Structural Steelwork Eurocodes

Development of
A Trans-national Approach
Course: Eurocode 3

Module 7 : Worked Examples

Lecture 20 : Simple braced frame

Contents:

1. Simple Braced Frame

1.1 Characteristic Loads
1.2 Design Loads Fd = F Fk
1.3 Partial Safety Factors for Strength

2. Floor Beam - Fully Restrained

2 2.1 Classification of Cross-section
2.1.1Flange buckling
2.1.2 Web buckling
2.2 Shear on Web
2.3 Deflection Check
2.4 Additional Checks if Section is on Seating Cleats
2.5 Crushing Resistance
2.6 Crippling Resistance
2.7 Buckling Resistance
2.8 Summary

3. Roof Beam – Restrained at Load Points

3.1 Initial Section Selection
3.2 Classification of Cross Section
3.2.1 Flange buckling
3.2.2 Web buckling
3.3 Design Buckling Resistance Moment
3.4 Shear on Web
3.5 Deflection Check
3.6 Crushing, Crippling and Buckling
3.7 Summary

4. Internal Column
4.1 Loadings
4.2 Section properties
4.3 Classification of Cross-Section
4.3.1 Flange (subject to compression)
4.3.2 Web (subject to compression)
4.4 Resistance of Cross-Section
4.5 Buckling Resistance of Member
Structural Steelwork Eurocodes –Development of a Trans-National Approach
Design of Members
Section classification
4.6 Determination of Reduction Factor y
4.7 Determination of Reduction Factor z

5. External Column
5.1 Loadings
5.2 Section properties
5.3 Classifcation of Cross-Section
5.3.1 Flange (subject to compression)
5.3.2 Web (subject to compression)
5.4 Resistance of Cross-Section
5.5 Buckling Resistance of Member
5.6 Determination of Reduction factor y
5.7 Determination of Reduction factor z

6. Design of Cross-Bracing
6.1 Section Properties
6.2 Classification of Cross-Section
6.3 Design of Compression Member
6.3.1 Resistance of Cross-section
6.3.2 Design Buckling Resistance
6.3.3 Determination of Reduction Factor ?

6.4 Design of Tension Member

6.4.1Resistance of Cross-Section

7. Concluding Summary

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1. Simple Braced Frame

The frame consists of two storeys and two bays. The frames are at 5 m spacing. The beam span
is 7,2 m. The height from column foot to the beam at floor level is 4,5 m and the height from
floor to roof is 4,2 m. It is assumed that the column foot is pinned at the foundation.

Roof Beam

External 4,2 m
Internal
Column Column

Floor Beam

4,5 m

7,2 m 7,2 m

Figure 1 Typical Cross Section of Frame

It is assumed that resistance to lateral wind loads is provided by a system of localised cross-
bracing, and that the main steel frame is designed to support gravity loads only.
The connections are designed to transmit vertical shear, and it is also assumed that the 6.4.2.1(2)
connections offer little, if any, resistance to free rotation of the beam ends.
With these assumptions, the frame is classified as ‘simple’, and the internal forces and moments 5.2.2.2
are determined using a global analysis which assumes the members to be effectively pin-
connected.

1.1 Characteristic Loads

Floor: Variable load, Qk = 3,5 kN/m2 Permanent load, Gk = 8,11 kN/m2
Roof: Variable load, Qk = 0,75 kN/m2 Permanent load, Gk = 7,17 kN/m2
2.2.2.4(1)
1.2 Design Loads Fd =  F Fk
Floor: Gd = G Gk. At ultimate limit state G = 1,35 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Gd = 1,35 x 8,11 = 10,95 kN/m2 Table 2.2
Qd = Q Qk. At ultimate limit state Q = 1,5 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Qd = 1,5 x 3,5 = 5,25 kN/m2 Table 2.2
Roof: Gd = G Gk. At ultimate limit state G = 1,35 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Gd = 1,35 x 7,17 = 9,68 kN/m2 Table 2.2
Qd = Q Qk. At ultimate limit state Q = 1,5 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Qd = 1,5 x 0,75 = 1,125 kN/m2 Table 2.2
The steel grade selected for beams, columns and joints is Fe360. Table 3.1
(fy = 235 N/mm2)

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1.3 Partial Safety Factors for Strength 2.3.3.2(1)

The following partial safety factors for strength have been adopted during the design:
 Resistance of Class 1,2 or 3 cross-section, M0 = 1,1
5.1.1(2)
 Resistance of member to buckling, M1 = 1,1 5.1.1(2)
 Resistance of bolted connections, Mb = 1,25 6.1.1(2)
The following load case, corresponding to permanent and variable actions (no horizontal loads)
is found to be critical.

2. Floor Beam - Fully Restrained

The beam shown in Figure 2 is simply supported at both ends and is fully restrained along its
length.
For the loading shown, design the beam in grade Fe360, assuming that it is carrying plaster, or a
similar brittle finish.
Fd = G Gk + Q Qk Table 2.1
Design load, Fd = (5 x 1,35 x 8,11) + (5 x 1,5 x 3,5) = 81 kN/m
81 kN/m

7,2 m

Figure 2 Loading on Fully Restrained Floor Beam

Fd L2
Design moment, MSd 
8
Where MSd is the design moment in beam span,
Fd is the design load = 81 kN/m, and L is the beam span = 7,2m.
81x7,2 2
MSd   525 kNm
8
Fd L 81x7,2
Design shear force, VSd    292 kN
2 2
To determine the section size it is assumed that the flange thickness is less than 40 mm so that Table 3.1
the design strength is 235 N/mm2, and that the section is class 1 or 2.
The design bending moment, MSd, must be less than or equal to the design moment resistance of 5.4.5.1(1)
the cross section, Mc.Rd:
MSd  Mc.Rd
Wpl fy
Mc.Rd = Mpl.y.Rd 
 M0
Where Wpl is the plastic section modulus (to be determined), Table 3.1
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and 5.1.1(2)
M0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1.
Therefore, rearranging:
M sd M0 525x103 x1,1
Wpl.required    2457 cm3
fy 235
Try IPE 550 5.4.5.1
Section properties:
Depth, h = 550 mm, Width, b = 210 mm
Web thickness, tw = 11,1 mm Flange thickness, tf = 17,2 mm
Plastic modulus, Wpl = 2787 cm3

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This notation conforms with Figure 1.1 in Eurocode 3: Part1.1.

2.1 Classification of Cross-section

As a simply supported beam is not required to have any plastic rotation capacity (only one hinge 5.3
required), it is sufficient to ensure that the section is at least class 2 to develop the plastic 5.3.2 and
moment resistance. Table 5.3.1
Figure 3 shows a typical cross-section for an IPE.
IPE sections have been used in this example to reflect the European nature of the training pack.

c 2.1.1 Flange buckling Table 5.3.1

(Sheet 3)
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an outstand of a
rolled section is 10.
 = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore 
tw
d =1.
c
Calculate the ratio , where c is half the width
tf tf
of the flange = 105 mm, and tf is the flange
thickness = 17,2 mm (if the flange is tapered, tf
should be taken as the average thickness).
c 105
  6,10
t f 17,2
Figure 3 A Typical Cross-
Section

2.1.2 Web buckling Table 5.3.1

(Sheet 1)
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to bending is 72.
 = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore  =1.
d
Calculate the ratio , where d is the depth between root radii = 467,6 mm and tw is the web
tw
thickness = 11,1 mm. Table 5.3.1
d 467,6 (Sheets 1 and
  42,1
tw 11,1 3)
c d
 10 and  72
tf tw
 Section is Class 1 and is capable of developing plastic moment.

2.2 Shear on Web

The shear resistance of the web must be checked. The design shear force, VSd, must be less than 5.4.6
or equal to the design plastic shear resistance, Vpl.Rd:

VSd  Vpl.Rd
fy / 3
Where Vpl.Rd is given by A v
 M0
For rolled I and H sections loaded parallel to the web, 5.4.6(4)
Shear area, Av = 1,04 h tw,
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and Table 3.1
M0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1. 5.1.1(2)

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1,04ht w fy 1,04 x 550 x 11,1 x 235
 Vpl.Rd    783 kN
3x M0 3 x 1,1x103

This is greater than the shear on the section (292 kN).

The shear on the beam web is OK.
If the beam has partial depth end-plates, a local shear check is required on the web of the beam
where it is welded to the end-plate.
fy / 3
Vpl.Rd  A v
 M0
where Av = twd, and
d is the depth of end-plate = (for example) 300 mm.

11,1 x 300 x 235

Vpl.Rd   411 kN
3 x 1,1 x 103
This is greater than the shear on the section (292 kN).
The local shear on the beam web is OK.

Other simple joints may be used instead, e.g. web cleat joints or fin plate joints.

A further check is sometimes required, especially when there are significant point loads, 5.4.7(3)
cantilevers or continuity, to ensure that the shear will not have a significant effect on the
moment resistance. This check is carried out for the moment and shear at the same point. The
moment resistance of the web is reduced if the shear is more than 50% of the shear resistance of
the section. With a uniform load, the maximum moment and shear are not coincident and this
check is not required for beams without web openings.

2.3 Deflection Check

Eurocode 3 requires that the deflections of the beam be checked under the following 4.2
serviceability loading conditions:
 Variable actions, and
 Permanent and variable actions.
Figure 4 shows the vertical deflections to be considered.

1 0

 max
2

Figure 4 Vertical Deflections

0 is the pre-camber (if present),

1 is the deflection due to permanent actions,
2 is the deflection caused by variable loading, and
max is the sagging in the final state relative to the straight line joining the supports.
For a plaster or similar brittle finish, the deflection limits are L/250 for max and L/350 for 2. Table 4.1
Deflection checks are based on the serviceability loading. Figure 4.1

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5 Fk L3
For a uniform load   x
384 EI y
where Fk is the total load = Qk or (Gk + Qk) as appropriate,
L is the span = 7,2 m, 3.2.5
E is the modulus of elasticity (210 000 N/mm2), and
Iy is the second moment of area about the major axis = 67120 x 104 mm4.

For permanent actions, Fk = 5 x 8,11 x 7,2 = 292 kN.

Therefore, deflection due to permanent actions,
5 x 292x103 x 72003
1   10,1 mm
384 x 210 000 x 67120x104

For variable actions, Fk = 5 x 3,5 x 7,2 = 126 kN.

Therefore, deflection due to variable actions,
5 x 126x103 x 72003
2   4,3 mm
384 x 210 000 x 67120x104

The maximum deflection,  max   1 +  2 = 10,1 + 4,3 = 14,4 mm

Table 4.1
L 7200
Deflection limit for  2    20,6 mm
350 350
The actual deflection is less than the allowable deflection: 4,3 mm < 20,6 mm Table 4.1
L 7200
Deflection limit for  max    28,8 mm
250 250

The actual deflection is less than the allowable deflection: 14,4 mm < 28,8 mm  OK.

The calculated deflections are less than the limits, so no pre-camber is required. It should be 4.3.2(2)
noted that if the structure is open to the public, there is a limit of 28 mm for the total deflection Lecture 3,
of 1 + 2 (neglecting any pre-camber) under the frequent combination, to control vibration. This section 6.2
is based on a single degree of freedom, lumped mass approach. For the frequent combination
the variable action is multiplied by , which has a value of 0,6 for offices. 2.3.4(2)

2.4 Additional Checks if Section is on Seating Cleats

There are cases where the beams may be supported on seating cleats, or on other materials such
as concrete pads. A similar situation arises when a beam supports a concentrated load applied
through the flanges. In these cases the following checks are required:
 Crushing of the web 5.7.3
 Crippling of the web 5.7.4
 Buckling of the web 5.7.5
Generally, these checks need only be carried out for short beams or beams with concentrated
loads. For the sake of completeness, these checks are included in this worked example.
The following detailed checks are for an 85 mm stiff bearing. (The actual length of stiff bearing
will depend on the detail of the connection - see Figure 5.7.2)

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5.7.3
2.5 Crushing Resistance
The crushing resistance is given by

(ss  sy )t w fyw
R y.Rd 
 M1
where ss is the length of stiff bearing = 85 mm, Table 3.1
tw is the web thickness = 11,1 mm, 5.1.1(2)
fyw is the yield strength of the web = 235 N/mm2, 5.7.3(1)
M1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1, and
sy is the length over which the effect takes place, based on the section geometry and the
longitudinal stresses in the flange.
sy = 2tf (bf/tw)0,5 (fyf/fyw)0,5 [1 - (f.Ed /fyf)2 ]0,5

At the support, the stress in the beam flange, f.Ed, is zero, fyf = fyw but the value of sy is halved at 5.7.3(3)
the end of the member.

2 x 17,2 x (210 / 11,1) 0,5

sy   75 mm
2
(85  75) x 11,1 x 235
 Crushing resistance, Ry.Rd   379,4 kN
1,1x103
This is greater than the reaction (292 kN).
The crushing resistance is OK

2.6 Crippling Resistance

The crippling resistance is given by 5.7.4(1)

2
0,5t w (Efyw ) 0,5[(t f / t w ) 0,5  3(t w / t f )(ss / d)]
R a.Rd 
 M1

where tw is the thickness of the web = 11,1 mm, 3.2.5

E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2, Table 3.1
fyw is the yield strength of the web = 235 N/mm2,
tf is the flange thickness = 17,2 mm, 5.7.4(1)
ss is the length of stiff bearing = 85 mm, but ss is limited to a maximum of 0,2d (467,6 mm x 0,2
= 93,5 mm),
d is the depth between root radii = 467,6 mm, and 5.1.1(2)
M1 is the partial material safety factor buckling resistance = 1,1.

0,5 x 11,12 (210000 x 235) 0,5[(17,2 / 11,1) 0,5  3(11,1 / 17,2)(85 / 467,6)]
R a,Rd 
1,1x103
= 626 kN

This is greater than the reaction (292 kN).

The crippling resistance is OK.

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2.7 Buckling Resistance

The buckling resistance is determined by taking a length of web as a strut. The length of web is 5.7.5
taken from Eurocode 3, which in this case, gives a length:
ss Figure 5.7.3
beff  0,5(h2  ss2 ) 0,5  a  but  [h2 + ss2]0,5
2
where h is the height of the section = 550 mm,
ss is the length of stiff bearing = 85 mm, and
a is the distance to the end of the beam = 0 mm.
85
b eff  0,5(5502  852 ) 0,5   320,5 mm
2
Provided that the construction is such that the top flange is held by a slab and the bottom by 5.7.5(4)
seating cleats, against rotation and displacement, the effective height of the web for buckling
should be taken as 0,7 x distance between fillets.
l = 467,6 mm x 0,7 = 327 mm
tw 11,1
Radius of gyration for web, i   3,2
12 12
l 327 5.5.1.4(3)
Slenderness of the web,     102
i 3,2
 5.5.1.2
Non-dimensional slenderness of the web,    A 0,5
1 5.7.5(3)
Where 1 = 93,9  = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9, and A = 1
102
 Non-dimensional slenderness of the web,    109, 5.7.5(3) and
939, Table 5.5.2
Using buckling curve c, the value of the reduction factor,  may be determined from Table
5.5.2. 5.5.1.1(1)
Reduction factor,  = 0,49
 A Afy Table 3.1
Buckling resistance of a compression member, N b.Rd 
 M1 5.1.1(2)
A is the cross-sectional area = beff tw,
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and
M1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1.
0,49 x 1 x 320,5 x 11,1 x 235
N b.Rd   372,4 kN
1,1x103
This is greater than the reaction (292 kN).
The buckling resistance is OK.

2.8 Summary
The trial section IPE 550 is satisfactory if the section is on a stiff bearing 85 mm long. If it is
supported by web cleats or welded end plates, the web checks, except for shear, are not required
and the section is again satisfactory.
The beam is satisfactory.

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3. Roof Beam - Restrained at Load Points

The roof beam shown in Figure 5 is laterally restrained at the ends and at the points of
application of load. The load is applied through purlins at 1,8 m spacings.

Internal point load = 1,8 [(5 x 1,35 x 7,17) + (5 x 1,5 x 0,75)] = 97,2 kN
External point load = 0,9 [(5 x 1,35 x 7,17) + (5 x 1,5 x 0,75)] = 48,6 kN

It is assumed that the external point loads will be applied at the end of the beams, and will
contribute to the maximum shear force applied to the end of the beam, and the moment induced
in the column due to the eccentricity of connection.

For the loading shown, design the beam in grade Fe360 steel.
48,6 kN 97,2 kN 97,2 kN 97,2 kN 48,6 kN
A B C D E

1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m

7,2 m

Figure 5 Beam Restrained at Load Points

Reactions
VSd (at supports) = [(2 x 48,6) + (3 x 97,2)] / 2 = 194,4 kN
Design Moment
Figure 6 shows the distribution of bending moments.

1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m

0 0

262,4 kNm 262,4 kNm

349,9 kNm

Figure 6 Bending Moment Diagram

Moment at mid-span (maximum)

MSd = [(194,4 - 48,6) x 3,6] - (97,2 x 1,8) = 349,9 kNm

3.1 Initial Section Selection

Table 3.1
Assume that a rolled I beam will be used and that the flanges will be less than 40 mm thick. For
grade Fe360 steel, fy = 235 N/mm2. Because the beam is unrestrained between load points, the
design resistance, Mc.Rd, of the section will be reduced by lateral torsional buckling. The final
section, allowing for the buckling resistance moment being less than the full resistance moment
of the section, would have to be determined from experience.

Try IPE O 450 5.4.5.1

Section properties:
Depth, h = 456 mm, Width, b = 192 mm
Web thickness, tw = 11 mm Flange thickness, tf = 17,6 mm
Plastic modulus, Wpl = 2046 cm3

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This notation conforms with Figure 1.1 in Eurocode 3: Part1.1.

3.2 Classification of Cross-Section

As a simply supported beam is not required to have any plastic rotation capacity (only one hinge 5.3
required), it is sufficient to ensure that the section is at least class 2 to develop the plastic 5.3.2 and
moment resistance. Table 5.3.1

3.2.1 Flange buckling Table 5.3.1

(Sheet 3)
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an outstand of a rolled section is 10.
 = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore  =1.
c
Calculate the ratio , where c is half the width of the flange = 96 mm, and tf is the flange
tf
thickness = 17,6 mm (if the flange is tapered, tf should be taken as the average thickness).
c 96
  5,5
t f 17,6

3.2.2 Web buckling Table 5.3.1

(Sheet 1)
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to bending is 72.
 = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore  =1.
d
Calculate the ratio , where d is the depth between root radii = 378,8 mm and tw is the web
tw
thickness = 11,0 mm. Table 5.3.1
d 378,8 (Sheets 1 and
  34,4
tw 11,0 3)
c d
 10 and  72
tf tw
 Section is Class 1.

3.3 Design Buckling Resistance Moment 5.5.2

The design buckling resistance moment of a laterally unrestrained beam is given by:

 LT  W Wpl.y f y Table 5.5.2

M b.Rd =
 M1 5.5.2(4)

in which LT is the reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, from Table 5.5.2, for the
appropriate value of  LT , using curve a for rolled sections.

In this case full lateral restraint is provided at the supports and at the load points B, C and D. In
general, all segments need to be checked, but in this case they are all of equal length. The
segments B - C and C - D are subject to the most severe condition, but with symmetrical
loading only one segment needs to be checked.

Segment B - C Annex F
The value of LT can be determined using Annex F. For segment B - C it is assumed that the
purlins at B and C provide the following conditions:
 restraint against lateral movement,
 restraint against rotation about the longitudinal axis (i.e. torsional/twisting restraint), and
 freedom to rotate in plan.
i.e. k = kw = 1,0 F.1.2(2)

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For this example, the general formula for LT has been used, as the section is doubly symmetric
and end-moment loading is present.
The following formula for LT may be used: Equation
F.15
L / i LT
 LT  0 , 25
  L / a LT  2 
C1
0 ,5
1  
 25,66 


where L is the length between B and C = 1800 mm,

Iz is the second moment of area about the z - z axis = 2085 x 104 mm4,
Iw is the warping constant = 998 x 109 mm6,
Wpl.y is the plastic modulus about the y - y axis = 2046 x 103 mm3, and
It is the torsion constant = 89,3 x 104 mm4.
0,25 0,25 F.2.2(3)
 II   2085x104 x 998x109 
i LT   z w2     47,2 mm
 Wpl.y   (2046x10 3 ) 2 
0,5 0,5 F.2.2(1)
I   998x109 
a LT   w    957 mm
 It   109x104 
Note: These properties will probably be tabulated in handbooks.
See also appendix A at the end of this example.
C1 is the correction factor for the effects of any change of moment along the length, L.
 = 262,4/349,9 = 0,75, k = 1, therefore C1 = 1,141
Table F.1.1
Substituting into the above equation:
1800 / 47,2
 LT   34 ,6
2 0 , 25

1,1410,5 1 
 1800 / 957  

 25,66 
 LT 0,5 5.5.2(4)
Non-dimensional slenderness,  LT  w
1
Where 1 = 93,9  = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9, 5.5.2(5)
w = 1 for class 1 sections.
34 ,6
Therefore,  LT  (1,0) 0,5  0,37
93,9

For rolled I sections, buckling curve a should be used. From Table 5.5.2, the reduction factor, Table 5.5.3
LT = 0,96. (This represents a 4% strength reduction due to moment) Table 5.5.2
Wpl.y is the plastic modulus about the y - y axis = 2046 x 103 mm3,
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2, and Table 3.1
M1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1. 5.1.1(2)

The design buckling resistance moment for segment B - C is:

5.5.2
 LT  W Wpl.y f y 0,96 x 1 x 2046x103 x 235
M b.Rd =   419,6 kNm
 M1 1,1 x 106

Mb.Rd = 419,6 kNm > MSd = 349,9 kNm, therefore the section is satisfactory.

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5.4.6(1)
3.4 Shear on Web
The maximum shear occurs at the supports, VSd = 194,4 kN.
The design shear resistance for a rolled I section is:
5.4.6(4)

Vpl.Rd 

1,04ht w fy / 3 
 M0
Table 3.1
5.1.1(2)
where h is the height of the section = 456 mm,
tw is the web thickness = 11 mm,
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2, and
M0 is the partial material safety factor for the resistance of the cross-section = 1,1.

1,04 x 456 x 11 x 235

Vpl.Rd   643 kN
3 x 1,1 x 103

VSd = 194,4 kN < Vpl.Rd = 643 kN, therefore the section is satisfactory.
Inspection shows that VSd < (Vpl.Rd / 2), so there is no reduction in moment resistance due to the 5.4.7(2)
shear in the web.

3.5 Deflection Check

Eurocode 3 requires that the deflections of the beam be checked under the following 4.2
serviceability loading conditions:

 Variable actions, and

 Permanent and variable actions.

For a general roof, the deflection limits are L/200 for max and L/250 for 2. Deflection checks Table 4.1
are based on the serviceability loading. Figure 4.1
Consider the deflection from the permanent loading.
For a point load, distance a from the end of the beam:

Fk a  L2 a 2 
Central deflection,     
EI y  16 12  3.2.5(1)

where Fk is the value of one point load = (7,17 x 5 x 1,8) = 64,5 kN,
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2,
Iy is the second moment of area about the major axis = 40920 x 104 mm4,
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m, and
a is the distance from the support to the adjacent load = 1,8 m.

64,5x103 x 1800  72002 18002 

Central deflection,       4,0 mm
210 000 x 40920x104  16 12 

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For a central point load:

Fk L3
Central deflection,  
48EI y
3.2.5(1)
where Fk is the value of one point load = (7,17 x 5 x 1,8) = 64,5 kN,
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m,
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2, and
Iy is the second moment of area about the major axis = 40920 x 104 mm4.

64,5x103 x 72003
Central deflection,    5,8 mm
48 x 210 000 x 40920x104

Total deflection due to permanent loading, 1 = 5,8 + (2 x 4,0) = 13,8 mm

Consider the deflection from the variable loading.

For a point load, distance a from the end of the beam:

Fk a  L2 a 2 
Central deflection,     
EI y  16 12 
where Fk is the value of one point load = (0,75 x 5 x 1,8) = 6,75 kN, 3.2.5(1)
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2,
Iy is the second moment of area about the major axis = 40920 x 104 mm4,
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m, and
a is the distance from the support to the adjacent load = 1,8 m.
6,75x103 x 1800  72002 18002 
Central deflection,       0,4 mm
210 000 x 40920x104  16 12 

For a central point load:

Fk L3
Central deflection,  
48EI y
3.2.5(1)
where Fk is the value of one point load = (0,75 x 5 x 1,8) = 6,75 kN,
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m,
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2, and
Iy is the second moment of area about the major axis = 40920 x 104 mm4.

6,75x103 x 72003
Central deflection,    0,6 mm
48 x 210 000 x 40920x104

Total deflection due to variable loading, 2 = 0,6 + (2 x 0,4) = 1,4 mm

Therefore, the total central deflection, max = 1 + 2 = 13,8 + 1,4 = 15,2 mm.

The limit for 2 is L/250 = 7200/250 = 28,8 mm. The limit for max = L/200 = 7200/200 = 36 Table 4.1
mm. 13,8 mm < 28,8 mm and 15,5 mm < 36 mm, therefore the deflections are within limits and and Figure
no pre-camber of the beam is required. 4.1

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3.6 Crushing, Crippling and Buckling 5.7.1

If the beam is supported on seating cleats, the checks for web crushing, crippling and buckling
must be made. To satisfy the assumptions made in the design, both flanges must be held in place
laterally, relative to each other. If seating cleats are used then the top flange must be held
laterally. There is no requirement to prevent the flanges from rotating in plan, as k has been
taken as 1,0.

3.7 Summary
All Eurocode recommendations are satisfied, therefore this beam is satisfactory.
The beam is satisfactory.

4. Internal Column
The internal column shown in Figure 7 is subject to loads from the roof and one floor. Design
the column for the given loading, in grade Fe360 steel, as a member in simple framing.

4.1 Loadings
(54 x 7,2)
At roof level, the applied axial load  2 x  389 kN
2
(81 x 7,2)
At first floor level, the applied axial load  2 x  583 kN
2
 Maximum load, from the first floor to the base, = 389 + 583 kN = 972 kN
Roof

4,2 m
Internal
Column
Floor

4,5 m

Figure 7 Internal Column

Consider the column from ground floor to first floor.

The size of the column must be determined from experience and then checked for compliance
with the Eurocode rules.

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4.2 Section Properties

Try an HE 240 A Grade Fe360 (terminology in accordance with EC3)
h = 230 mm b = 240 mm
tw = 7,5 mm tf = 12 mm
d/tw = 21,9 c/tf = 10
A = 7680 mm2 Iy = 77,63 x 106 mm4
Iw = 328 x 109 mm6 Iz = 27,7 x 106 mm4
It = 41,6 x 104 mm4 Wpl.y = 745 x 103 mm3
3 3
Wel.y = 675 x 10 mm iy = 101 mm
iz = 60 mm
0,25 0,25 F.2.2(3)
 II   27,7x106 x 328x109 
i Lt   z w2     63,6 mm
 Wpl.y   (745x103 ) 2 
0,5 0,5 F.2.2(1)
I   328x109 
a Lt   w     888 mm
 It   41,6x104 
All the above properties can be obtained from section property tables.

5.3
4.3 Classification of Cross Section
This section is designed to withstand axial force only. No moment is applied as the connecting
beams are equally loaded.
Table 5.3.1
4.3.1 Flange (subject to compression) (Sheet 3)
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an outstand of a rolled section is 10.
 = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore  = 1.
From section properties, c/tf = 10
Table 5.3.1
4.3.2 Web (subject to compression) (Sheet 1)
Table 3.5.1
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to compression only is 33.
(Sheets 1 and
From section properties, d/tw = 21,9
3)
c/tf  10 and d/tw  33 Class 1
Class 1 section. section
5.4.4
4.4 Resistance of Cross-Section
It is highly unlikely that the resistance of the cross-section will be the critical case - it is
generally the buckling resistance that governs the suitability of a cross-section. For the sake of
completeness, the check is included in this worked example. The resistance of the cross-section
will only be critical if a short, stocky column is used.
For members in axial compression, the design value of the compressive force, NSd, at each 5.4.4(1)
cross-section shall satisfy NSd  Nc.Rd
For a class 1 cross-section, the design compression resistance of the cross-section, Nc.Rd, may be 5.4.4(2)
determined as:
Afy
N c.Rd 
 M0
where A is cross-sectional area = 7680 mm2, Table 3.1
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and 5.1.1(2)
M0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1.

7680 x 235
N c.Rd   1641 kN
1,1x103

NSd = 972 kN, therefore Nsd  Nc.Rd. The section can resist the applied axial load.

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4.5 Buckling Resistance of Member

A class 1 member should be checked for failure due to flexural and lateral torsional buckling.
Here, since My = Mz = 0, only failure due to flexural buckling needs to be checked.
The design buckling resistance of a compression member shall be taken as: 5.5.1.1(1)

 A Afy
N b.Rd  5.5.1.1(1)
 M1

where  is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode, Table 3.1
A = 1 for class 1 cross-section, 5.1.1.(2)
A is the cross-sectional area = 7680 mm2,
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2 , and
M1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1.

The magnitude of the reduction factor,  depends on the reduced slenderness of the columns. 
is the lesser of y and z, where y and z are the reduction factors from clause 5.5.1 for the y-y
and z-z axes respectively. Values of  for the appropriate value of non-dimensional slenderness,
 may be obtained from Table 5.5.2.
   0,5 5.5.1.2(1)
Non-dimensional slenderness,    A
 1 
l 5.5.1.4(3)
Where the slenderness,  
i
l is the column buckling length, and
i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis. 5.5.1.5(2)
The braced frame is designed as a simple “pinned” structure. Therefore, the buckling length
ratio l/L is equal to 1 - the buckling length is equal to the system length.
0,5 5.5.1.2(1)
 E
 1      93,9
 fy 

4.6 Determination of Reduction Factor,  y 5.5.1.4(3)

Slenderness, y = l/iy = 4500/101 = 44,6
1 = 93,9 = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
   44,6 
Non-dimensional slenderness,  y   y   A 0,5    x 1  0,47
0,5

 1   93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, y = 0,89 Table 5.5.3
Table 5.5.2

4.7 Determination of Reduction Factor,  z 5.5.1.4(3)

Slenderness, z = l/iz = 4500/60 = 75
1 = 93,9 = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
   75  Table 5.5.3
Non-dimensional slenderness,  y   z   A 0,5    x 1  0,8
0,5
Table 5.5.2

 1  93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve c,the reduction factor, z = 0,6622
Therefore  = z = 0,6622.
Design buckling resistance of member: 5.5.1.1(1)
 A Afy 0,6622 x 1 x 7680 x 235
N b.Rd    1086 kN
 M1 1,1x103
The design buckling resistance of the member is greater than the applied load (972 kN),
therefore the column is satisfactory.
The column is OK.

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5. External Column
The external column shown in Figure 8 is subject to loads from the roof and one floor. Design
the column for the loading given below, in grade Fe360 steel, as a member in simple framing.

5.1 Loadings
(54 x 7,2)
At roof level, the applied axial load   194 kN
2
(81 x 7,2)
At first floor level, the applied axial load   292 kN
2
 Maximum load, from first floor to base, = 194 + 292 kN = 486 kN

The beams in the frame are designed to span from column centre to column centre, therefore all
axial load is applied at the mid-point of the column. No moment due to eccentricity of applied
load is therefore applied to the column.
See Annex H
Roof

4,2 m

First Floor

4,5 m

Figure 8 External Column

Consider the column from ground floor to first floor.
The size of the column must be determined from experience and then checked for compliance
with the Eurocode rules.

5.2 Section Properties

Try an HE 200 A Grade Fe360
h = 190 mm b = 200 mm
tw = 6,5 mm tf = 10 mm
d/tw = 20,6 c/tf = 10
A = 5380 mm2 Iy = 36,92 x 106 mm4
Iw = 108 x 109 mm6 Iz = 13,36 x 106 mm4
It = 21,0 x 104 mm4 Wpl.y = 429 x 103 mm3
Wel.y = 389 x 103 mm3 iy = 82,8 mm
iz = 49,8 mm
0,25 0,25 F.2.2(3)
 II  13,36x106 x 108x10 9 
i Lt   z w 2     52,9 mm
 Wpl.y   (429x103 ) 2 

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0,5 0,5 F.2.2(1)
I   108x10 9 
a Lt   w     717 mm
 It   21,0x104 
All the above properties can be obtained from section property tables.
5.3
5.3 Classification of Cross Section
This section is designed to withstand axial force only.
Table 5.3.1
5.3.1 Flange (subject to compression) (Sheet 3)
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an outstand of a rolled section is 10.
 = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2,   = 1.
10 = 10 x 1 = 10
From section properties, c/tf = 10
Table 5.3.1
5.3.2 Web (subject to compression) (Sheet 1)
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to compression only is 33.
 = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2,   = 1.
33 = 33 x 1 = 33
From section properties, d/tw = 20,6
c/tf  10 and d/tw  33 Table 5.3.1
Class 1 section. (Sheets 1 and
3)
5.4.4
5.4 Resistance of Cross-Section
It is highly unlikely that the resistance of the cross-section will be the critical case - it is
generally the buckling resistance that governs the suitability of a cross-section. For the sake of
completeness, the check is included in this worked example. The resistance of the cross-section
will only be critical if a short stocky column is used.
For members in axial compression, the design value of the compressive force, NSd, at each 5.4.4(1)
cross-section shall satisfy NSd  Nc.Rd
For a class 1 cross-section, the design compression resistance of the cross-section, Nc.Rd, may be 5.4.4(2)
determined as:
Afy
N c.Rd 
 M0
where A is cross-sectional area = 5380 mm2, Table 3.1
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and 5.1.1(2)
M0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1.
5380 x 235
N c.Rd   1149 kN
1,1x103
NSd = 486 kN, therefore Nsd  Nc.Rd. The section can resist the applied axial load.

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5.5 Buckling Resistance of Member

A class 1 member should be checked for failure due to flexural and lateral torsional buckling.
Here, since My = Mz = 0, only failure due to flexural buckling needs to be checked.
The design buckling resistance of a compression member shall be taken as: 5.5.1.1(1)
 A Afy
N b.Rd 
 M1 5.5.1.1(1)
where  is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode,
A = 1 for class 1 cross-section,
A is the cross-sectional area = 5380 mm2, Table 3.1
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2 , and 5.1.1.(2)
M1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1.
The magnitude of the reduction factor,  depends on the reduced slenderness of the columns. 
is the lesser of y and z, where y and z are the reduction factors from clause 5.5.1 for the y-y
and z-z axes respectively. Values of  for the appropriate value of non-dimensional slenderness,
 may be obtained from Table 5.5.2.

   0,5 5.5.1.2(1)
Non-dimensional slenderness,    A
 1 
l 5.5.1.4(3)
Where the slenderness,  
i
l is the column buckling length, and
i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis. 5.5.1.5(2)
The braced frame is designed as a simple “pinned” structure. Therefore, the buckling length Annex E
ratio l/L is equal to 1 - the buckling length is equal to the system length. Figure E.2.1
0,5
 E 5.5.1.2(1)
 1      93,9
 fy 

5.6 Determination of Reduction Factor,  y 5.5.1.4(3)

Slenderness, y = l/iy = 4500/82,8 = 54,3
1 = 93,9 = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
   54,3 
Non-dimensional slenderness,  y   y   A 0,5    x 1  0,58
0,5

 1   93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, y = 0,84 Table 5.5.3
Table 5.5.2

5.7 Determination of Reduction Factor,  z 5.5.1.4(3)

Slenderness, z = l/iz = 4500/49,8 = 90,4
1 = 93,9 = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
   90,4  Table 5.5.3
Non-dimensional slenderness,  y   z   A 0,5    x 1  0,96
0,5
Table 5.5.2
 1   93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve c,the reduction factor, z = 0,55
Therefore  = z = 0,55.
Design buckling resistance of member: 5.5.1.1(1)
 A Af y 0,55 x 1 x 5380 x 235
N b.Rd    632,2 kN
 M1 1,1x103
The design buckling resistance of the member is greater than the applied load (486 kN),
therefore the column is satisfactory.
The column is OK.

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6. Design of Cross-Bracing
All horizontal loading will be resisted by bracing. For the purpose of illustration assume this
will be present on every other frame (i.e. at 10 m spacing). It is more likely that bracing will be
located at each end of the building or perhaps in a stair/lift well. The forces may therefore be
greater than here but the principles would remain the same. For the loading shown, design the 2.2.2.4(2)
bracing members in grade Fe360 steel. Table 2.2

Characteristic wind load, Qk = 1,6 kN/m2.

Design wind load, Qd = Q Qk

At ultimate limit state, Q = 1,5 (unfavourable), Qd = 1,5 x 1,6 = 2,4 kN/m2.

Therefore, the total load (per m height of frame) = 10 x 2,4 = 24 kN/m.

4,2 m
24
kN/m

4,5 m

7,2 m

Figure 9 Wind Load on Frame

It is assumed that the uniformly distributed load acts as two point loads on the frame.

Top load = (24 x 2,1) = 50,4 kN.

Middle load = (24 x 2,1) + (24 x 2,25) = 104,4 kN.

Assume that all horizontal load is resisted by the bracing only.

Therefore, the load in the top brace = 50,4 / cos 30,3º = 58,4 kN, and the load in the bottom
brace = (104,4 +50,4)/ cos 32º = 182,5 kN.

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Section classification
50,4
kN

58,4 kN 4,2 m

104,4
kN

4,5 m
182,5 kN

7,2 m

Figure 10 Equivalent Point Wind Loads and Loads Within Bracing

Design the bottom brace, as this carries the greater load.

Try a CHS 175 x 5,0

6.1 Section Properties

Depth of section, d = 175 mm, Thickness, t = 5 mm
Area of section, A = 2670 mm2, Ratio for local buckling, d/t = 35,
Radius of gyration, i = 60,1 mm.

6.2 Classification of Cross-Section

As the bracing is axially loaded, check the section classification is at least class 1, 2 or 3. 5.4.4(1)a
Figure 11 shows a typical CHS cross-section.

t d

Figure 11 Typical CHS Cross-Section

Class 1 limiting value of d/t for a tubular section is 502. Table 5.3.1
 = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2,   = 1. (Sheet 4)
502 = 50 x 1 = 50
From section properties, d/t =35, therefore the section is Class 1.

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6.3 Design of Compression Member

The bracing members need to be checked as axially loaded.

6.3.1 Resistance of Cross-Section

It is highly unlikely that the resistance of the cross-section will be the critical case - it is
generally the buckling resistance that governs the suitability of a cross-section. For the sake of
completeness, the check is included in this worked example. The resistance of the cross-section
will only be critical if a short, stocky column is used.

The applied axial load, NSd, must be less than the design compressive resistance of the cross- 5.4.4(1)
section, Nc.Rd.

Applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN.

Afy
Design compressive resistance of cross-section, Nc.Rd = N pl.Rd 
 M0 Table 3.1
2
Where A is the cross-sectional area = 2670 mm , 5.1.1(2)
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/ mm2, and
M0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1.

2670 x 235
N pl.Rd   570,4 kN
1,1 x 103

The design compressive resistance of the cross-section, Nc.Rd = 570,4 kN, is greater than the
applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN. Therefore the section is satisfactory.

6.3.2 Design Buckling Resistance

A class 1 member subject to axial compression should be checked for failure due to buckling.
The design buckling resistance of a compression member shall be taken as: 5.5.1.1(1)
 A Afy
N b.Rd 
 M1
where  is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode, 5.5.1.1(1)
A = 1 for class 1 cross-section,
A is the cross-sectional area = 2670 mm2, Table 3.1
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2 , and 5.1.1.(2)
M1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1.
Values of  for the appropriate value of non-dimensional slenderness,  may be obtained from
Table 5.5.2.
   0,5 5.5.1.2(1)
Non-dimensional slenderness,    A
 1 
l 5.5.1.4(3)
Where the slenderness,  
i
l is the member buckling length, and
i is the radius of gyration. 5.5.1.5(2)
Annex E
The bracing is designed as a simple “pinned” member. Therefore, the buckling length ratio l/L is Figure E.2.1
equal to 1 - the buckling length is equal to the system length.
Length of member =  4,52  7,22   8500 mm 5.5.1.2(1)
0,5
 E
 1      93,9
 fy 

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Section classification

6.3.3 Determination Of Reduction Factor,  5.5.1.4(3)

Slenderness,  = l/i = 8500/60,1 = 141
1 = 93,9 = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
   0,5  141 
Non-dimensional slenderness,    A    x 1  1,50
0,5

 1   93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor,  = 0,3422. Table 5.5.3
Table 5.5.2
Design buckling resistance of member: 5.5.1.1(1)
 A Af y 0,3422 x 1 x 2670 x 235
N b.Rd    195,2 kN
 M1 1,1x103
The design buckling resistance of the member is greater than the applied load (182,5 kN),
therefore the bracing is satisfactory.

6.4 Design of Tension Member

When the wind load is applied in the opposite direction, the bracing will be loaded in tension.
The section therefore needs to be checked, for the same magnitude of loading, to ensure it is
also satisfactory in tension.
50,4
kN

4,2 m 58,4 kN

104,4
kN

4,5 m 182,5 kN

7,2 m
Figure 12 Equivalent Point Wind Loads and Loads Within Bracing

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Structural Steelwork Eurocodes –Development of a Trans-National Approach
Design of Members
Section classification

6.4.1 Resistance of Cross-Section 5.4.3(1)

The applied axial load, NSd, must be less than the design tension resistance of the cross-section,
Nt.Rd.

Applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN.

Afy Table 3.1
Design tension resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd = N pl.Rd 
 M0 5.1.1(2)
where A is the cross-sectional area = 2670 mm2,
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/ mm2, and
M0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1.
2670 x 235
N pl.Rd   570,4 kN
1,1 x 103
The design tension resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd = 570,4 kN, is greater than the applied
axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN. Therefore the section is satisfactory.

The bracing fulfils all the Eurocode requirements for members in tension and in compression,
and is therefore satisfactory.

The frame is satisfactory for all EC3 checks

7. Concluding Summary

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