FUEL EFFICIENCY

BOOKLET 8

The economic thickness of

insulation for hot pipes

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PROGRAMME
The views and judgements expressed in this Fuel Efficiency Booklet are not necessarily
those of the Department of the Environment, ETSU or BRECSU.
Cover photograph courtesy of Courtaulds Fibres

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 THE EFFECT OF INSULATION 1
3 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION 3
Basic requirements to estimate economic thickness 4
4 TYPES OF INSULATION 5
5 THE ESTIMATION OF ECONOMIC THICKNESS 6
Use of specially prepared tables 7
By customised tabulation 7
6 ADAPTING TO AMBIENT CONDITIONS 12
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 13
8 SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION 13
APPENDIX 1
Some useful conversion factors 15
APPENDIX 2
Tables reproduced from BS 5422: 1990 16
APPENDIX 3
Heat loss graphs for various materials and surface temperatures 25
Preformed rigid fibrous sections 26
Preformed rigid calcium silicate or 85% magnesia sections 36
Preformed rigid polyisocyanurate or polyurethane sections 46
Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections 49
APPENDIX 4
Some basic heat transfer formulae 51

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INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION dominant; the greater the temperature and area,

This booklet is concerned with the economic the greater the loss. Adding an insulating layer
thickness of insulation for hot pipes. to a hot surface reduces the external surface
Considerable amounts of data and practical temperature. Although the surface area may be
advice is given, intended for use both by increased if insulation is added to a circular pipe,
experienced personnel and as training material. the relative effect of the temperature reduction is
The cost of installing the insulation is offset much greater and a reduction in heat loss is
by the large savings in fuel bills which can be achieved.
achieved through insulating pipes. This booklet Consider for example, a 15 mm bore pipe
explains how to determine the thickness of running through still air (at 20°C) carrying a hot
insulation which will result in the optimum fluid raising its external temperature to 75°C.
installation. The heat loss is about 60 W per metre of pipe
This booklet is concerned only with hot run. The addition of a 25 mm thick layer of
pipes, although the insulation of pipes operating standard pipe insulation would increase the
below ambient temperature is also important. In surface area by a factor of approximately 3.5,
particular, pipes forming part of domestic and but the external surface temperature would fall
non-domestic heating and hot water systems, from 75°C to around 23°C. The overall effect
and process pipework are covered. The would be to reduce the heat loss from 60 W to
information and techniques for determining the 12 W per metre run of pipe.
most economic thickness of insulation is
Unwanted heat loss costs money. The loss of
consistent with BS 5422:1990.
heat from a 100 m run of bare 50 mm bore
This booklet is intended as a brief guide to
pipe carrying process steam at 100ºC, would
the economic thickness of insulation for hot
cost around £3,000 per annum if the steam
pipes, and therefore references are made
was supplied by a gas boiler with a gas cost of
throughout to the extensive documentation
1p/kWh (approximately 30p/therm). This cost
available from the insulation industry and the
would be reduced to £250 per annum if a 50
British Standards Institution (BSI).
mm thick layer of appropriate insulation was
Fuel Efficiency Booklet 19 - Process Plant
applied. Thus, an annual saving of £2,750
Insulation and Fuel Efficiency - gives a broad
would be achieved.
picture of the use of insulation for process plant
and should be read in conjunction with this
booklet. The ‘avoidable’ cost increases dramatically as the
temperature of the process fluid increases. If the
2 THE EFFECT OF INSULATION hot fluid was at 200°C, the ‘bare pipe’ cost
Any surface which is hotter than its would be around £10,000 per annum. This level
surroundings will lose heat. The rate at which of heat loss is equivalent to running a 1 kW
heat is lost depends on many factors, but the electric fire night and day for more than 25
temperature and area of the surface are often years. It could be reduced to £560 per annum if

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THE EFFECT OF INSULATION

a 75 mm thick layer of insulation were used (the

Fig 1 Heat loss through unlagged flanges
insulation thickness must be increased as the
pipe temperature increases, to ensure a suitable Unlagged
flanges
external surface temperature). In this case, there
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
is an avoidable cost of £9,440 per annum. ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,
The use of insulation on pipes carrying high ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,
temperature streams is a normal and accepted ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,
,,,,
practice. It should not be assumed that any

,,,,
existing insulation provides the most effective
Lagged

,,,,,,,,,,,,
arrangement for avoidable cost reduction. In flanges
many cases, thicker insulating layers would be ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,
well justified. All hot surfaces lose heat and, as

,,,,,,,,,,,,,
shown in Fig 1, attention should be given to
,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,
valves, flanges, etc., which are often left
uninsulated for maintenance reasons. An
uninsulated valve loses about the same amount ,,,,,,,,,,,,,
of heat as 1 m of uninsulated pipe of the same
diameter. Uninsulated flanges, which have a temperature induced stresses in the pipework
smaller surface area, lose about half this amount. system, which can be a cause of leakage at joints.
Thus, a 50 mm valve carrying process steam at Although some form of insulation is
200°C would cost about £100 per annum normally found on high temperature pipework,
without insulation, but only about £6 per low temperature small bore pipes, or pipes which
annum with appropriate insulation. The are used only intermittently, are often
operation of valves need not be affected by completely neglected. However, as with valves
insulation and it can be applied in easily and flanges, there is a considerable potential for
removable sections to ease maintenance. An avoidable cost savings. For example, the
additional benefit is a more uniform metal payback periods for 25 mm thick insulation on
temperature with a consequent reduction in 15 mm pipe in a gas fired domestic heating

Table 1 The Payback Period for Insulation on Domestic Central Heating Pipework

Number of Operating Hours Payback Period (Years)

1000 2
2000 1
3000 0.7
4000 0.5

(Payback period assumes that the total cost for the installation of the insulation is £2 per metre)

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THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION

installation, for which the operating temperature Manufacturers of insulation normally

would be typically 60 - 70°C, are as shown in provide information on thermal performance
Table 1. The payback period is the time taken to which avoids the need for complex heat transfer
recoup the initial cost of an investment from the calculations. The data, which are normally
savings it produces. referred to as ‘U’ values, give the heat loss per
unit length of pipe for a range of pipe diameters,
3 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF process stream temperatures and insulation
INSULATION thicknesses. Whilst such data are useful for
The examples presented in the previous Section estimation purposes, it is important to note that
give an indication of the cost savings which can the values are based on specified external
be achieved by the use of insulation to prevent conditions (often quiescent air at 20°C). Some
the unwanted dissipation of heat from pipework. caution must be exercised if the actual
For a given pipe and process conditions, the rate application conditions vary considerably from
of dissipation is dependent on the thickness of those used to establish the ‘U’ values.
the insulating layer and its thermal performance. It would be possible to reduce dissipative
In most cases, the most important aspect of losses from pipework systems to effectively zero
the insulation’s thermal performance is thermal by an appropriate choice of material and
conductivity, a physical property which relates thickness. The cost of operating a hot pipe is
the rate at which heat is conducted through a the cost of the heat loss, plus the cost of any
material to the temperature difference across the insulation. In general terms, there is a cost
conduction path. For the same thickness of penalty associated with increased thickness and
insulation, heat losses are reduced as the thermal improved thermal performance. Although
conductivity reduces. The effective thermal higher expenditure results in greater cost
conductivity of an insulating layer may depend savings, there is a point at which increased
on the application procedure since this may expenditure to improve the level of insulation
influence, for example, the extent of voids or cannot be justified by the additional savings
binder material. Operating temperature also which would arise.
affects the value of many insulating materials’ The combined effect of increased
thermal conductivity (see Section 4 ‘Types of expenditure due to increasing the thickness of
insulation’). the insulating layer, and increased cost saving,
Other factors influencing thermal for a specific set of operating conditions, is
performance include surface properties which illustrated in Fig 2. The minimum cost shown is
affect losses due to radiation. For example, the lowest combined cost of insulation and heat
radiation losses can be reduced by the addition loss over a given period of time (the evaluation
of a shiny metallic skin to the insulating layer. period). The minimum cost occurs at a
The benefits of such an addition depend on particular thickness of insulation, referred to as
actual conditions, but a 10% reduction in overall the ‘Economic Thickness of Insulation’. In
heat loss would not be untypical. practice, the curves are less smooth because

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THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION

i.e. it is the product of the annual operating hours

Fig 2 Economic thickness of insulation
and the life of the investment in years. Annual
costs tend to be more meaningful than evaluation
period costs. Consequently, in any analysis of
economic thickness, the determination of annual
costs is recommended, the evaluation period costs
Total cost
are easily established from the annual data.
Ideally, the life of the investment would be based
on the useful life of the insulation, but often
Lost heat company policies regarding investment criteria
Cost (£)

cost require a much shorter period to be used. The

data required for the complete analysis of
economic thickness can be summarised:
1 To determine the annual cost of heat loss per
metre run of pipe
Insulation
Data requirements:
cost
■ The cost of fuel (In the normal units of
Minimum

purchase, e.g. pence/therm)

cost

■ The boiler efficiency (%)

Annual operating period (hours)
■ Heat loss per metre run of pipe
many types of insulation are available only in
(Watts/metre) which depends on:
certain thicknesses. Nonetheless, the principle
Pipe size
still applies.
Operating temperature
Type and thickness of insulation
Basic requirements to estimate economic
Ambient conditions
thickness
(Methods to estimate the heat loss from
Most of the information which is needed to
these data are given in Section 5)
estimate the economic thickness of insulation
2 To determine the cost of insulation
follows from Fig 2. In particular, data are required
Data requirements:
which allows the cost of heat loss from the
■ Cost of material (£ per metre of pipe)
pipework system over the evaluation period, and
■ Cost of ancillary materials (£ per metre of
the cost of installing insulation to be determined.
pipe)
Both these items need to be established for a
■ Labour costs (£ per metre of pipe)
range of insulation thicknesses. In BS 5422:1990,
3 To determine the evaluation period
the main reference for this booklet, evaluation
Data requirements:
period is defined as the total number of operating
■ The investment life (years)
hours over which the investment is to be assessed,
■ Annual operating period (hours)

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TYPES OF INSULATION

The analysis to determine the economic siliceous/aluminous/calcium materials

thickness of insulation can be carried out from ■ Organic - based on hydrocarbon polymers in
first principles using basic data. This procedure the form of thermosetting/thermoplastic
can incorporate both the exact detail of any resins or rubbers.
particular application and the standard company The insulation material can be either flexible or
method for assessing potential investment. For rigid, both types of which are available in
example, Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) preformed pipe sections. Table 2 lists the
techniques are employed by some organisations. common types along with relevant details.
At the other extreme, tables of economic Certain types of insulation can be applied by
thicknesses based on typical values of costs, etc., spraying and this might be appropriate for large
have been prepared. The use of such tables may pipes. Of the insulating materials listed in
not provide the optimum solution for a Table 2, mineral wool and polyurethane rigid
particular case, but they would normally provide foam can be applied in this way. Other
a better answer than an arbitrary choice of insulating materials with a spray application
thickness. option are vermiculite (maximum temperature
Before the methods of achieving a value for 1,100°C) and alumino silicate (maximum
economic thickness are considered, it is useful to temperature 1,260°C). A binder may be
consider briefly the types of available insulation. required.
Thermal performance and installation costs are The thermal conductivity of insulating
affected by this choice. materials varies considerably according to the
type of material, its density and operating
4 TYPES OF INSULATION temperature. Table 3 gives a representative
Insulation material is classed as: selection.
■ Inorganic - based on crystalline or amorphous

Table 2 Insulating materials available in preformed pipe sections

Material Approximate Maximum Normal Bulk Density kg/m3

Temperature ºC

Mineral Wool (Glass) 230 15 - 100

Mineral Wool (Rock) 850 80 - 150
Magnesia 315 180 - 220
Calcium Silicate 800 190 - 260
Polyurethane Rigid Foam 110 30 - 160
Polyisocyanurate Rigid Foam 140 30 - 60
Phenolic Rigid Foam 120 35 - 200
Polythene 80 30 - 40
Synthetic Rubber 116 60 - 100

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Table 3 Thermal conductivities of insulating materials

Material Density Thermal Conductivity W/(m.K)

kg/m3 Temperature ºC
50 100 300

Calcium Silicate 210 0.055 0.058 0.083

Expanded Nitrile Rubber 65 - 90 0.039 – –
Mineral Wool (Glass) 16 0.047 0.065 –
48 0.035 0.044 –
Mineral Wool (Rock) 100 0.037 0.043 0.088
Magnesia 190 0.055 0.058 0.082
Polyisocyanurate Foam 50 0.023 0.026 –

Service temperature is an obvious criterion 5 THE ESTIMATION OF ECONOMIC

for the selection of an appropriate material, but THICKNESS
other factors relating to the operating There are three different methods of estimating
environment must also be taken into account. economic thickness. The first uses specially
These include internal or external use, required prepared tables based on assumptions about
surface finish, structural strength constraints and every item of data required to estimate economic
accessibility. Although materials exist to satisfy thickness. The assumptions are reasonable for a
all common requirements, it is important to wide range of applications and the tables are
note that the economic thickness varies easy to use. However, there is a margin of error
according to type because of differences in with this method, because specific details cannot
properties and costs. be included. The second and more accurate
Further details about insulation materials method is the formulation of customised tables
can be found in the TIMSA Handbook (available which do take account of specific details and
from The Thermal Insulation Manufacturers and which therefore provide a greater degree of
Suppliers Association, PO Box 111, Aldershot, confidence. These two methods will be described
Hampshire, GU11 1YW) and BS 5970: 1992. in detail in this Section
Insulation for pipework is also discussed in Fuel The third method of estimating economic
Efficiency Booklet 19 - Process plant insulation and thickness is an algebraic solution. This requires
fuel efficiency - which gives general information mathematical manipulation skills, but it has the
on insulating a range of process plant and more least number of assumptions and is the most
details of surface finishes and general good flexible of the three methods. It should only be
practice. attempted if a very precise value of thickness is
needed, and often this is not a requirement

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THE ESTIMATION OF ECONOMIC THICKNESS

because many types of insulation are available application data, but if data are available, they
only in certain specific sizes. For this reason, the should be checked for consistency with the
algebraic method will not be described in this assumptions. Unless otherwise stated in Tables 8
booklet. For a more detailed explanation of the to 16, ambient conditions are still air at 20°C.
technique, reference can be made to Energy Table 4 shows the fuel costs and evaluation
Efficiency for Technologists & Engineers; Eastop & period used to derive the tabulated values for the
Croft, published by Longman Scientific & three application categories, non-domestic
Technical; ISBN 0-582-03184-2. central heating and hot water services, domestic
central heating and hot water services and
Use of specially prepared tables process pipework. Fuel costs are expressed in
Tables of the economic thickness of insulation pence per useful MJ. This is the cost of the fuel
for various types of application are included in in pence per MJ divided by the efficiency of the
BS 5422:1990. Values of the economic boiler.
thicknesses have been tabulated for appropriate Table 17 gives the useful cost of heat for
ranges of pipe sizes, pipe surface temperatures, common fuels over a range of fuel prices,
(normally the process stream temperature), and expressed in the normal purchase units, based
insulation thermal conductivities. These tables on typical boiler efficiencies. For a particular
have been reproduced in this booklet in purchase price, the useful cost of heat can be
Appendix 2 as follows: obtained directly from Table 17. Insulation costs
are expressed in a particular way which is
■ Non-Domestic heating and hot water
described below. In general terms, the economic
services
thicknesses have been derived for estimates of
Heating - solid fuel boiler Table 8
fuel, insulation and installation costs which will
- gas-fired boiler Table 9
apply in 1995.
- oil-fired boiler Table 10
Hot water services Table 11
By customised tabulation
■ Domestic heating and hot water services
If the data relating to a particular application are
Heating - heated areas Table 12
significantly different from those forming the
- unheated areas Table 13
assumptions used to derive the tabulated values
Hot water services - heated areas Table 14
of economic thickness (Tables 8-16) a calculation
- unheated areas Table 15
specific to the application must be performed.
■ Process pipework Table 16
The most straightforward method of calculation
These tables provide the easiest method of is to create a table which shows the total cost,
determining the required value of economic i.e. the cost of the heat loss plus the insulation
thickness, but the conditions of the application costs over the evaluation period, for a range of
under consideration should reasonably satisfy insulation thicknesses. The thickness which
the assumptions used to derive the tabulated results in the minimum total cost can then be
values. Use the tables in the absence of any selected.

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THE ESTIMATION OF ECONOMIC THICKNESS

Table 4 Fuel costs and evaluation period used to derive the economic thickness Tables 8 - 16

Fuel Cost Evaluation Period

pence per useful MJ hours

Non-domestic central heating and hot water services

Fuel: Solid Fuel 0.38

Gas 0.57
Oil 0.67

Application: Central Heating 20,000

Hot water services 40,000

Domestic central heating and hot water services

Fuel: Gas 0.76

Application: Central Heating 17,000
Hot water services 9,000

Process pipework 0.6 (2) 40,000

Notes: (1) Each evaluation period is based on a typical intermittent operation for the number of
hours shown over a five year period (e.g. continuous non-domestic operation for five years =
40,000 hours)
(2) Deduced from data in BS 5422:1990

Fig 3 Example of table needed for customised tabulation

Thickness of Heat loss Cost factor Cost of heat lost over Installed cost Total cost
insulation evaluation period of insulation

(mm) (W/m) (£/W) (£/linear m) (£/linear m) (£/linear m)

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THE ESTIMATION OF ECONOMIC THICKNESS

A table of the type shown in Fig 3 is example, that a 50 mm bore pipe with 50 mm of
required. Information described in Section 3, insulation would lose heat at 20 W/m; the same
‘The economic thickness of insulation’, must be pipe without insulation would lose heat at 240
available to complete the table. The meaning of W/m. In a similar way, the value of heat loss
the headings and the method of calculating the can be determined for any combination of pipe
relevant values are as follows. Each heading has bore and insulation thickness. If conditions are
been assigned a step number, used to clarify the windy, refer to Section 6.
worked example given on Page 9.
Cost factor (Step 3)
Thickness of insulation (Step 1) The cost factor is the cost in pounds of one
The table is completed for a range of watt of heat loss per metre of pipe over the
possible insulation thicknesses. If necessary, the evaluation period. It depends on the evaluation
first entry can be bare pipe, i.e. insulation period and the cost of useful heat. The stages in
thickness equals 0 mm, and successive entries determining the cost factor are:
made for each of the available thicknesses of the i) Determine the number of MJ of heat which
selected insulation. Alternatively, the tabulated are lost per metre of pipe over the evaluation
values of economic thickness can be used as a period if the rate of loss is one watt/metre.
guide to the approximate value and a range of A watt is a joule per second. Therefore, if
thicknesses around this value used in the table. the evaluation period is expressed in hours,
Heat loss (Step 2) the number of joules which are lost with a
This is the rate of heat loss, in watts, per one watt heat loss is:
metre of pipe. It depends on the process stream evaluation period x 3,600
temperature, the pipe diameter, the insulation
thickness and ambient conditions. The heat loss A megajoule (MJ) is 1,000,000 joules
can be determined conveniently from pre- (106 joules), therefore the number of MJ lost
prepared graphs (Graphs 1 - 25) which give the with a one watt heat loss is:
heat loss for a range of insulation types and evaluation period x 3,600 / 106
thicknesses, pipe diameters and temperatures.
For presentational convenience, these graphs are ii) Determine the cost factor which is the

reproduced in Appendix 3. Table 5 summarises product of the cost of useful heat in pence

conveniently the content of each of the graphs. per MJ and the number of MJ lost, i.e.,

Use Table 5 to select the appropriate graph for cost x evaluation period x 3,600 / 106

the particular insulation type and pipe The result should be divided by 100 so that

temperature relevant to the application under the cost factor is expressed in £/W

consideration. The use of these graphs is The two stages can be combined into a single

illustrated in Graph 3 which is based on a pipe formula:

temperature of 100°C insulated with performed Cost factor = pence x evaluation period x 36
MJ 106
rigid fibrous sections. The dotted lines show, for

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Cost of heat lost over evaluation period Installed cost of insulation (Step 5)
(Step 4) This is the total cost of the insulation per
This is simply the total value of the heat lost metre of pipe inclusive of the cost of the
per metre of pipe, for the particular thickness of insulating materials, the installation cost, surface
insulation, over the evaluation period. The heat finish, fixing materials etc. This cost must be
loss column gives the loss in watts per metre and determined for every thickness of insulation
the cost factor gives the cost in £/W for the considered.
evaluation period. Therefore, the cost of heat
Total cost (Step 6)
loss is given by:
This is the sum of the cost of heat loss over
Heat loss x Cost factor the evaluation period and the installed cost of
insulation.

Table 5 Summary of heat loss graphs (Appendix 3)

Pipe Surface Graph Number

Temperature (ºC)
Insulation Type

A B C D

50 1 11 24
70 21
75 2 12 25
100 3 13 22
145 23
150 4 14
200 5 15
300 6 16
400 7 17
500 8 18
600 9 19
700 10 20

Insulation Types A: Preformed rigid fibrous sections

B: Preformed rigid calcium silicate or 85% magnesia sections (magnesia sections up to
300ºC only)
C: Preformed rigid polyisocyanurate or polyurethane sections (polyurethane sections up to
100ºC only)
D: Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and polyethylene foam sections

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Example: Step 3 Cost Factor

The following example shows the use of the Table 17 indicates that the useful cost of heat for a
customised tabulation method for estimating gas boiler with 70% efficiency and a fuel cost of
economic thickness. 22.16 p/therm is 0.30 p/MJ and for a fuel cost of
A non-domestic heating system uses steam at 29.54 p/therm the useful cost is 0.40 p/MJ. In this
slightly over 100ºC supplied though 50 mm bore particular application the gas cost is 28 p/therm and
pipes. The steam is supplied by a gas boiler which the useful cost of heat must be estimated. Simple
is 70% efficient and the cost of gas is 28 pence per proportionality can be used; for this application, the
therm. Preformed fibrous insulation material useful cost is given by:
(thermal conductivity - 0.055 W/(m.K) ) is to be 0.30
used. The total cost of installed insulation for the
( )
Useful Cost = 22.16 = 0.38 p/MJ
various thicknesses available from the The evaluation period is 22,000 hours and,
manufacturer is as follows: therefore, the cost factor is given by:
19 mm thickness £1.40/m ( )
Cost Factor = 0.38 x 22,000 x 36 = 0.30 £/W
25 mm £2.00/m 106
32 mm £2.30/m Note that the cost factor is the same for all
38 mm £2.90/m insulation thicknesses.
50 mm £8.40/m
The evaluation period is 22,000 hours (5 year Step 4 Cost of heat lost over evaluation
investment life with 4,400 hours of operation per period
annum) and the pipework can be assumed to run The product of the cost factor and the heat lost.
through still air at 20ºC. Therefore:
Cost of heat = 30 x 0.30 = £9.00/m
Step 1 Thickness of insulation
For this application, Table 9 indicates that the Step 5 Installed cost of insulation
economic thickness is 37 mm (tabulated results for Given as £2.00/m
a pipe with an outside diameter of 60.3 mm are
the closest to the proposed application). Step 6 Total cost
Consequently estimates around this thickness are The sum of the cost of heat and the installed cost of
likely to be required and the first estimate of insulation (Step 4 + Step 5), i.e.:
economic thickness should be 25 mm. The values Total Cost = 9.00 + 2.00= £11.00/m
for each of the columns of the estimating table Similar calculations are used for all the other
can now be evaluated. thickness values and the results have been tabulated
in Table 6. This shows that the minimum cost
Step 2 Heat Loss occurs with an insulation thickness of 38 mm and
Graph 3 is the appropriate heat loss graph for this this should be the thickness selected. Note that in
application. This shows that a 50 mm bore pipe this example the tabulation method gives
with 25 mm of preformed fibrous insulation approximately the same value of economic
would lose heat at the rate of 30 W/m. thickness as given in the pre-prepared tables. THIS
WILL NOT BE TRUE FOR EVERY APPLICATION. It
must also be remembered that the values for Total
Cost are heavily dependent on the investment
criteria of the organisation.

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ADAPTING TO AMBIENT CONDITIONS

Table 6 Example of economic thickness determination by tabulation

Thickness of Heat Loss Cost Factor Cost of Heat Installed Cost Total Cost
insulation Loss of Insulation
mm W/m £/W £/m £/m £/m

25 30 0.30 9.00 2.00 11.00

32 26 0.30 7.80 2.30 10.10
38 23 0.30 6.90 2.90 9.80
50 20 0.30 6.00 8.40 14.40

6 ADAPTING TO AMBIENT CONDITIONS surface would normally have a high emissivity,

All the procedures indicated above have been oxidised steel a medium emissivity and polished
based on ambient conditions of still air at 20°C.
aluminium a low emissivity.
Air motion, which in most practical applications
If there is no data on typical wind speeds,
will be due to wind, and a different ambient
temperature, can have a significant effect on the the following values are recommended:
rate of heat loss and, consequently, the Sheltered situations 1 m/s
economic thickness of insulation. Normal situations 3 m/s
Wind speed can have a large effect on the Exposed situations 10 m/s
heat loss from bare pipes as shown in Table 7. Fortunately, for insulated pipes the effect of
This gives multiplying factors for bare pipe heat exposure to wind speed alone will not normally
losses compared with those in still air conditions increase the heat loss from a well insulated pipe
shown in Graphs 1 - 25. by more than 10% even in exposed conditions.
The factors for high, medium and low This is because the thermal resistance of the
emissivity surfaces refer to the nature of the insulation is the dominant factor in determining
outer surface of the pipe. As a guide, a painted the rate of heat loss.

Table 7 Wind speed correction factors for heat losses from bare pipes only

Wind Speed (m/s) Multiplying Factors

High Emissivity Medium Emissivity Low Emissivity
Surface Surface Surface

Still Air 1.00 1.00 1.00

1 1.35 1.44 1.58
2 1.65 1.81 2.11
3 2.00 2.25 2.72
5 2.60 3.00 3.86
10 4.00 4.75 6.32

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SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

Variations in ambient temperature also affect the Copies of these British Standards are available
rate of heat loss, which in general is proportional from:
to the difference between the pipe (fluid) British Standards Institution
temperature and the ambient temperature. For Sales Department
example, if the average ambient temperature is Linford Wood
10°C as opposed to 20°C, and the pipe Milton Keynes
temperature is 150°C, the rate of heat loss will be MK14 6LE
7.7% (10 ÷ 130) greater.
For outdoor insulated piping in the UK, a ■ Insulation Suppliers:
rough guide would be to increase the still air, TIMSA Handbook: The Specifiers Insulation Guide
20°C ambient, heat loss rate by 15% - 20% to 1992
take account of the lower air temperature and Copies of this publication are available from:
exposure to winds. Thermal Insulation Manufacturers and Suppliers
It is necessary to emphasise the importance Association
of cladding or sealing outdoor insulation to PO Box 111
make it waterproof as far as possible. The heat Aldershot
losses from wet insulation will far exceed the Hampshire
heat losses through dry material. GU11 1YW
Tel: 01252 336318
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Department of the Environment is grateful ■ Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme
to the British Standards Institution for publications:
permission to reproduce material from BS5970: Copies of literature applicable to insulation and
1992 and BS 5442: 1990. to energy efficiency in industry in general are
available from:
8 SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau
■ British Standards: ETSU
The following British Standards contain further Harwell
information on thermal insulation, its Didcot
specification and sources of supply: Oxon
BS 5422:1990 - Method for specifying thermal OX11 0RA
insulating materials on pipes, ductwork and Tel: 01235 436747
equipment (in the temperature range -40ºC to Fax: 01235 433066
+700ºC)
BS 5970:1992 - Code of practice for thermal ■ The latest news in energy efficiency technology
insulation of pipework and equipment (in the Energy Management is a free journal issued on
temperature range -100ºC to +870ºC) behalf of the DOE which contains information

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

on the latest developments in energy efficiency,

and details of forthcoming events designed to
promote their implementation.

Copies of Energy Management can be

obtained through:

Emap Maclaren Limited

Maclaren House
19 Scarbrook Road
Croydon
Surrey
CR9 1QH

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

APPENDIX 1

SOME USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS

Conversion factors for units used in this booklet

SI Imperial
Temperature ºC x 1.8 + 32 = ºF
Length mm x 0.0394 = in
m x 3.2808 = ft
Volume litres x 0.2200 = gal
Weight tonne x 0.9842 = ton
Energy GJ x 9.4782 = therm
Heat flow rate W/linear m x 1.0400 = Btu/ft h
Thermal conductivity W/m K x 6.9335 = Btu in/ft2h ºF
Thermal conductance W/m2K x 0.176 = Btu/ft2h ºF

For heavy fuel oil the number of litres in tonne = 1,020

Medium fuel oil the number of litres in a tonne = 1,040
Gas oil the number of litres in a tonne = 1,180

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APPENDIX 2 TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 8 Economic thickness of insulation for non-domestic heating installations

served by solid fuel-fired boiler plant

Hot face temperature (in ºC) (with ambient still air at +20ºC)
Outside diameter
of steel pipe on + 75 +100 +150
which insulation Thermal conductivity at mean temperature (in W/(m.K))
thickness has
been based 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07
(in mm) 1
Thickness of insulation (in mm)

17.2 14 17 20 23 17 21 24 26 22 25 28 32
21.3 15 18 22 24 17 22 25 27 23 26 30 34
26.9 17 20 23 25 20 24 26 28 24 28 32 35
33.7 17 21 24 26 20 25 27 31 25 29 34 37
42.4 18 22 25 27 21 25 28 32 25 31 35 39
48.3 18 23 25 28 22 26 29 33 26 32 36 41
60.3 19 24 26 29 23 27 31 35 27 33 38 43
76.1 20 24 27 31 23 28 33 36 28 35 40 45
88.9 20 24 28 32 24 28 33 37 29 36 42 46
114.3 21 25 29 33 25 30 35 39 31 37 44 48
139.7 22 26 30 34 25 31 36 41 31 38 45 50
168.3 22 26 31 35 25 32 37 42 32 40 46 52
219.1 22 27 32 36 26 33 38 43 33 42 48 54
273.0 23 27 33 36 26 34 39 44 34 43 49 55
Above 323.9 23 28 34 38 27 35 42 47 35 45 53 60
and
including
flat surfaces

1Outside diameters are as in BS 3600. The same thickness of insulation would be used for copper pipework of
approximately similar outside diameters.

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TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 9 Economic thickness of insulation for non-domestic heating installations served by

gas boiler plant

Hot face temperature (in ºC) (with ambient still air at +20ºC)
Outside diameter
of steel pipe on + 75 +100 +150
which insulation
Thermal conductivity at mean temperature (in W/(m.K))
thickness has
been based 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07
(in mm) 1
Thickness of insulation (in mm)

17.2 17 22 24 26 20 24 27 31 24 29 34 37
21.3 18 23 25 27 22 25 29 33 26 32 36 39
26.9 20 24 26 29 23 27 31 34 27 33 38 42
33.7 21 25 27 31 24 28 33 36 28 35 40 44
42.4 22 25 29 32 25 30 34 38 30 37 42 47
48.3 22 26 30 33 25 31 35 39 31 38 44 48
60.3 23 27 32 35 26 32 37 41 33 39 46 50
76.1 24 28 33 36 27 34 39 43 34 42 48 52
88.9 24 29 34 37 28 35 40 45 35 43 49 53
114.3 25 31 35 39 29 36 42 47 36 45 51 56
139.7 25 32 36 41 30 37 43 48 37 47 53 59
168.3 25 32 37 42 31 38 45 50 38 48 56 61
219.1 26 33 38 44 32 40 46 52 40 51 58 65
273.0 27 34 40 45 33 41 47 53 41 52 59 68
Above 323.9 27 36 42 47 34 43 51 58 42 54 63 72
and
including
flat surfaces

1Outside diameters are as in BS 3600. The same thickness of insulation would be used for copper pipework of
approximately similar outside diameters.

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 10 Economic thickness of insulation for non-domestic heating installations served by

oil-fired plant

Hot face temperature (in ºC) (with ambient still air at +20ºC)
Outside diameter
of steel pipe on + 75 +100 +150
which insulation
Thermal conductivity at mean temperature (in W/(m.K))
thickness has
been based 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07
(in mm) 1
Thickness of insulation (in mm)

17.2 18 23 25 28 22 26 29 33 26 32 36 40
21.3 19 24 27 29 23 27 32 35 27 34 38 43
26.9 21 25 28 32 24 29 33 36 29 35 41 45
33.7 22 26 29 33 26 31 35 38 31 37 43 47
42.4 23 27 32 35 26 32 37 41 32 39 45 50
48.3 24 28 33 36 27 33 38 42 33 41 46 51
60.3 25 29 34 37 28 35 39 44 35 43 49 52
76.1 25 31 35 39 29 36 42 46 36 45 50 55
88.9 25 32 36 41 30 37 43 48 37 46 51 57
114.3 26 33 38 43 31 38 44 49 39 48 54 60
139.7 27 34 39 44 33 41 47 51 41 50 57 63
168.3 27 35 41 45 33 42 48 54 42 52 59 66
219.1 28 36 42 47 34 43 51 56 43 54 62 69
273.0 29 37 43 48 35 44 52 57 45 55 64 71
Above 323.9 31 38 45 52 37 47 55 62 47 60 69 77
and
including
flat surfaces

1Outside diameters are as in BS 3600. The same thickness of insulation would be used for copper pipework of
approximately similar outside diameters.

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TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 11 Economic thickness of insulation for non-domestic hot water services

Water temperature +60ºC)

Outside diameter
of steel pipe on Solid Fuel Gas Oil
which insulation
Thermal conductivity at mean temperature (in W/(m.K))
thickness has
been based 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07 0.025 0.04 0.055 0.07
(in mm) 1
Thickness of insulation (in mm)

17.2 17 21 24 27 20 24 28 32 22 27 31 34
21.3 18 22 25 28 22 26 30 34 23 28 32 36
26.9 20 23 27 29 23 28 32 35 24 29 34 38
33.7 20 24 28 31 24 29 33 37 26 31 36 40
42.4 21 26 30 33 25 31 34 39 28 33 38 42
48.3 22 27 31 34 26 32 36 40 29 34 39 43
60.3 23 28 32 36 27 33 38 42 30 36 41 45
76.1 23 29 34 37 28 35 40 44 31 37 42 47
88.9 24 30 35 38 29 36 41 45 32 38 44 48
114.3 25 31 36 40 30 37 43 47 33 40 46 51
139.7 25 32 37 41 31 38 44 50 34 41 47 54
168.3 26 33 38 42 32 39 45 52 34 42 51 56
219.1 26 34 39 44 33 41 47 55 35 44 53 59
273.0 27 35 40 45 34 42 51 57 36 45 55 61
Above 323.9 29 36 42 50 35 44 54 61 40 51 59 65
and
including
flat surfaces

1Outside diameters are as in BS 3600. The same thickness of insulation would be used for copper pipework of
approximately similar outside diameters.

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 12 Economic thickness of insulation for domestic central heating installations

in heated areas
Outside diameter Water temperature of +75ºC with ambient still air temperature of + 20ºC
of copper pipe
(in mm) Thermal conductivity at +40ºC (in W/(m.K))

0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045

Thickness of insulation (in mm)

10 17 18 19 20 27
12 18 19 20 21 29
15 18 19 21 29 31
22 20 29 30 32 33
28 21 30 32 34 35
35 22 32 34 35 37
42 22 33 35 37 39
54 23 35 37 39 40
Flat surfaces 29 31 34 36 38

Table 13 Economic thickness of insulation for domestic central heating installations

in unheated areas

Water temperature of +75ºC with ambient still air temperature of -1ºC

Outside diameter Thermal conductivity at +40ºC (in W/(m.K))
of copper pipe
(in mm) 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045

Thickness of insulation (in mm)

10 19 20 21 32 34
12 20 21 22 32 34
15 21 22 32 33 35
22 22 32 34 35 36
28 23 34 36 36 36
35 24 35 37 38 39
42 25 37 38 39 40
54 26 37 38 39 40
Flat surfaces 34 37 40 43 45

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TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 14 Economic thickness of insulation for domestic hot water systems in heated areas

Water temperature of +60ºC with ambient still air temperature of + 20ºC

Outside diameter Thermal conductivity at +40ºC (in W/(m.K))
of copper pipe
(in mm) 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045

Thickness of insulation (in mm)

10 13 14 14 14 15
12 13 14 14 15 16
15 13 14 14 16 17
22 14 15 16 17 18
28 14 15 16 18 19
35 15 17 17 19 19
42 15 17 18 19 20
54 16 18 19 20 21
Flat surfaces 20 22 24 24 25

Table 15 Economic thickness of insulation for domestic hot water systems in unheated areas

Water temperature of +60ºC with ambient still air temperature of -1ºC

Outside diameter Thermal conductivity at +40ºC (in W/(m.K))
of copper pipe
(in mm) 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045

Thickness of insulation (in mm)

10 14 15 16 17 18
12 15 16 17 18 19
15 15 17 17 19 19
22 16 18 20 20 21
28 17 19 20 21 30
35 18 20 21 22 31
42 19 20 22 23 32
54 20 21 23 33 34
Flat surfaces 23 25 25 29 31

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TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 16 Economic thickness of insulation for process pipework and equipment

Hot face temperature at mean temperature (in ºC) (with ambient still air at +20ºC)

+100 +200 +300

Outside diameter
of steel pipe Thermal conductivity at mean temperature (in W/(m.K))
(in mm)
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07

Thickness of insulation (in mm)

17.2 28 31 35 38 41 45 49 52 56 59 52 57 61 66 70
21.3 29 33 37 40 43 46 50 54 58 62 55 60 65 70 74
26.9 31 35 39 43 46 50 54 59 63 67 59 64 69 74 78
33.7 33 36 40 44 48 52 56 61 65 69 61 66 72 77 82
42.4 36 40 45 49 53 56 61 67 72 77 67 73 79 84 90
48.3 38 42 47 51 55 59 64 70 75 80 70 77 82 88 95
60.3 41 45 50 55 59 63 69 75 81 86 76 82 89 96 102
76.1 42 47 52 57 62 67 73 79 85 90 78 86 94 101 107
88.9 44 49 54 59 64 70 76 82 89 94 83 90 98 105 112
101.6 45 50 56 62 66 73 79 85 91 97 85 93 101 109 116
114.3 46 52 57 63 68 76 80 87 93 99 87 95 103 111 118
139.7 49 54 60 66 71 78 84 92 99 105 94 102 110 118 125
168.3 52 58 64 70 76 83 90 98 105 111 101 107 117 126 134
219.1 54 60 67 74 80 87 95 104 112 119 105 114 124 133 142
244.5 55 62 69 76 82 89 98 106 115 122 108 117 127 137 146
273 56 64 71 78 84 94 100 110 118 126 113 120 132 142 151
323.9 58 66 73 80 86 94 104 114 123 132 115 123 135 145 154
355.6 59 67 74 81 88 97 107 116 125 134 116 125 137 147 156
406.4 62 69 76 83 90 100 109 118 127 136 118 128 140 150 159
457 63 70 77 84 91 102 111 120 129 138 121 132 144 154 163
508 65 72 79 86 93 105 114 123 132 141 124 134 146 156 165
Over 508 72 78 87 98 105 113 124 133 142 151 127 137 151 161 170
and incl. flat
surfaces

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TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 16 Economic thickness of insulation for process pipework and equipment cont...

Hot face temperature at mean temperature (in ºC) (with ambient still air at +20ºC)
Outside
+400 +500 +600 +700
diameter
of steel Thermal conductivity at mean temperature (in W/(m.K))
pipe
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
(in mm)
Thickness of insulation (in mm)

17.2 64 69 74 79 83 76 81 86 91 95 89 93 98 103 107 99 104 109 114 119

21.3 68 73 78 83 88 81 86 91 96 101 93 98 103 108 113 105 110 115 120 125
26.9 73 78 83 89 94 87 92 98 103 107 100 105 110 115 120 113 118 123 128 133
33.7 76 81 87 92 97 89 95 100 106 111 103 108 114 119 124 116 121 127 132 137
42.4 83 89 96 102 107 99 105 111 117 123 114 120 126 132 137 128 134 140 146 152
48.3 87 93 100 106 112 103 109 116 122 128 119 125 132 138 143 134 140 146 152 158
60.3 94 101 108 115 121 111 118 125 132 138 128 135 142 149 156 144 151 158 165 172
76.1 99 106 114 121 127 117 124 132 139 146 135 142 149 156 163 152 159 166 173 180
88.9 103 110 118 126 133 123 130 138 145 152 141 148 156 163 170 159 166 174 181 189
101.6 106 114 123 130 138 126 134 142 150 157 145 153 161 169 177 164 172 180 187 195
114.3 109 116 125 133 140 129 137 145 153 160 149 157 165 173 181 167 175 183 191 198
139.7 116 124 133 141 149 138 146 155 163 171 158 167 175 184 190 179 187 195 204 211
168.3 124 132 142 151 159 147 156 165 174 182 170 178 188 196 205 191 200 209 218 227
219.1 130 140 151 161 171 156 166 176 186 195 180 190 200 210 220 203 213 223 233 243
244.5 135 145 156 165 175 161 171 182 192 201 186 196 206 216 226 210 220 230 240 250
273 139 149 160 170 180 166 176 188 198 207 191 202 213 224 235 217 227 238 248 258
323.9 142 153 164 174 184 171 181 193 202 212 196 207 218 229 240 223 233 244 254 264
355.6 146 157 168 178 188 177 185 197 206 216 201 212 224 235 245 230 240 251 261 271
406.4 149 160 171 181 192 181 189 202 213 223 207 218 230 241 252 234 245 257 269 279
457 153 165 176 187 198 187 196 209 220 231 213 225 238 250 261 242 254 266 278 289
508 155 168 179 191 202 191 200 213 226 237 218 231 244 256 267 248 260 273 285 296
Over 508 158 171 182 195 205 194 207 218 230 239 228 240 250 261 270 257 271 279 293 304
and incl.
flat
surfaces

Note: For thicknesses in bold type, the outside surface temperature is likely to exceed 50ºC if a low emissivity
surface is used, i.e. bright metal

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

TABLES REPRODUCED FROM BS 5422: 1990

Table 17 Fuel cost comparisons: cost of heat related to fuel price

Cost of heat Fuel oil at Natural gas at Solid fuel at Solid fuel at Electricity at
70% efficiency 70% efficiency 55% efficiency 70% efficiency 100% efficiency
pence/useful pence/l pence/therm £/t £/t pence/kWh
MJ

0.30 7.89 22.16 38.4 58.61 1.08

0.40 10.52 29.54 51.2 78.15 1.44
0.50 13.15 36.93 64.0 97.68 1.80
0.56 14.73 41.36 71.7 109.40 2.02
0.60 15.78 44.31 76.8 117.22 2.16
0.64 16.83 47.27 81.9 125.03 2.30
0.68 17.88 50.22 87.0 132.85 2.49
0.72 18.94 53.18 92.1 140.66 2.59
0.76 19.99 56.13 97.2 148.48 2.74
0.80 21.04 59.08 102.4 156.29 2.88
0.84 22.09 62.04 107.5 164.11 3.02
0.88 23.14 65.00 112.6 171.92 3.17
0.92 24.20 67.96 117.7 174.74 3.31
0.96 25.25 70.91 122.8 187.55 3.46
1.00 26.30 73.87 128.0 195.37 3.60
1.04 27.35 76.82 133.1 203.18 3.74
1.08 28.40 79.77 133.2 203.66 3.89
1.12 29.46 82.73 143.3 218.81 4.03
1.16 30.51 85.68 148.4 226.67 4.18
1.20 31.56 88.64 153.5 234.44 4.32

NOTE 1: The first column shows the basic costs required for economic thickness calculations. The range
covers both past prices and possible future price increases.
NOTE 2: The efficiencies given in the column headings indicate the values assumed in the calculations; they
do not represent the actual operating efficiency. In practice the system efficiency for a particular
application may be considerably lower than the values given.

This Table is based on Table 36 in BS 5422: 1990. The column headed ‘Fuel oil at 70% efficiency’ has
been recalculated and is not taken from the British Standard. Copies of the original document can be
obtained by post from British Standards Institution, Sales Department, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes,
MK14 6LE.

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 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

APPENDIX 3

HEAT LOSS GRAPHS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS AND SURFACE TEMPERATURES

A wide variety of pipe insulation products is
available from many different companies. The
heat loss graphs are based on four common
product types, which are given below.
■ Preformed rigid fibrous sections (including
rock and glass fibres) (Graphs 1-10)
■ Preformed rigid calcium silicate or (up to
300°C) 85% magnesia sections.
(Graphs 11 - 20)
■ Preformed rigid polyisocyanurate or (up to
100°C) polyurethane sections
(Graphs 21 - 23)
■ Preformed expanded nitrile rubber and
polyethylene foam sections (Graphs 24 - 25)

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 Graph 1 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 50ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

26
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 2 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 75ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

27
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 3 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 100ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

28
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 4 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 150ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

29
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 5 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 200ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

30
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 6 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 300ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

31
32 11/4

25 1

20 3/
4
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

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10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 7 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 400ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

32
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 8 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 500ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

33
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 9 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 600ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 38 32 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

34
Nominal bore (mm)
Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

25 1

20 3/
4
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

15 1/
2

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10 3/
8

10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 10 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 700ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 3832 25 19 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

35
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2
PREFORMED RIGID FIBROUS SECTIONS

10 3/
8

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10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 11 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 50ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

500 20
SECTIONS

450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

36
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 12 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 75ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

SECTIONS
500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

37
32 11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 13 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 100ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

20
SECTIONS

500
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

38
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 14 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 150ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

500 20
SECTIONS
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

39
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 15 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 200ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

SECTIONS

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32

40
11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 16 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 300ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

500 20
SECTIONS
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

41
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 17 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 400ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 150 125 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

SECTIONS

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

42
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 18 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 500ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

100
SECTIONS
Insulation thickness (mm) 200 175 150 125 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe
500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

43
Nominal bore (mm)
Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 19 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 600ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

100
SECTIONS

Insulation thickness (mm) 200 175 150 125 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

44
Nominal bore (mm)
Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 3/
8

10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 20 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 700ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

100
Insulation thickness (mm) 200 175 150 125 88 75 63 50 38 25 Bare pipe
500 20
18
SECTIONS
450
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

45
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
10 W/m 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Btu/ft h 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Heat loss
PREFORMED RIGID CALCIUM SILICATE OR 85% MAGNESIA
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES
 Graph 21 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 70ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 19 Bare pipe

SECTIONS

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32

46
11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/

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1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

PREFORMED RIGID POLYISOCYANURATE OR POLYURETHANE

 Graph 22 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 100ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 19 Bare pipe

SECTIONS
500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32

47
11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

PREFORMED RIGID POLYISOCYANURATE OR POLYURETHANE

 Graph 23 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 145ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 100 88 75 63 50 38 25 19 Bare pipe

SECTIONS

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

48
32 11/4

25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/

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1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

PREFORMED RIGID POLYISOCYANURATE OR POLYURETHANE

 Graph 24 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 50ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 50 38 32 25 19 13 9 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10
FOAM SECTIONS

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

49
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

PREFORMED EXPANDED NITRILE RUBBER AND POLYETHYLENE

 Graph 25 Heat loss for pipes with surface temperature of 75ºC with varying insulation thicknesses

Insulation thickness (mm) 50 38 32 25 19 13 9 Bare pipe

500 20
450 18
400 16
350 14
300 12
250 10
FOAM SECTIONS

200 8

150 6
125 5
100 4

80 3
65 21/2

50 2

40 11/2

Nominal bore (mm)

Nominal bore (inches)

32 11/4

50
25 1

20 3/
4

15 1/
2

10 3/
8

ARCHIVED DOCUMENT
1 W/m 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Btu/ft h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000

Heat loss
THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

PREFORMED EXPANDED NITRILE RUBBER AND POLYETHYLENE

 THE ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR HOT PIPES

APPENDIX 4 SOME BASIC HEAT TRANSFER FORMULAE

SOME BASIC HEAT TRANSFER FORMULAE approximately equal to process stream

The various methods of estimating the economic temperature
thickness of insulation have made reasonable t2 = outside temperature of insulation
assumptions about the ambient conditions. tm = ambient temperature (°C)
Since these can have a significant effect on the ri = radius of outer surface of insulation (m)
rate of heat loss, any serious divergence from the r0 = outer radius of pipe (m)
assumed conditions should be analysed as an di = diameter of outer surface of insulation (m)
individual case. This requires the use of basic h = surface heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
heat transfer equations. There are many k = thermal conductivity of insulation
standard texts on heat transfer which give (W/m.k)
These equations are used to find the heat loss
Q = U (t1 - tm) . . . A1 per metre length of pipe. The overall heat
transfer coefficient, U, is determined first by
complete details but the basic equations are: solving equation A2. Equation A1 then gives the
required value. The problem is determining a
1 = 1 + ln (ri/ro) . . . A2
suitable value for h, the surface heat transfer
U 3.142dih 6.284 k
coefficient. This can be done from first
and principles (see any standard text on the subject)
Where: or Table 22 can be used to give an approximate
Q = heat loss per metre length of pipe (W/m) value.
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2)
t1 = pipe surface temperature (°C) -

Table 22 Variation of outer surface coefficient with temperature difference between surface and air
for various outer dimensions of insulation
High emissivity surface Low emissivity surface
Outer diameter Temperature difference (t2 - tm) (in K)
insulation (in mm)
1 2 5 10 1 2 5 10

Outer surface coefficient, h (in W/(m2.K))

40 8.0 8.4 9.1 9.7 3.4 3.9 4.7 5.4

60 7.6 8.0 8.7 9.3 3.1 3.5 4.2 4.9
100 7.3 7.7 8.3 8.8 2.7 3.1 3.8 4.4
200 7.0 7.4 7.9 8.4 2.4 2.8 3.4 4.0
Vertical flat surface 6.6 7.0 7.5 8.0 2.0 2.4 3.0 3.6

NOTE: The above figures refer to the outer surface of the insulation

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51
Titles in the Fuel Efficiency Booklet series are: 17 Economic use of coal-fired boiler plant
1 Energy audits for industry 19 Process plant insulation and fuel efficiency
1B Energy audits for buildings 20 Energy efficiency in road transport
2 Steam
3 Economic use of fired space heaters for industry Fuel Efficiency booklets are part of the Energy
and commerce Efficiency Best Practice programme, an initiative
4 Compressed air and energy use aimed at advancing and promoting ways of
7 Degree days improving the efficiency with which energy is
8 The economic thickness of insulation for used in the UK.
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9 Economic use of electricity in industry further information please contact the addresses
9B Economic use of electricity in buildings below.
10 Controls and energy savings Overseas customers please remit £3 per copy
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12 Energy management and good lighting practices address with order to cover cost of packaging
13 Waste avoidance methods and posting. Please make cheques, drafts or
14 Economic use of oil-fired boiler plant money orders payable to ETSU or BRECSU, as
15 Economic use of gas-fired boiler plant appropriate.
16 Economic thickness of insulation for existing
industrial buildings

The Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme provides Energy Consumption Guides: compare energy use in
impartial, authoritative information on energy efficiency techniques and specific processes, operations, plant and building types.
technologies in industry, transport and buildings. This information is Good Practice: promotes proven energy efficient
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Further information Future Practice: reports on joint R & D ventures into new
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For buildings-related publications For industrial and transport
please contact: publications please contact: General Information: describes concepts and approaches
yet to be fully established as good practice.
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