SUGGESTS THAT THE COLOUR MAY ARISE SILVER ALLOY OR SEPARATE PARTICLES OF SILVER AND GOLD WERE
FROM A COMBINATION OF THE PHYSICAL OPTICAL COLOURATION OF UNCLEAR 4HEREFORE IN THE LATE S A FURTHER SMALL FRAGMENT
COLLOIDAL METAL IN THE GLASS PLUS POSSIBLY SOME PIGMENTATION OF THE #UP WAS SUBJECTED TO EXAMINATION BY "ARBER AND
FROM METAL COMBINATIONS ;= &REESTONE ;= !NALYTICAL TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
#HEMICAL ANALYSIS AT '%# SHOWED THE GLASS TO BE OF THE REVEALED THE PRESENCE OF MINUTE PARTICLES OF METAL TYPICALLY
SODA
LIME
SILICA TYPE SIMILAR TO MOST OTHER 2OMAN GLASS AND
NM IN DIAMETER SEE &IG 8
RAY ANALYSIS SHOWED THAT
TO MODERN WINDOW AND BOTTLE GLASS ;= CONTAINING IN THESE NANOPARTICLES ARE SILVER
GOLD ALLOY WITH A RATIO OF SILVER
ADDITION ABOUT OF MANGANESE ; = )N ADDITION A TO GOLD OF ABOUT CONTAINING IN ADDITION ABOUT
NUMBER OF TRACE ELEMENTS INCLUDING SILVER AND GOLD MAKE UP COPPER 4HE IDENTICATION OF SILVER
GOLD ALLOY PARTICLES CONRMS
THE NAL )T WAS FURTHER SUGGESTED THAT THE UNIQUE OPTICAL THE EARLIER INFERENCE THAT THE DICHROIC EFFECT IS CAUSED BY
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GLASS MIGHT BE CONNECTED WITH THE COLLOIDAL METAL )N ADDITION TO THESE METALLIC PARTICLES THE
PRESENCE IN THE GLASS OF COLLOIDAL GOLD )T WAS ALSO NOTED THAT GLASS WAS SHOWN TO CONTAIN NUMEROUS SMALL PARTICLES
TO OBTAIN THE COLOURING CONSTITUENTS IN THE STATE NECESSARY NM THAT WERE SHOWN TO BE PARTICLES OF SODIUM CHLORIDE SEE
TO GIVE THE REMARKABLE GLASS ITS SPECIAL QUALITIES A CRITICAL &IG THE CHLORINE PROBABLY DERIVED FROM THE MINERAL SALTS
COMBINATION OF CONDITIONS WAS REQUIRED DURING MANUFACTURE USED TO SUPPLY THE ALKALI DURING THE GLASS MANUFACTURE ;=
4HESE WOULD BE ASSOCIATED WITH THE COMPOSITION INCLUDING /F INTEREST IS THE HIGH GOLD TO SILVER RATIO OF THE ALLOY
THE PRESENCE OF MINOR CONSTITUENTS TIME AND TEMPERATURE OF PARTICLES IN THE GLASS C RELATIVE TO THE GOLDSILVER !U!G
FOUNDING CHEMICAL CONDITIONS DURING FOUNDING AND RATIO IN THE GLASS AS A WHOLE C 4HIS IS A REECTION OF THE
SUBSEQUENT HEAT TREATMENT )T IS PERHAPS NOT ALTOGETHER RELATIVE REDUCTION POTENTIALS OF !G AND !U AND INDICATES THAT
SURPRISING THAT NO OTHER EXAMPLE OF A GLASS HAVING SUCH A SUBSTANTIAL PROPORTION OF THE SILVER REMAINED DISSOLVED IN
UNUSUAL PROPERTIES HAS COME TO LIGHT ;= .OTE THAT AT THAT THE SILICATE MATRIX AFTER PRECIPITATION OF THE ALLOY PARTICLES
TIME RESEARCHERS WERE UNAWARE OF THE HANDFUL OF OTHER 2ECENT WORK BY 7AGNER AND CO
WORKERS INDICATES THAT GOLD
EXAMPLES OF 2OMAN DICHROIC GLASS THAT HAVE SINCE BEEN DISSOLVES IN GLASS IN THE MONOVALENT FORM ;= 4HE REDUCTION
RECOGNISED OF PREVIOUSLY DISSOLVED SILVER AND GOLD DURING HEAT
TREATMENT
)N THE CONTINUING QUEST TO UNDERSTAND THE REMARKABLE OF THE GLASS WILL HAVE CAUSED THE NE DISPERSION OF SILVER
GOLD
COLOUR EFFECT IN A SAMPLE WAS SENT TO $R 2OBERT "RILL OF NANOPARTICLES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLOUR ! KEY AGENT LIKELY TO
THE #ORNING -USEUM OF 'LASS ALONG WITH A SAMPLE OF THE HAVE BEEN INVOLVED IN THE REDOX REACTION THAT REDUCED THE
DIATRETUM SHOWN IN &IG A AND B ;= 7ORK CARRIED OUT BY SILVER AND GOLD IS THE POLYVALENT ELEMENT ANTIMONY WHICH IS
"RILL LATTERLY IN COLLABORATION WITH '%# ON THE ,YCURGUS #UP PRESENT IN THE GLASS AT AROUND !NTIMONY WAS COMMONLY
AND DIATRETUM SAMPLES AND ON ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF DICHROIC ADDED TO GLASS IN THE 2OMAN PERIOD AS BOTH AN OXIDISING
GLASS AS WELL AS ON EXPERIMENTAL GLASS MELTS CONRMED THAT AGENT DECOLOURANT AND AS AN OPACIER
THE DICHROISM WAS LINKED TO THE PRESENCE OF MINUTE AMOUNTS 4HE NE PARTICLES OF SODIUM CHLORIDE OBSERVED G ARE
OF GOLD ABOUT PPM AND SILVER ABOUT PPM IN THE LIKELY TO HAVE EXSOLVED FROM THE GLASS DURING THE HEAT
GLASS ; = (OWEVER SIMPLY ADDING TRACES OF GOLD AND TREATMENT THAT CAUSED THE CRYSTALLISATION OF THE ALLOY PARTICLES
SILVER TO GLASS WOULD NOT PRODUCE THESE UNIQUE OPTICAL BUT AS THEY ARE COLOURLESS AND THEIR REFRACTIVE INDEX CLOSE TO
PROPERTIES AND THE CRITICAL FACTOR WAS BELIEVED TO BE TO BE THE THAT OF SODA
LIME
SILICA GLASS THEIR DIRECT CONTRIBUTION TO THE
'OLD "ULLETIN
&IGURE &IGURE A AND B
4RANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 4%- IMAGE OF A SILVER
GOLD ALLOY 'LASS BLANK MADE AT THE #ORNING 'LASSWORKS AS A REPLICA OF THE BLANK
PARTICLE WITHIN THE GLASS OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP ;= 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE FOR THE ,YCURGUS #UP IN REECTED A AND TRANSMITTED B LIGHT 4HE
"RITISH -USEUM 4RUSTEES OF THE "RITISH -USEUM
A
&IGURE
4%- IMAGE OF SODIUM CHLORIDE PARTICLES WITHIN THE GLASS OF THE ,YCURGUS
#UP ;= 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE "RITISH -USEUM
B
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR SUCH VESSELS ;= 4HEY ALSO
SUGGEST THAT THE HOLLOWS AND BORINGS BEHIND THE GURES ON
THE INTERIOR OF THE CUP DISCUSSED BELOW WOULD ALSO ARGUE
AGAINST THE DECORATED #UP HAVING BEEN MOULD BLOWN 4HE
#ORNING 'LASSWORKS PRODUCED A REPLICA OF THE BLANK IN THE
S AND THIS GIVES AN IMPRESSION OF THE NATURE OF THE
ORIGINAL BLANK WHICH MUST HAVE HAD WALLS ABOUT MM THICK
SEE &IG A AND B
COLOUR OF THE GLASS IS LIKELY TO HAVE BEEN MINIMAL (OWEVER ! NUMBER OF REPLICATION STUDIES HAVE BEEN BASED ON THIS
HALIDE ADDITIONS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO PROMOTE THE DEVELOPMENT APPROACH AND FOLLOWING A DETAILED EXAMINATION OF THE SURFACE
OF COLOUR IN GOLD RUBY GLASSES ;= SO IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE OF THE #UP USING LOW POWER MICROSCOPY 3COTT SUGGESTED IN
SODIUM CHLORIDE IN THE GLASS INDIRECTLY CONTRIBUTED TO ITS THAT THE ,YCURGUS #UP HAD BEEN CUT AND POLISHED USING
COLOUR ROTARY WHEELS RANGING FROM TO MM IN DIAMETER ; =
(OWEVER MORE RECENTLY ,IERKE HAS SUGGESTED THAT MANY
CURRENT ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT EARLY GLASS WORKING TECHNIQUES
&ABRICATION OF THE #UP ARE INCORRECT )N PARTICULAR SHE HAS SUGGESTED THAT DIATRETA
SUCH AS THE ,YCURGUS #UP WERE NOT FORMED BY COLD CUTTING OF
4HE #UP AND OTHER CUT CAGE VESSELS ARE GENERALLY CONSIDERED GLASS BLANKS BUT BY MOULDING ; =
TO HAVE BEEN MADE BY CUTTING AND GRINDING THE OPEN WORK 4HIS DEBATE AND RECENT RESEARCH AT THE "RITISH -USEUM ON
DECORATION OUT OF A THICK WALLED BLANK OF CAST OR BLOWN GLASS THE CARVING TECHNIQUES OF EARLY SEMI PRECIOUS STONES PROMPTED
LEAVING SMALL GLASS BRIDGES LINKING THE CUTWORK TO THE VESSEL AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CUTTING TECHNIQUE OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP
;= )T IS BELIEVED THAT GLASS MAKERS VITREARII WHO MADE AT THE -USEUM 4HE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY ARE SUMMARISED HERE
BLANKS WERE DIFFERENT FROM THE GLASS CUTTERS DIATRETARII WHO BUT WILL BE PUBLISHED IN FULL ELSEWHERE 4HE FRAGMENT OF
DECORATED AND NISHED THEM )N THEIR ARTICLE (ARDEN AND OPENWORK VINE STEM FOUND WHEN THE BASE OF THE #UP WAS
4OYNBEE DISMISS THE VIEW THAT THE CAGE WAS CARVED FROM A REMOVED WAS EXAMINED FOR TRACES OF TOOL MARKS WITH A BINOCULAR
SEPARATE BLANK AND LATER JOINED TO THE INNER VESSEL AND CITE MICROSCOPE SEE &IG AND A SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
&REMERSDORFS ARTICLE OF AS GIVING THE BEST ACCOUNT OF 4HE METHODOLOGY ADOPTED WAS BASED ON THAT ORIGINALLY
'OLD "ULLETIN
&IGURE
DEVELOPED BY 3AX -EEKS AND #OLLON TO INVESTIGATE METHODS OF
-ACROSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE CUT
WORK FRAGMENT FROM THE ,YCURGUS
#UP IN REECTED LIGHT 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE "RITISH -USEUM STONE ENGRAVING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD ;=
)N THE ANCIENT #LASSICAL WORLD DECORATIVE GEMSTONES OF
THIS TYPE WOULD HAVE USUALLY BEEN WORKED USING ROTARY
METHODS OF ABRASION #OPPER BRONZE OR IRON WHEELS WOULD
HAVE BEEN ATTACHED TO THE END OF A SPINDLE MOUNTED ON A
LATHE AND ROTATED WITH A BOW DRILL $RILLS BOTH SOLID AND
TUBULAR AS WELL AS NON
ROTARY SAWS AND LES WERE ALSO USED
-ETAL TOOLS ARE TOO SOFT TO HAVE WORKING SURFACES THEMSELVES
4HEY WOULD HAVE BEEN CHARGED WITH ABRASIVE SLURRY MADE BY
MIXING A NE
GRAINED ABRASIVE SAND SUCH AS QUARTZ OR EMERY
CORUNDUM WITH WATER OR OIL 4HESE TOOLS WERE THEN APPLIED
TO WEAR AWAY OR CUT THE STONE ;= 0LINY INDICATES THAT
2OMAN LAPIDARIES USED SLIVERS OF DIAMOND TO CUT HARD STONES
;= BUT IT SEEMS LIKELY THAT DIAMOND ABRASIVE WOULD HAVE
ONLY OCCASIONALLY BEEN AVAILABLE
%XAMINATION OF THE OPEN
WORK GLASS FRAGMENT SHOWED THAT
&IGURE FAINT TOOL MARKS REMAIN ON MOST OF THE SURFACES 4HE TOOL
"ACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGE TAKEN IN THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICRO
MARKS PROVIDE EXTENSIVE EVIDENCE FOR MECHANICAL ABRASION
SCOPE OF THE CUT
WORK FRAGMENT FROM THE ,YCURGUS #UP SHOWING THE
AND POLISHING NOT ONLY ON THE OUTER SURFACE BUT ALSO ON THE
BACK SURFACE OF THE FRAGMENT AND THE CRESCENT
SHAPED CUTS ON THE
SIDE SUGGESTIVE OF ROTARY ABRASION AND POLISHING 4HE 4RUSTEES OF THE SIDES AND UNDERNEATH THE FRAGMENT 4HE SIDES OF CRESCENT
"RITISH -USEUM SHAPED CUTS THROUGH THE GLASS SUGGEST THE USE OF ROTARY
ABRASION AND POLISHING SEE &IG )N CONTRAST THE FRONT AND
THE BACK OF THE OPEN WORK APPEAR TO HAVE BEEN WORKED WITH
NON
ROTARY LES AND ABRASIVES 4HE EVIDENCE FOR THE MECHANICAL
REMOVAL OF GLASS FROM THE UNDERCUT BACK AREA OF THE FRAGMENT
SUGGESTS THAT CUTTING AND GRINDING RATHER THAN MOULDING OF
SOFT GLASS WAS THE METHOD OF PRODUCING THE LATTICE DESIGN
SEE &IG 4HE VERY HIGHLY POLISHED SURFACES OF THE FRAGMENT
ONCE THOUGHT TO HAVE BEEN RE POLISHED SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN
PRODUCED PURELY BY MECHANICAL MEANS AS GROUPS OF REGULAR
NE PARALLEL STRIATIONS CAN BE SEEN
4HE SKILL OF THE CRAFTSMAN CONSISTED NOT ONLY IN THE CUTTING
OF SUCH AN INTRICATE DESIGN IN SUCH A FRAGILE MATERIAL BUT ALSO
IN THE DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF THE GURES AND THE ADVANTAGE
TAKEN OF THE COLOUR EFFECTS &OR EXAMPLE THE BODY OF ,YCURGUS
IS CUT FROM AN AREA OF THE GLASS WHICH IS A SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT
&IGURE COLOUR FROM THE REST AS SHOWN IN GS A B IT IS MORE VIOLET
"ACKSCATTERED ELECTRON IMAGE TAKEN IN THE SCANNING ELECTRON MICRO
IN TRANSMITTED LIGHT AND MORE YELLOW IN REECTION )N ADDITION
SCOPE OF THE CUT
WORK FRAGMENT FROM THE ,YCURGUS #UP SHOWING COARSE THE GLASS INSIDE THE #UP AND BEHIND THE BODIES OF THE GURES
AND NE ABRASION STRIATIONS ON THE BACK OF THE FRAGMENT 4HE 4RUSTEES WHICH ARE NOT COMPLETELY UNDERCUT HAS BEEN HOLLOWED OR
OF THE "RITISH -USEUM
BORED OUT 4HIS WOULD HAVE ALLOWED SIMILAR AMOUNTS OF LIGHT
TO PASS THROUGH THE BODIES AND THE ADJACENT WALLS OF THE
VESSEL SO THAT THE COLOUR CHANGE WAS SEEN TO MAXIMUM
ADVANTAGE ;=
4HE CONTEXT OF THE #UP
"EFORE THE RST CENTURY "# GLASS HAD BEEN A RELATIVELY
UNCOMMON MATERIAL AND GLASS VESSELS WERE MADE IN STRONG
AND OFTEN OPAQUE COLOURS &ROM THE LATE RST CENTURY "#
HOWEVER THE NEW TECHNIQUE OF GLASS BLOWING CAUSED A
REVOLUTION COLOURLESS OR WEAK BLUE GREEN VESSELS BECAME
WIDELY USED OVER A MUCH WIDER CROSS SECTION OF SOCIETY 4HE
MATURE 2OMAN GLASS INDUSTRY OPERATED ON A MASSIVE SCALE
'OLD "ULLETIN
'LASS WAS MADE IN %GYPT AND 0ALESTINE IN LARGE TANK FURNACES THE 2OMAN PERIOD THE WORKSHOPS WHICH PRODUCED THE BASE
WHICH MELTED MANY TONNES OF SAND AND SODA AT A TIME AND UNCOLOURED GLASS THOSE THAT COLOURED THE GLASS AND THOSE
WAS DISTRIBUTED AS RAW LUMPS ACROSS THE %MPIRE WHERE IT COULD THAT CARRIED OUT THE CUTTING WERE SEPARATE #OLOURED OPAQUE
BE REMELTED AND MADE INTO ARTEFACTS !N ILLUSTRATION OF THE GLASSES WERE WIDELY USED IN MOSAICS AT THIS TIME AND IT IS LIKELY
SCALE OF GLASSMAKING IS PROVIDED BY THE "ATHS OF #ARACELLA A THAT THEY WERE PRODUCED BY A LIMITED NUMBER OF GLASS
MAJOR PUBLIC BUILDING DATING TO THE EARLY THIRD CENTURY !$ WORKSHOPS WHICH SPECIALISED IN THE COLOURING PROCESS THEN
WHICH USED SOME TONNES OF GLASS IN WALL AND VAULT SOLD ON TO MOSAICISTS IN THE FORM OF CAKES WHICH COULD BE
MOSAICS AND WINDOWS ; = BROKEN UP INTO THE DESIRED SIZE 7E CAN SPECULATE THAT A
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP AND THE RELATED VESSELS MUST BE SEEN IN COLOURING WORKSHOP PRODUCED ONE OR MORE BATCHES OF GLASS
THE CONTEXT OF SUCH A LONG
LIVED LARGE
SCALE PRODUCTION OF COLOURED WITH GOLD AND SILVER RECOGNISED THEIR IMPORTANCE
GLASS 4HE SMALL NUMBER OF CAGE CUPS REPRESENTS A MINUTE AND SOLD THEM ON TO LAPIDARY SHOPS FOR CUTTING PERHAPS IN
FRACTION OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF GLASS IN CIRCULATION AT THE TIME THE FORM OF BLANKS RESEMBLING THAT IN &IGS A AND B !S SOME
AND THOSE SHOWING SO
CALLED DICHROIC COLOUR CHANGES ARE A OTHER CAGE CUPS ARE ALSO COLOURED OR HAVE COLOURED CAGES IN
SMALL FRACTION OF THIS GROUP ! LIMITED NUMBER OF OTHER BLUES GREENS AND YELLOWS IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE WORKSHOP
2OMAN
PERIOD GLASSES APPEAR TO HAVE BEEN COLOURED BY GOLD THAT MADE THE ,YCURGUS GLASS WAS ALSO SUPPLYING GLASS TO THE
EG CERTAIN PINKS IN OPUS SECTILE PANELS FROM THE -EDITERRANEAN LAPIDARIES WHO CUT THESE
REGION %VEN THE COLOURS OF THE OTHER DICHROIC GLASSES DO NOT )T IS CLEAR THAT THE COLOURING OF GLASS USING GOLD AND SILVER
REPLICATE THE ,YCURGUS EFFECT EXACTLY &OR EXAMPLE THE CAGE WAS FAR FROM ROUTINE AND SOMETHING OF A HIT AND MISS AFFAIR
CUP FRAGMENT SHOWN IN GURE A AND B IS DICHROIC FROM 4HERE WERE A LARGE NUMBER OF FACTORS TO CONTROL INCLUDING
OPALESCENT BUFF ON THE SURFACE TO A CLEAR BROWN IN TRANSMITTED THE OVERALL CONCENTRATION OF THE METALS THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND
LIGHT 4HIS VESSEL HAS A HIGH SILVER CONTENT PPM AND THE TIME AND TEMPERATURE AT WHICH THE GLASS WAS HEAT
TREATED
ONLY PPM GOLD ;= SO THAT THE COLOURANT EFFECT IS LIKELY TO ;= )T SEEMS THAT NOT EVEN THE ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE
BE DUE TO NANOPARTICLES THAT ARE LARGELY SILVER CONCENTRATIONS OF GOLD AND SILVER WERE EASILY CONTROLLED LET
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP IS THEREFORE MADE OF A VERY RARE GLASS ALONE THE DISTRIBUTION AND GROWTH OF PARTICLES 'OLD AND SILVER
AND THIS GLASS SEEMS TO HAVE BEEN SAVED FOR A VERY RARE TYPE OF CONCENTRATIONS VARY WIDELY BETWEEN THE FEW EXAMPLES KNOWN
VESSEL A GURATIVE CAGE CUP 4HE EXECUTION OF THE OPENWORK ;= AND EVEN THE COLOUR OF THE ,YCURGUS BLANK WAS NOT
WAS CARRIED OUT IN A VERY SKILFUL MANNER AND MUST SURELY HAVE HOMOGENEOUS SEE ABOVE )T IS QUITE LIKELY THAT THE
BEEN THE WORK OF A MASTER LAPIDARY %VEN USING MODERN POWER
GLASSMAKERS WERE UNAWARE THAT GOLD WAS THE CRITICAL COLOURANT
DRIVEN TOOLS THIS TYPE OF VESSEL TAKES A GREAT DEAL OF TIME TO AS MOST OF THESE GLASSES ARE RICHER IN SILVER 4O INTRODUCE GOLD
COMPLETE ;
= 5NLIKE THE MAJORITY OF GLASS OF ITS TIME THE AS A COMPONENT OF A GOLD
SILVER ALLOY ELECTRUM WOULD MAKE
#UP WITH ITS UNIQUE COLOUR AND DECORATION MUST HAVE BEEN SENSE AS IT WOULD HAVE ALLOWED A MORE EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF
HIGHLY VALUED AND INTENDED FOR SOME SPECIAL PURPOSE THE GOLD IN SOLUTION 4HE ADDITION OF METALS OR METAL OXIDES TO
2EMARKABLY 7HITEHOUSE HAS DRAWN ATTENTION TO A REFERENCE IN COLOUR GLASS WAS FAMILIAR TO 2OMAN GLASSMAKERS FOR EXAMPLE
THE ANCIENT LITERATURE WHICH MIGHT WELL DESCRIBE THE #UP OR A OPAQUE RED AND BROWN GLASSES WERE PRODUCED BY THE ADDITION
SIMILAR VESSEL ;= )N HIS LIFE OF THE THIRD CENTURY PRETENDER OF COPPER &REESTONE ET AL HAVE SPECULATED THAT THE OXIDISED
3ATURNINUS 6OPISCUS WHO WROTE IN THE EARLY FOURTH CENTURY BY
PRODUCTS OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES DROSS SLAG ETC
!$ REPORTS A LETTER SUPPOSEDLY WRITTEN BY (ADRIAN TO HIS WERE SOMETIMES ACQUIRED TO COLOUR GLASS AND THAT THIS MIGHT
BROTHER
IN
LAW 3EVERIANUS IN 2OME ) HAVE SENT YOU PARTI
EXPLAIN HOW THE ,YCURGUS EFFECT WAS DISCOVERED ;= )T
COLOURED CUPS THAT CHANGE COLOUR PRESENTED TO ME BY THE WOULD ALSO EXPLAIN THE RELATIVELY HIGH LEVELS OF COPPER AND
PRIEST OF A TEMPLE 4HEY ARE SPECIALLY DEDICATED TO YOU AND MY LEAD OXIDES WHICH ARE ALSO PRESENT IN THE GLASS (OWEVER
SISTER ) WOULD LIKE YOU TO USE THEM AT BANQUETS ON FEAST DAYS THERE ARE A NUMBER OF OTHER POSSIBILITIES WHICH ALLOW FOR THE
(ERE THEN IS CLEAR EVIDENCE THAT VESSELS THAT CHANGE COLOUR CHANCE DISCOVERY OF GOLD RUBY INCLUDING ACCIDENTS IN THE
WERE BEING MADE IN THE EARLY FOURTH CENTURY 6OPISCUS HAD PRODUCTION OF GLASSES WITH GOLD LEAF DECORATION
SEEN THEM AND THAT THEY WERE PRESTIGIOUS ITEMS WORTHY AS (OWEVER THE COLOURATION OF GLASS BY GOLD WAS DISCOVERED
GIFTS FROM THE EMPEROR TO HIS CLOSE RELATIVES &URTHERMORE IT APPEARS THAT REPLICATING GOLD RUBY WAS A CHALLENGE TO THE
THEY WERE USED ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS ON FEAST DAYS 7HITEHOUSE 2OMAN GLASSMAKER THE TECHNOLOGY WAS VERY RESTRICTED AND
GOES ON TO SPECULATE THAT THE CHANGE IN COLOUR FROM GREEN TO DOES NOT APPEAR TO HAVE OUTLASTED THE FOURTH CENTURY 7HILE
RED SYMBOLISES THE RIPENING OF THE GRAPE AND THAT THE THE PRODUCTION OF RED GLASS USING GOLD IS MENTIONED IN
DEPICTIONS OF VINES ON THE #UP AS WELL AS $IONYSUS THE 2OMAN MEDIEVAL )SLAMIC WRITINGS EXAMPLES OF SUCH GLASS HAVE YET TO
GOD OF WINE TRIUMPHING OVER ,YCURGUS ARE STRONG EVIDENCE IN BE CONRMED !LTHOUGH THE RED STAINED GLASS OF MEDIEVAL
SUPPORT OF THIS 4HUS THE #UP MAY HAVE BEEN SPECIALLY INTENDED CHURCH WINDOWS IS SOMETIMES SUGGESTED TO BE GOLD RUBY THE
FOR USE AT BANQUETS DEDICATED TO $IONYSUS COLOURANT HAS BEEN FOUND TO BE COPPER IN ALL CASES SO FAR
4HE COLOUR OF THE GLASS IS THEREFORE LIKELY TO BE THE REASON ANALYSED 4HE PRODUCTION OF GOLD RUBY ON ANYTHING LIKE A
FOR THE CREATION OF THE #UP AS IT IS SEEN AND IS WHAT PROVIDES ROUTINE BASIS DOES NOT APPEAR TO HAVE TAKEN PLACE UNTIL THE
ITS UNIQUE CHARACTER (OWEVER OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY IN %UROPE A DISCOVERY OFTEN CREDITED TO
PRODUCTION OF THIS GLASS IS UNCLEAR )T SEEMS VERY LIKELY THAT IN *OHANN +UNCKEL A 'ERMAN GLASSMAKER AND CHEMIST ;=
'OLD "ULLETIN
#ONCLUSION #ATHERINE (IGGITT GRADUATED IN
CHEMISTRY FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF 9ORK IN
4HE ,YCURGUS #UP DEMONSTRATES A SHORT
LIVED TECHNOLOGY AND COMPLETED A 0H$ DEGREE IN
DEVELOPED IN THE FOURTH CENTURY !$ BY 2OMAN GLASS
WORKERS CHEMISTRY AT THE SAME INSTITUTION IN
4HEY DISCOVERED THAT GLASS COULD BE COLOURED RED AND UNUSUAL !FTER ONE YEAR WORKING FOR THE (ISTORIC
COLOUR CHANGE EFFECTS GENERATED BY THE ADDITION OF A PRECIOUS 3COTLAND #ONSERVATION #ENTRE IN
METAL BEARING MATERIAL WHEN THE GLASS WAS MOLTEN 7E NOW %DINBURGH SHE JOINED THE 3CIENTIC
UNDERSTAND THAT THESE EFFECTS ARE DUE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF $EPARTMENT AT THE .ATIONAL 'ALLERY IN ,ONDON IN
NANOPARTICLES IN THE GLASS (OWEVER THE INABILITY TO CONTROL WORKING WITH 2AYMOND 7HITE (ERE SHE SPECIALISED IN THE
THE COLOURANT PROCESS MEANT THAT RELATIVELY FEW GLASSES OF THIS STUDY OF NATURAL ORGANIC MATERIALS IN OLD MASTER PAINTINGS
TYPE WERE PRODUCED AND EVEN FEWER SURVIVE 4HE #UP IS THE USING SPECTROSCOPIC CHROMATOGRAPHIC AND SPECTROMETRIC
OUTSTANDING EXAMPLE OF THIS TECHNOLOGY IN EVERY RESPECT ITS METHODS !T THE BEGINNING OF #ATHERINE MOVED TO THE
OUTSTANDING CUT WORK AND RED
GREEN DICHROISM RENDER IT A "RITISH -USEUM TO TAKE UP THE POST OF HEAD OF THE 3CIENCE
UNIQUE RECORD 'ROUP IN THE $EPARTMENT OF #ONSERVATION $OCUMENTATION
AND 3CIENCE THE $EPARTMENT FORMED BY THE MERGER OF THE
FORMER $EPARTMENTS OF #ONSERVATION AND 3CIENTIC 2ESEARCH
!BOUT THE AUTHORS !DDRESS $EPARTMENT OF #ONSERVATION $OCUMENTATION AND
3CIENCE 4HE "RITISH -USEUM 'REAT 2USSELL 3TREET ,ONDON
)AN &REESTONE GRADUATED IN GEOLOGY 7#" $' 5+ %MAIL CHIGGITT THEBRITISHMUSEUMACUK
FROM THE 5NIVERSITY OF 2EADING AND
COMPLETED -3C AND 0H$ DEGREES IN -ARGARET 3AX GRADUATED IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS AT THE
GEOCHEMISTRY AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF ,EEDS 5NIVERSITY OF ,ONDON AND STARTED WORK IN THE DEPARTMENT OF
&OLLOWING POST
DOCTORAL WORK ON SILICATE 3CIENTIC 2ESEARCH AT THE "RITISH -USEUM IN 7ORKING AS
PHASE EQUILIBRIA AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF A SPECIAL ASSISTANT FROM -ARGARETS AREA OF EXPERTISE IS
-ANCHESTER HE JOINED THE "RITISH -USEUM LAPIDARY TECHNOLOGY (ER RESEARCH INTO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
IN WHERE HE WORKED ON THE COMPOSITION AND TOOL MARKS PRESERVED ON STONE ARTEFACTS HAS ALLOWED HER TO
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF INORGANIC ARTEFACTS FROM ALL DEVELOP A METHODOLOGY BASED ON SCANNING ELECTRON
PERIODS AND CULTURES ! RECIPIENT OF THE !MERICAN MICROSCOPY FOR THE IDENTICATION OF ANCIENT CARVING TECHNIQUE
!RCHAEOLOGICAL )NSTITUTES 0OMERANCE -EDAL FOR SCIENTIC 3HE INITIALLY INVESTIGATED THE ENGRAVING OF -ESOPOTAMIAN
CONTRIBUTIONS TO ARCHAEOLOGY HE IS 0RESIDENT OF THE QUARTZ SEALS )N SEPARATE COLLABORATIVE STUDIES WITH "EIJING
!SSOCIATION FOR THE (ISTORY OF 'LASS (E JOINED #ARDIFF 5NIVERSITY AND THE 3MITHSONIAN )NSTITUTION SHE IS STUDYING
5NIVERSITY AS A PROFESSORIAL FELLOW IN AND IS CURRENTLY JADES RECOVERED FROM SITES IN #HINA AND -ESOAMERICA )N THE
(EAD OF !RCHAEOLOGY AND #ONSERVATION !DDRESS #ARDIFF PRESENT STUDY THE METHODOLOGY IS APPLIED TO THE GLASS
3CHOOL OF (ISTORY AND !RCHAEOLOGY #ARDIFF 5NIVERSITY #ARDIFF OPENWORK OF THE ,YCURGUS CUP !DDRESS $EPARTMENT OF
#& %5 5+ %MAIL FREESTONEI CARDIFFACUK #ONSERVATION $OCUMENTATION AND 3CIENCE 4HE "RITISH
-USEUM 'REAT 2USSELL 3TREET ,ONDON 7#" $' 5+
.IGEL -EEKS GRADUATED IN -ETALLURGY %MAIL MSAX THEBRITISHMUSEUMACUK
AND -ATERIALS 3CIENCE AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF
,ONDON AND FURTHER TRAINED IN
SILVERSMITHING !T THE "RITISH -USEUM HE 2EFERENCES
HAS RESEARCHED INTO A WIDE RANGE OF
ANCIENT MATERIALS TECHNOLOGICAL (ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP
PROCESSES AND MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES !RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL PP
THE ARTICLE INCLUDES IN THE APPENDIX A
0ARTICULAR RESEARCH INTERESTS AND PUBLICATIONS INCLUDE THE CATALOGUE OF EXTANT OR LOST BUT WELL AUTHENTICATED CAGE CUPS AND
FABRICATION PROCESSES OF 2OMAN AND #HINESE HIGH
TIN FRAGMENTS KNOWN AT THAT TIME
BRONZE 'REEK %TRUSCAN GOLD JEWELLERY #ENTRAL AND 3OUTH ARDEN $" (ELLENKEMPER ( 0AINTER + AND 7HITEHOUSE $ 'LASS
(
!MERICAN GOLDWORK !NGLO
3AXON TECHNOLOGIES )RON !GE OF THE #AESARS /LIVETTI -ILAN PP
CATALOGUE ENTRY
GOLD AND PRECIOUS METAL ANCIENT GOLD RENING AND ANCIENT ARDEN $" (ELLENKEMPER ( 0AINTER + AND 7HITEHOUSE $ 'LASS
(
TOOL MARKS TINNING PLATING AND CASTING 4HE APPLICATION AND OF THE #AESARS /LIVETTI -ILAN PP
CATALOGUE ENTRY
DEVELOPMENT OF SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY AND (ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP
MICROANALYSIS TO ARCHAEOMETALLURGY AND TO THE EXAMINATION !RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL PP
OF THE WIDE RANGE OF ARTEFACT MATERIALS AT THE "RITISH (ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP
-USEUM IS A SPECIALISATION !DDRESS $EPARTMENT OF !RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL PP
#ONSERVATION $OCUMENTATION AND 3CIENCE 4HE "RITISH ARDEN $" (ELLENKEMPER ( 0AINTER + AND 7HITEHOUSE $ 'LASS
(
-USEUM 'REAT 2USSELL 3TREET ,ONDON 7#" $' 5+ %MAIL OF THE #AESARS /LIVETTI -ILAN PP
CATALOGUE ENTRY
NMEEKS THEBRITISHMUSEUMACUK (ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP
'OLD "ULLETIN
!RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL P 3COTT ' 2ECONSTRUCTING AND REPRODUCING THE (OHENSULZEN CAGE
" RITISH -USEUM 2ESEARCH ,ABORATORY &ILE LETTER DATED TO CUP * 'LASS 3TUDIES PP
$R -ACKEY $EPARTMENT OF 0HYSICS "IRKBECK #OLLEGE ,ONDON 3COTT ' ! STUDY OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP * 'LASS 3TUDIES PP
(ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP ,IERKE 2 /NE MORE TIME
THE MAKING OF THE DIATRETA CUPS
!RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL PP
'LASTECH "ER 'LASS 3CI 4ECHNOL PP
ARDEN $" (ELLENKEMPER ( 0AINTER + AND 7HITEHOUSE $ 'LASS
( , IERKE 2 6ASA $IATRETA 4EIL )) $IE (ERSTELLUNG DER ROMISCHEN
OF THE #AESARS /LIVETTI -ILAN PP
CATALOGUE ENTRY 'LASNETZBECHER !NTIKE 7ELT PP
"RITISH -USEUM 2ESEARCH ,ABORATORY &ILE LETTER DATED ,IERKE 2 !NTIKE 'LASTOPFEREI %IN VERGESSENES +APITEL DER
" RITISH -USEUM 2ESEARCH ,ABORATORY &ILE LETTER DATED FROM 'LASGESCHICHTE -AINZ
"3 #OOPER AT '%# 3AX - -EEKS .$ AND #OLLON $ 4HE )NTRODUCTION OF THE ,APIDARY
3I/ .A/ +/ #A/ -G/ !L/ "/ %NGRAVING 7HEEL IN -ESOPOTAMIA !NTIQUITY PP
-N/ LAST SUGGESTED TO INCLUDE TRACES OF &E 4I !G !U 3B 0B 3N 3AX - -EEKS .$ AND #OLLON $ 4HE )NTRODUCTION OF THE ,APIDARY
"A 3R %NGRAVING 7HEEL IN -ESOPOTAMIA !NTIQUITY PP
#
HIRNSIDE 2# AND 0ROFTT 0-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP AN EALY *& 0LINY THE %LDER AND !NCIENT -INERALOGY )NTERDISCIPLINARY
(
ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION * 'LASS 3TUDIES P 3CIENCE 2EVIEWS PP
#
HIRNSIDE 2# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP !N ANALYTICAL (ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP
INVESTIGATION 0ROC TH )NTERNAT #ONG 'LASS COMPTES RENDUS 0APER !RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL PP
PP
MANGANESE IS NOW KNOWN TO BE A COMMON CONSTITUENT OF 3 TERN %- 2OMAN GLASSBLOWING IN A CULTURAL CONTEXT !MERICAN
2OMAN GLASS AND APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN USED AS AN OXIDISING AGENT *OURNAL OF !RCHAEOLOGY PP
DECOLOURANT 0RICE * 'LASSWORKING AND GLASSWORKERS IN CITIES AND TOWNS IN
#
HIRNSIDE 2# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP !N ANALYTICAL ! -AC-AHON AND * 0RICE EDS 2OMAN 7ORKING ,IVES AND 5RBAN ,IVING
INVESTIGATION 0ROC TH )NTERNAT #ONG 'LASS COMPTES RENDUS 0APER PP
/XFORD /XBOW
PP
"RILL 2( 4HE SCIENTIC INVESTIGATION OF ANCIENT GLASSES 0ROC TH
"RITISH -USEUM 2ESEARCH ,ABORATORY &ILE LETTER DATED )NTERNAT #ONG 'LASS 3HEFELD PP
"RILL 2( 4HE CHEMISTRY OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP 0ROC TH )NTERNAT 3COTT ' 2ECONSTRUCTING AND REPRODUCING THE (OHENSULZEN CAGE
#ONG 'LASS COMPTES RENDUS 0APER PP
CUP * 'LASS 3TUDIES PP
#
HIRNSIDE 2# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP !N ANALYTICAL 3COTT ' ! STUDY OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP * 'LASS 3TUDIES PP
INVESTIGATION 0ROC TH )NTERNAT #ONG 'LASS COMPTES RENDUS 0APER 7ELZEL * $IE 2EKONSTRUKTION EINES $IATRETGLASES NACH EINEM
PP
3CHERBENFUND * 'LASS 3TUDIES PP
"RILL 2( 4HE CHEMISTRY OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP 0ROC TH )NTERNAT ELZEL * $AS $IATRETGLAS AUS 3ZEKSZARD IN 5NGARN * 'LASS 3TUDIES
7
#ONG 'LASS COMPTES RENDUS 0APER PP
PP
"ARBER $* AND &REESTONE )# !N INVESTIGATION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE 7HITEHOUSE $ 2OMAN $ICHROIC 'LASS 4WO #ONTEMPORARY
COLOUR OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP BY ANALYTICAL TRANSMISSION ELECTRON $ESCRIPTIONS * 'LASS 3TUDIES PP
MICROSCOPY !RCHAEOMETRY PP
"ADGER !% 7EYL 7 AND 2UDOW ( 4HE EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT
"ARBER $* AND &REESTONE )# !N INVESTIGATION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE ON COLOUR OF GOLD RUBY GLASS 4HE 'LASS )NDUSTRY .OVEMBER PP
COLOUR OF THE ,YCURGUS #UP BY ANALYTICAL TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY !RCHAEOMETRY PP
!
NALYSES OF GOLD AND SILVER CONTENTS OF VE DICHROIC GLASSES ARE PROVIDED
7AGNER &% (ASLBECK 3 3TIEVANO , #ALOGERO 3 0ANKHURST 1! AND BY "RILL 2( 4HE SCIENTIC INVESTIGATION OF ANCIENT GLASSES 0ROC TH
-ARTINEK +
0 "EFORE STRIKING GOLD IN GOLD
RUBY GLASS .ATURE )NTERNAT #ONG 'LASS 3HEFELD PP
PP
& REESTONE )# 3TAPLETON #0 AND 2IGBY 6 4HE PRODUCTION OF RED
+AMINSKAYA ., )NITIATING THE NISHING PROCESS FOR GOLD
CONTAINING GLASS AND ENAMEL IN THE ,ATER )RON !GE 2OMAN AND "YZANTINE PERIODS IN
GLASSES 'LASS AND #ERAMICS PP
%NTWISTLE # ED 4HROUGH A GLASS BRIGHTLY
STUDIES IN "YZANTINE AND
(ARDEN $" AND 4OYNBEE *-# 4HE 2OTHSCHILD ,YCURGUS #UP -EDIEVAL !RT AND !RCHAEOLOGY PRESENTED TO $AVID "UCKTON /XBOW PP
!RCHAEOLOGIA 6OL PP
& REMERSDORF & $IE (ERSTELLUNG DER $IATRETA 3CHUMACHER (UNT ," 4HE TRUE STORY OF 0URPLE OF #ASSIUS 'OLD "ULL PP
&ESTSCHRIFT -AINZ PP FF
'OLD "ULLETIN
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