Journal of Marketing Education

Volume 30 Number 2
August 2008 160-173
© 2008 Sage Publications
10.1177/0273475308319352
Integrating the Development of Graduate http://jmd.sagepub.com
hosted at

Attributes Through Constructive Alignment http://online.sagepub.com

Lesley Treleaven
Ranjit Voola
The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

The importance of graduate attributes is increasingly recognized internationally in higher education and by industry, government,
and accrediting bodies. However, integrating the development of graduate attributes, such as critical thinking and critical reflec-
tion, has proved challenging in business education. This article demonstrates the value of constructive alignment for integrating
graduate attributes into an intensive marketing course. This illustrative Australian study traces the integration of two graduate
attributes from course design, through active student engagement in a range of learning activities, to various assessments of student
learning outcomes using standards-based assessment criteria. The study recommends that graduate attributes are expressed as
learning outcomes and aligned with assessment criteria, that students’ awareness of graduate attributes and their value is devel-
oped, that relevance for students’ future marketing careers is embedded into learning activities, that substantial opportunities for
practice in developing generic skills is offered, that formal and informal feedback from lecturers and peers is provided, and that a
programwide approach to developing and integrating graduate attributes is adopted. Finally, the implications for enhancing
employability skills of new business professionals and for institutions meeting the assurance of learning standards required for
business school accreditation by bodies such as Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, European Quality
Improvement System, and Community of European Management Schools and International Companies are considered.

Keywords: graduate attributes; critical thinking; critical reflection; marketing curriculum; assessment; assurance of learning

G raduate employability is a central concern of contem-

porary higher education. For some time now, commis-
sioned reports into higher education (AC Nielsen Research
Industry and Higher Education Collaboration Council
[BIHECC], 2007). However, there is a wide range of defini-
tions and understandings of what constitutes these graduate
Services, 2000; Hager, Holland, & Beckett, 2002) have attributes. In this article, we adopt the view of graduate attrib-
highlighted that discipline-specific knowledge is not suffi- utes as defined by the Higher Education Council Australia
cient for graduate employability. Harvey and Howard (1999) (1992) report Achieving Quality as “the skills, personal attrib-
go further, suggesting that graduates’ success in their jobs utes and values which should be acquired by all graduates,
depends more on graduate attributes than on narrow discipline- regardless of their discipline or field of study. In other words,
specific degrees. Demonstrably, there has been a shift away they should represent the central achievements of higher edu-
from the view that only professional courses, such as medi- cation as a process” (p. 20). Bath, Smith, Stein, and Swann
cine, should develop employability skills toward recognition (2004) elaborate on these attributes, suggesting that they
of their importance in all academic courses (Crammer, include critical thinking, intellectual curiosity, ability to solve
2006). In making the case for this shift in business educa- problems, independent thought, ethical practice, communica-
tion, Schibrowsky, Peltier, and Boyt (2002) argue for profes- tion, creativity, and integrity. Increasingly, universities world-
sionally oriented business schools whose key goal is to wide are expected to develop graduate attributes relating to
prepare the next generation of business professionals.
There is strong research evidence that such employability Authors’ Note: The financial support received from the Office of
requires the development of graduate attributes (Alexander, Learning and Teaching, Faculty of Economics and Business,
2006; Hoban et al., 2004; Kember & Leung, 2005). As University of Sydney, for this research is gratefully acknowledged.
Thompson, Treleaven, Kamvounias, Beem, and Hill (2008) We also thank the JME editor Doug Lincoln for his most helpful edi-
torial comments and Jarrod Ormiston for his excellent research assis-
note, graduate attributes are variously referred to across edu-
tance. Authors are listed in alphabetical order. Please address
cation and training internationally as key skills (Drew, correspondence to Lesley Treleaven, Office of Learning and Teaching
Thorpe, & Bannister, 2002), generic attributes (Wright, in Economics and Business, Faculty of Economics and Business, Rm
1995), key competencies (Mayer, 1992), transferable skills 336 Merewether Building (H04), University of Sydney, New South
(Assiter, 1995), employability skills, and soft skills (Business, Wales 2006, Australia; e-mail: [email protected].

160
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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 161

Table 1
International Approaches to Graduate Attributes
Country Approaches to Graduate Attributes

Australia Graduates are expected to develop a “generally accepted” set of attributes by engaging in their degree program.
United Kingdom Universities have either attempted to embed skills within existing courses or offer stand-alone courses.
New Zealand Various measures such as the National Qualification Framework (NQF) have been developed.
Canada Universities have introduced “critical skills” that are seen to be important.
United States Assesses students through work-based or -related learning criteria.
Denmark The qualification framework stipulates completion of a “competence” profile.
Finland Skills courses are integrated into the curriculum.
South Africa NQF includes two sets of outcomes, “critical and specific,” which target graduates’ personal development.

Sources: Crammer (2006) and Harvey and Bowers-Brown (2004).

teamwork abilities and lifelong learning (Barrie, 2004; proactive strategies in developing graduate attributes. For
Hendry, Hyde, & Barrat, 2006). More recently, awareness of example, the Danish Qualifications Framework requires the
ethical considerations, global sustainability, and equity issues research-oriented bachelor’s and master’s courses to have a
including intercultural sensitivity are expected as outcomes of competence profile, whereas in Australia there are “gener-
business education (BIHECC, 2007). ally accepted” graduate attributes that universities are
The importance of graduate attributes is increasingly rec- required to develop in their graduates. In the United States
ognized not only by higher education and industry but also and Canada, work-based and work-related learning and
in the move toward quality assurance by governments and portfolios are the primary mechanisms for emphasizing
accrediting bodies. Jones (2002) has drawn attention to how graduate attributes (Harvey & Bowers-Brown, 2004/2005).
quality assurance is likely to affect institutional funding and In the marketing education literature, there is some inves-
pedagogy. In the United Kingdom, the National Committee tigation of the development of graduate attributes (e.g.,
of Enquiry Into Higher Education (1997) states that higher Ackerman, Gross, & Perner, 2003; Duke, 2002; Peltier, Hay,
education should “sustain a culture which demands disci- & Drago, 2006). However, there is a significant gap in high-
plined thinking, encourages curiosity, challenges existing lighting how the development of graduate attributes is inte-
ideas and generates new ones, and [creates students who grated, especially into a master’s-level course. The aim of
become] part of the conscience of a democratic society” (p. 1). this article is to illustrate the processes of integrating two
Internationally, especially in the United States and Europe, graduate attributes through constructive alignment into a
business school accreditation by bodies such as Association Marketing Strategy course. This integration is traced from
to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB), course design, active student engagement in a range of learning
European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), and activities and assessment tasks, to assessment of the student
Community of European Management Schools and learning outcomes using criteria-referenced standards.
International Companies (CEMS) are focusing on assurance This article is structured as follows: first, the literature in
of learning. Universities are required to demonstrate con- marketing education relating to graduate attributes is
structive alignment (Biggs, 2003) of their program learning briefly reviewed. Second, the study setting is contextual-
goals, with the achievement of student learning outcomes ized for the illustrative aspects of the marketing courses in
that “reflect broad educational expectations . . . (and) reflect which two overlapping graduate attributes, personal and
the major intellectual and behavioural competencies a pro- intellectual autonomy and research and inquiry, are inte-
gram intends to instil in their students” (AACSB, 2007, grated. Third, the processes of constructive alignment from
p. 4). In the Australian context, employers have been so dis- course design to learning activities and student assessment
satisfied with the skills and competencies of graduates that are described in detail. Fourth, the action research approach
the Australian government considered for a time linking and its cycles are discussed, followed by the methods used
graduate skills testing with federal funding (McClymont, to collect and analyze quantitative and qualitative student
Volkov, Gardiner, Behjat, & Geoghegan, 2005; Thompson, evaluations and faculty reflection on outcomes. Next, the
2006). Table 1 summarizes the different approaches that var- study’s findings are considered and recommendations pro-
ious countries have adopted in dealing with graduate attrib- vided for course design and pedagogical practice directed
utes in their curricula. toward improving the integration of graduate attributes into
The completion of a university qualification is regarded marketing courses. Finally, the study’s limitations and
in some countries as evidence of the development of future research questions are considered. The implications
graduate attributes. Several countries have adopted more for developing business professionals with employability

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162 Journal of Marketing Education

skills and for institutions in being able to meet the marketing from its current focus on micromarketing man-
assurance of learning standards required for business agement to strategic marketing principles (Catterall et al.,
school accreditation by bodies such as AACSB, EQUIS, 2002). However, with the advent of assurance of learning
and CEMS are then drawn out. standards, including outcomes assessments, how graduate
attributes are linked to assessments,1 and learning outcomes
has not been extensively discussed, particularly in the con-
Graduate Attributes and Marketing text of a master’s program.
Education
Technology in the twenty-first-century workplace The Study Setting
strongly shapes both what and how marketing academics
teach their marketing students (Kelley & Bridges, 2005). The study was conducted in a Marketing Strategy course
Nevertheless, marketing graduates also need to develop as part of a master’s program offered in the Faculty of
generic skills, such as interpersonal, writing, and speaking Economics and Business at the University of Sydney. Three
skills (“Challenges Facing Workers in the Future,” 1999), intensive courses in Marketing Strategy provide the set-
often more broadly referred to as graduate attributes. ting.2 The first course took place over three weekends in
Although companies were previously willing to spend February 2007, with one weekend break between the sec-
money training graduates to develop professional skills ond and the third weekend. The second course ran over
(Georges, 1996), contemporary firms expect new graduates three weekends in May-June 2007, with one weekend break
to have already developed these generic skills as the basis between each of the three weekends. The third course ran
for their employment (O’Sullivan, 2000). However, there is over three weekends in January-February 2008, with one
an increasing belief in the practitioner community that mar- weekend break between each of the three weekends. Each
keting graduates do not have the necessary skills (Bacon & intensive course, equivalent to a 13-week semester-long
Anderson, 2004; Schibrowsky et al., 2002), especially com- course, comprised 39 hr of face-to-face classroom engagement
munication and writing skills (West, 2006), further rein- and an expectation of at least 78 hr of individual preparation,
forcing the importance of integrating graduate attribute reading, assessment tasks, and revision. The same lecturer
development into marketing education. taught each course and marked all assessments.
In the context of undergraduate marketing programs, sev- As a large research-intensive university in metropoli-
eral studies of graduate attributes have been discussed in the tan Sydney, the student demographic includes both local
marketing education literature. For example, Duke (2002) and international students. The cohort included 18
reports that business students see interpersonal, leadership, students in the first course, 21 students in the second
and communication skills for the global economy as impor- course, and 17 in the third course, most of whom were
tant. Ackerman et al. (2003) highlight that a key graduate majoring in marketing. The majority of the students
attribute is the ability of the student to analyze future-oriented undertook the Marketing Strategy course as part of the
issues, as the contemporary marketplace requires managers Masters of Commerce Program (in which students com-
who can visualize futures (Aufreiter, Ouillet, & Scott, 2001). plete 12 units of study and major in any of the business
Both critical thinking and critical reflection, key aspects disciplines). Although few students were in full-time
of personal and intellectual autonomy and research and work while undertaking the course (four students in the
inquiry, are emphasized in the marketing education litera- first course, three students in the second course, and
ture (Catterall, Maclaran, & Stevens; 2002, Peltier et al., three students in the third course), some students had
2006; Ramocki, 2007). Critical thinking requires the devel- previous business experience or were working part-time.
opment of informal reasoning and argumentation (van Each cohort was composed of approximately 70% inter-
Gelder, 2001a), which are difficult skills to teach (van national students and 50% to 80% female students.
Gelder, 2001b). A critical thinker is characterized by the
ability to self-assess, strive to engage in lifelong learning,
and to improve their thinking skills (Celuch & Slama, 2000). Constructive Alignment of Graduate
Critical reflection requires challenging taken-for-granted Attributes
assumptions and accepted “truths,” thereby developing the
capacity for awareness of and attention to wider moral, The course was first designed by the lecturer3 and
societal, and political issues. Relatedly, the concepts of revised in consultation with the senior academic adviser
metacognition, the ability to “think about thinking,” and of working on Faculty and University projects to integrate the
transfer, the ability to apply concepts from one discipline to development of graduate attributes. They coauthored this arti-
another (Ramocki, 2007), are important in reconceptualizing cle. At the University of Sydney, learning outcomes are

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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 163

Table 2
The University of Sydney Five Graduate Attributes
Personal and Intellectual Autonomy: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be able to work independently and sustain-
ably, in a way that is informed by openness, curiosity, and a desire to meet new challenges.
Research and Inquiry: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be able to create new knowledge and understanding
through the process of research and inquiry.
Information Literacy: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be able to use information effectively in a range of contexts.
Communication: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will recognize and value communication as a tool for negotiating and
creating new understanding, interacting with others, and furthering their own learning.
Ethical, Social, and Professional Understanding: Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will hold personal values and beliefs
consistent with their role as responsible members of local, national, international, and professional communities.

Source: http://www.econ.usyd.edu.au/grad_attributes/

expressed in terms of graduate attributes (http://www.econ but overlapping graduate attributes are emphasized in course
.usyd.edu.au/grad_attributes). The development of the course and program development. They are personal and intellectual
outlines in the Faculty of Economics and Business, prepared autonomy, research and inquiry, information literacy, commu-
on a Unit of Study template, is supported by online guide- nication, and ethical, social, and professional understanding
lines (http://teaching.econ.usyd.edu.au/UoS/index.html) table 2. describes each of these graduate attributes.
prepared by the Office of Learning and Teaching in consul- All five graduate attributes were constructively aligned in
tation with faculty members. These guidelines state, the Marketing Strategy course and embedded in the statement
“Because knowledge changes over time, employers expect of the learning outcomes. Furthermore, their development
our graduates to have generic qualities and attributes was integrated into the learning activities and assessment
beyond an ability to recall current theories and facts. Each tasks and they were measured using standards-based assess-
learning outcome is expected to contribute to the develop- ment criteria. For reasons of focus and space, this article
ment of one of the five graduate attributes” (http://teaching selects only two of these five graduate attributes, personal and
.econ.usyd.edu.au/UoS/2_0_home .html). In their Unit of intellectual autonomy and research and inquiry, to illustrate
Study outline, lecturers are required to show the curricu- the approach taken to alignment, integration, and develop-
lum alignment across intended student learning outcomes ment of graduate attributes in the Marketing Strategy course.
expressed as one of the five graduate attributes, the student Personal and intellectual autonomy refers to the ability of the
learning activities, the assessment tasks, and the assess- students to work independently and sustainably, with open-
ment criteria for measuring achievement of learning out- ness, curiosity, and a desire to meet new challenges. Research
comes (see appendix for an illustration). Engaging in these and inquiry as a graduate attribute refers to the ability to cre-
processes of constructive alignment (Biggs, 2003) pro- ate new knowledge and understanding. Both are informative
vides a basis for designing in the integration of graduate in this illustrative study as they are interrelated in practice,
attributes across the university’s programs at all levels. especially in terms of developing critical thinking and critical
However, this ongoing process is by no means standard reflection table 3. describes both of these graduate attributes
across the university or the faculty. in more detail.
In the Faculty of Economics and Business, these Unit of A crucial site for graduate attribute development is assess-
Study outlines are reviewed by peers in each discipline before ment, because Ramsden (2003) argues that “from our
being provided to students at their first lecture and uploaded students’ point of view, assessment always defines the actual
to the course Web site. An annual audit of the extent to which curriculum” (p. 182). Thus, the alignment of assessment with
the Unit of Study outlines complete the provision of informa- graduate attribute development is demonstrably a way for-
tion on the course, especially the alignment table, provides ward (Boud & Falchikow, 2006). The appendix shows the five
useful information for pedagogical support and disciplinary assessment components in the study’s new intensive courses:
feedback of exemplars. seminar and online discussion board participation, online
Through extensive, multiple-stakeholder research within the reflective journal entries, a team-based computer simulation
university and on benchmarking similar initiatives with interna- game, a team-based written case study, and a final exam.
tional universities, the University of Sydney has identified three Numerous opportunities structured into the learning activi-
overarching graduate attributes—scholarship (attitude or stand ties and assessment tasks aimed to develop the five graduate
toward knowledge), lifelong learning (attitude or stand toward attributes and provide practice in the skills that comprise per-
world), and global citizenship (attitude or stand toward personal sonal and intellectual autonomy and research and inquiry.
development). Within this overarching framework, five specific Participation in seminar and online discussions of marketing

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164 Journal of Marketing Education

Table 3
The Two Graduate Attributes Illustrated in This Study
Personal and Intellectual Autonomy Be open to new ways of thinking and appreciate the importance of
Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be intellectual curiosity and reflection as the foundation for continuous
able to work independently and sustainably, in a way that is learning.
informed by openness, curiosity, and a desire to meet Demonstrate a commitment to lifelong learning through continuous
new challenges. reflection on personal and professional experiences, self-evaluation,
and self-improvement.
Demonstrate a willingness to meet new challenges and deadlines.
Demonstrate a capacity to work independently, including the ability to
plan and achieve goals.
Display a commitment to achieving a broad vision that aims to balance
personal, intellectual, emotional, physical, and social needs, and that
can be sustained.
Research and Inquiry Identify, define, and analyze problems and recommend creative solutions
Graduates of the Faculty of Economics and Business will be within real-world constraints.
able to create new knowledge and understanding through Apply economic, political, legal, commercial, and business theories and
the process of research and inquiry. concepts to problems and practice.
Critically evaluate underlying theories, concepts, assumptions,
limitations, and arguments in disciplinary and cross-disciplinary
fields of study.
Develop coherent arguments when recommending solutions and
critically evaluating theories in major fields of study.
Appreciate the advancing nature of knowledge frontiers
through research.

Source: http://www.econ.usyd.edu.au/grad_attributes/

theory and case studies aimed to encourage and develop assessment task that measured the intended learning out-
students’ ability to think critically about underlying theories, comes related to this graduate attribute development.
concepts, assumptions, and arguments in strategic marketing The team-based written case study assessed students’
theory. With no correct answers in strategic marketing, only a ability to apply core marketing strategy concepts to a case
range of better strategies, it was important for students to study and justify the application, thereby using critical
develop skills in justifying their assertions and being persua- thinking skills (Klebba & Hamilton, 2007). Students were
sive in their arguments. The debates on the online discussion required to identify the strategic problem and/or strategic
board required critical reflection, with the inclusion of context opportunity and then propose how to solve or exploit it. The
and justification, to support viewpoints and arguments. Critical students not only needed to understand the various market-
thinking and critical reflection on the lecture topic and ing strategy theories but also to critically reflect on these
expected reading beyond the text, such as Business Review theories in the light of their participation in class discus-
Weekly and academic journals, addressed the need to be more sion, their posting on the discussion board before and after
current than textbooks and case studies, which tend to be more class, and their reflective journal entries. This assessment
simply backward-looking (Ackerman et al., 2003). task aimed to facilitate their development of the two gradu-
The online reflective journal, introduced on the evidence ate attributes as it required thinking critically and creatively
that critical reflection is important for contemporary mar- to identify and address marketing strategy issues, question-
keters (Ramocki, 2007), was a major tool for developing per- ing taken-for-granted assumptions, and justifying their
sonal and intellectual autonomy. Writing a reflective journal assertions through developing coherent arguments based on
in which a student documents his or her thought processes is academic journals.
a useful way to engage with and understand the metacogni- The team-based computer simulation game required
tive processes (Ramocki, 2007) that support critical thinking teams to make a series of complex, “real” world strategic
and critical reflection. Students were therefore encouraged to marketing decisions simulated over a period of 6 to 8 years,
develop each graduate attribute by critically reflecting and based on their understanding of the key marketing strategy
bringing forward new ways of thinking on all aspects of the theories. The simulation placed teams in a dynamic com-
course. Six reflective journal entries relating to any core petitive environment in which they devised and pursued
aspect of strategy, such as competitive advantage, core com- their own strategy while reacting to the moves of their com-
petence, and strategic analysis, formed the basis for one petitors. For most marketing students, this assessment task

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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 165

was a challenge because it required an understanding of Figure 1

finance and operations. Students therefore spent substantial The Action Research Spiral
time outside class between weekend sessions deliberating on
decisions and developing skills of critical thinking, inquiry,
and critical evaluation. The computer simulation game
developed and assessed students’ ability to analyze a com-
mercial situation and to devise and implement a strategy
within an existing industry business model. Team members
had to find their own answers to questions without input
from the lecturer to be fair across teams and to facilitate
autonomous learning. Attending to group dynamics so as to
successfully complete the team simulation also provided
relevant learning opportunities for developing autonomy
and openness to new approaches and different people.
The final exam assessed individual students’ understanding
and critical evaluation of the concepts, tools, and frameworks
covered in the course as well as their application. The 3-hr
exam covered all aspects of the course and included four
short-answer questions, two longer answer questions, and two
questions on a short case study. To achieve a good grade in the
exam, students needed to exhibit key characteristics of the two
graduate attributes: critical thinking, critical reflection,
autonomous learning, and application of marketing strategy
theories.
To integrate and develop each of the graduate attributes,
each assessment task had specific assessment criteria
expressed in graduate attributes terms (see appendix). Each
assessment was designed to challenge students to take up
and defend their positions, because one of the key charac-
teristics of a marketing strategist is the ability to question Adapted from Kemmis and McTaggart (2005, p. 564).
assumptions of marketing strategy and relate concepts from
different perspectives. Argumentation by students was research processes, often represented as a spiral (illustrated
emphasized over reaching one correct answer. Thus, the in Figure 1), show how each cycle iteratively informs the
renowned strategist Kenichi Ohmae (1982) was quoted on next cycle, often widening the focus of inquiry as new
the first page of the course outline: knowledge is taken up from the reflections on each cycle.
Thus the lecturer’s learning from each course, facilitated by
The strategist’s method is very simply, to challenge monitoring student participation, achievements, and feed-
the prevailing assumptions with a single question: back as well as his own reflections with the academic adviser
why? and to put the same question relentlessly to are reflexively part of subsequent cycles to improve student
those responsible for the current way of doing things learning (observing and reflecting). Such an approach is con-
until they are sick of it. (p. 1038) gruent with a model of academic development through
engagement, premised on a social constructivist approach to
learning and teaching (see Rust, O’Donovan, & Price, 2005).
Method It also offers a useful framework to adopt where small
numbers of students preclude more conventional empirical
An action research approach enabled the course improve- data being accepted as definitive.
ments to be systematically planned, implemented, observed, In preparation for the new intensive course, the first cycle
and reflected on in a cyclical manner (Kemmis & commenced with a critically reflective dialogue between the
McTaggart, 2005). Action research is widely used in educa- lecturer and the academic adviser on the two semester-length
tion. Arising historically from the work of Lewin (1946), its courses previously conducted by the lecturer. We anticipated
emphasis is on bringing together action and research in ways that the challenges of the new intensive format for this small
that promote improvement through learning during the par- cohort would be long hours and reduced attention spans in
ticipatory processes of the research itself. The action class over weekends, with little time to prepare or to reflect

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166 Journal of Marketing Education

Table 4
Comparison of USE Results Across Delivery Modes and Over Time
Semester Semester
Unit of Study Evaluation Item 3 Course 1 Course 2 Intensive 1 Intensive 2 Intensive 3

This unit of study helped me to develop 3.87 (0.68) 3.93 (0.83) 3.94 (0.62) 4.33 (0.78) 4.71 (0.45)
generic attributes; e.g. (a) research and
inquiry skills; (b) communication skills;
(c) personal and intellectual autonomy;
(d) ethical, social, and professional
understanding; and (e) information literacy

Note: Values within parentheses are standard deviations. USE = Unit of Study Evaluation. 1= strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.

between classes during each weekend. Informed by a range of academic adviser centered on revising the assessment crite-
pedagogical literature on assessment (Boud & Falchikow, ria and considering demonstrable evidence for increasing
2006), we based the course design principles on promoting awareness and development of graduate attributes.
deep approaches to learning (Marton & Säljö, 1976; Prosser
& Trigwell, 1999) through active student learning (Gibbs &
Data Collection, Method, and Analysis
Simpson, 2004/2005), both individual and group activities
(Bacon, 2005; Hamer, 2000; Johnson & Johnson, 2002), and Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected.
on experiential learning experiences relevant for the market- The quantitative data included the Unit of Study
ing industry (Davis, Misra, & Van Auken, 2002). Evaluations (USEs) and a survey (Kember & Leung, 2005).
In the second cycle, a comprehensive constructive align- The qualitative data included comments by students on
ment matrix, integrating all five graduate attributes with their USEs and the reflections of the lecturer. The USE,
learning outcomes, learning activities, assessment tasks, developed and tested by the university over many years, is
and criteria, was developed for the Unit of Study outline administered at the end of each course and then submitted
(see appendix, where the alignment for two graduate attrib- to the university for analysis. It provides student feedback
utes is presented.). This approach is consistent with the on a set of 12 standard items using a 5-point Likert-type
increasing evidence in the literature that embedding the scale. One USE item specifically measures student percep-
development of graduate attributes in preference to provid- tion of their graduate attribute (generic skills) development.
ing separate programs is more likely to be successful Table 4 shows the difference in means between five
(Barrie, 2007; Bowden, Hart, King, Trigwell, & Watts, courses: the two previous semester-long courses in which
2000; Hager et al., 2002; Kelley & Bridges, 2005). In this graduate attributes were not emphasized; the first intensive
cycle, the engagement between the lecturer and the acade- course in which graduate attributes were given more
mic adviser using constructive alignment clarified the attention but not constructively aligned; and the second
intended learning outcomes and the teaching and learning and third intensive courses where graduate attributes were
activities through which they were to be achieved and highlighted in the course outline and debated in class.
assured. The dialogic processes, together with student feed- Although there were only relatively small increases over
back, facilitated increased clarity for both the lecturer’s the first three courses (i.e., 3.87, 3.93, and 3.94) on
classroom practice and students’ understanding of his whether students felt the course had helped them to
expectations in undertaking the assessment tasks. develop generic skills, the mean on this item for the second
The constructive alignment matrix was then included in intensive increased to 4.33 and the third to 4.71. These
the Unit of Study outline given to students, as shown in the increases suggest that the changes made in the second
appendix, to more seamlessly integrate graduate attributes intensive course, including constructive alignment of the
into the student learning experience. The lecturer also facil- graduate attributes, supported students’ focus on graduate
itated in-depth critical discussion at both the macro and attribute development.
micro levels in class. For example, the macro-level discus- The survey developed by Kember and Leung (2005) is
sion centered on employability and graduate attributes, relevant for the purposes of the study because it measures
whereas the micro-level discussion focused on the links key aspects of personal and intellectual autonomy and
between the graduate attributes, the assessment tasks, and the research and inquiry: critical thinking and lifelong learning.
criteria on which their achievement would be assessed. In It also provides student feedback on the course design and
the third cycle, the engagement between the lecturer and the the opportunities it afforded for active learning that is

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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 167

Table 5
Evaluation of Selected Items Related to Graduate Attribute Development
Survey Item Statement of Ability (Kember & Leung, 2005) Intensive 1 Intensive 2a Significance

1. Critical thinking Through this course, I developed my ability to make 3.78 4.39 .047*
judgements about opposite perspectives.
I have become more willing to consider differing 4.00 4.45 .110
points of view.
2. Ability to pursue I feel that I can take responsibility for my own learning. 4.28 4.73 .015*
lifelong learning I have become more confident of my ability to pursue 3.56 4.45 .001*
further learning.
3. Active learning The teaching staff used a variety of teaching methods. 4.12 4.67 .008*
Students were given a chance to participate in class. 4.39 4.89 .004*

Note: 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.

a. Data not yet available at the time of publication for Intensive 3.
*p < .05.

essential for developing graduate attributes through practice and third intensive courses provides evidence of questioning
scaffolded in learning activities throughout the course. assumptions, critically thinking and reflecting, appreciating
Eighteen students from each intensive course chose to partic- the nature of knowledge frontiers through research, and
ipate in the survey conducted on the last day of each course. developing coherent arguments to justify recommenda-
Reliability analysis for the Cronbach’s alpha results was tions. For example, a student in the third intensive course
above .7, illustrating internal consistency. As only three questioned the either–or approach to Porter’s (1980)
students in the second course did not participate, nonresponse generic strategies in her exam. That is, she questioned the
bias is not an issue. assumption that firms must focus either on low cost or dif-
Table 5 shows the results of the survey and an indepen- ferentiation and then argued for ambidexterity (i.e., simul-
dent sample t test conducted to examine whether there were taneous pursuit of seemingly contradictory strategies).
any significant differences between the first and second Other examples of questioning assumptions and critical
intensive course. Five of the six statements show significant thinking in the exam included critiquing, for example, the
differences in means. The ability to pursue lifelong learning marketing concept and the related statement that “the cus-
(p = .015 and .001) showed significant differences, whereas tomer is always right,” the role of the four Ps in marketing
critical thinking showed a significant difference, with .047 strategy and, from a broader perspective, the role of mar-
on one of the statements. There was no significant difference keting in business strategy.
for the statement “I have become more willing to consider Three examples of students’ online reflections (see Table 7)
differing points of view.” However, as suggested earlier, the further highlight their awareness of the attribute personal
comparison between two different cohorts, each small in and intellectual autonomy, particularly critical reflection,
size, needs to be taken into account. There was a significant which is an important outcome in higher education (van
increase (p = .008 and .004) on the third item, active learn- Gelder, 2001b). These reflective journal entries suggest that
ing, with students indicating that the teaching staff used a the students engaged in critical thinking by questioning
variety of methods and students were given a chance to par- taken-for-granted assumptions to reconceptualize market-
ticipate in class. The demonstrable improvement in the grad- ing beyond the current micro focus on marketing manage-
uate attribute scores across both measures (Tables 4 and 5) ment. Furthermore, the second online reflective journal
may reflect the focus on and impact of constructive align- highlighted reflecting in practice, where a practitioner con-
ment of the graduate attributes in the second and third inten- sciously alters his or her practice to improve it (Boud,
sive course. Keogh, & Walter, 1985; Schon, 1983).
The qualitative comments written by students on their According to the reflections of the lecturer, the second
USEs strongly reflect their self-reported development and third intensive course students engaged more actively
of their critical thinking and coherent argumentation in mar- in debating fundamental marketing strategy concepts in
keting. Table 6 provides indicative feedback from students. class and online. They were not afraid to discuss and justify
In addition to self-reporting on the student feedback their perspective on issues that were contradictory to tradi-
surveys, their assessment tasks show evidence of using tional marketing thought. In encouraging these skills of
graduate attributes in ways that students in the previous critical thinking, argument development, and their applica-
courses had not. Each of the assessments in the second tion to marketing theory, it was important that the lecturer

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168 Journal of Marketing Education

Table 6
Excerpts From Student USE Qualitative Feedback to the Lecturer
[The lecturer] particularly encourages us to understand the foundations for developing convincing arguments [and] . . . the use of research
articles is encouraged in developing our arguments, particularly the case study analysis.
[The lecturer] . . . gets students to think deeper . . . instead of the usual techniques, such as referring to the textbooks. Autonomous learning
and critically analyzing situations is something I had got out of the class. As a [master’s] student, I think these are very important skills
that I can bring with me into my future career.
[The lecturer] questioned theories that seemed intuitive but which one could not answer and stimulated thinking creatively and independently.

Note: USE = Unit of Study Evaluation.

Table 7
Excerpts From Students’ Reflective Journals
Currently marketing remains enshrouded in mystery in comparison to other business areas such as operations, production, and finance, and this
is because marketing lies somewhere in between being an art and a science. If marketers had more competencies across those named business
units, they could perhaps clear up some of the vagueness surrounding it and plead a better case for themselves at the strategic decision mak-
ing level. The result would be better understanding from other business units and ultimately more favourable business marketing decisions.
Whilst a lot of the concepts are central to all business, the course has actually made me challenge some of the current initiatives our firm has in
place. For example, I have actually gone through an exercise of setting up meetings with some of our partners to really challenge our cur-
rent value propositions for some of our sub-service offerings. It’s very difficult for technical people to clearly articulate the benefits for the
client. They know what they do, but they never really challenge why they do it better than anyone else.
“Capital isn’t that important in business. Experience isn’t that important. You can get both of these things. What is important are ideas (imagina-
tion).” At first glance, I totally disagreed with it [this statement]. I think money should always come first and it is the most important factor in
doing business. I mean how can you start a business without money? Nevertheless, after I came home, read through it again and deliberately
thought about it, I have changed my mind. I agree with this statement. In order to become successful, ideas are actually the most important
factors in doing business. It is undeniable that capital is essential to turn ideas into reality; however, capital is worthless without useful ideas.

Table 8
Excerpts From Lecturer Feedback to Students on the Written Case Study
This report clearly illustrates the core competence required in this course, capacity to think strategically, and it applied the relevant theoretical con-
cepts. You seamlessly integrated core strategic concepts and your strategic recommendations required an in-depth understanding of the concepts.
In some areas, there needed to be more justification. (i.e., more persuasion required). For example, on page 9, there was a discussion of strate-
gic positioning; this needed further development. . . . Furthermore, some theoretical frameworks were discussed and some explanation
provided without clearly explaining the relevance of these frameworks and justification for their application.
The organization of the assessment, including its structure and headings clearly enhanced and supported your arguments. The deductive decision-
making capability was clearly illustrated in the use of research-oriented articles.
Although this report has dealt with some strategic issues, there are several suggestions for improvement. The most important suggestion is to
justify your analysis/recommendations. As suggested previously in class, the key to this assessment task was dealing with the questions of
why and how, as opposed to what (i.e., being persuasive and building a solid argument). Your assignment clearly suggested what the firm
should do; however, the discussion of why and how was not very convincing.

provided feedback to students in class and on their written the Strategic Cat.” They presented four alternative strate-
work on the development of these graduate attributes. Table 8 gies to solve the strategic problem and argued, drawing on
therefore illustrates this feedback given by the lecturer in both academic references and their own arguments, how
the context of the written case study assessment. one strategy was the best option.
Written case study reports demonstrate that students An increase in grades for the team-based case study,
paid particular attention to justifying their strategic recom- from a mean of 69% in the first semester-long course to
mendations, developing coherent and convincing argu- 73% for the third intensive course, and for the final exam,
ments, and using quality academic references. For example, from a mean of 60% in the first semester-long course to
one group of students developed a coherent argument for 68% for the third intensive course, suggests that awareness
their choice of a particular recommendation and titled a and possibly development of graduate attributes played a
section of their case study report “Different Ways to Skin role in the students’ completing better assessments.

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 Treleaven, Voola / Development of Graduate Attributes Through Constructive Alignment 169

Findings and Recommendations 2. Embed the development of graduate attributes into

course content in ways that students will encounter
In this study, there is evidence on which to claim that in marketing jobs.
students exhibited an increased awareness of the graduate
attributes in each of the intensive courses. This evidence Graduate attribute development not only needs to be inte-
includes quantitative and qualitative data from the USEs grated into marketing curricula but also, as Davis et al.
(Tables 4 and 6), Kember and Leung’s survey results (Table (2002) argue, in ways that students can see are relevant to
5), examples from the assessments (Table 7), and the lec- their future careers. Including assessments that are future-
turer’s feedback and his reflection (Table 8). During the oriented and not just retrospective case analyses will help to
period from the initial semester-long course to the third encourage creative skills and critical thinking required for
intensive course, there was also arguably an increase in an unknown future. Contemporary issues related to busi-
integrating and facilitating graduate attribute development ness ethics, equity issues including intercultural sensitivity
into the course. First, students agreed or strongly agreed and sustainability are an increasingly important focus inter-
(≥4) that the Unit of Study helped them develop generic nationally for global leaders.
skills (3.94-4.71). Second, students agreed or strongly
agreed that they had developed their critical thinking and 3. Explicitly develop student awareness of the value of
lifelong learning skills, both of which are key aspects of the graduate attributes at both the macro level of their
two gradate attributes identified as learning outcomes employability and at the micro level of the relation
(Tables 4 and 5). Third, there is increasing evidence of pos- to their learning activities.
itive student perceptions regarding their graduate attribute
A proactive strategy of integrating graduate attributes
development with each successive course (Tables 4 and 5).
appears to be important as the results in Table 4 show clear
The significant differences between the first and second
differences in the USE scale between courses where gradu-
intensive courses in Table 5 suggest that, at a macro level,
ate attributes were and were not emphasized. The signifi-
the development of the constructive alignment matrix was
cant differences in the mean scores highlight the
important. At a micro level, there were significant differ-
importance of constructive alignment between graduate
ences in the students’ reporting of their development of spe-
attributes and assessment and emphasizing this relationship
cific skills, such as critical thinking, applied to making
consistently to the students. Based on student feedback and
judgments about opposite perspectives. The numerical evi-
the lecturer’s reflection, there are plans to highlight further
dence is confirmed by triangulation with the qualitative
the employability aspects of graduate attributes through
data (Tables 6 to 8).
prominent industry speakers and what they are looking for
The qualitative evidence from USEs (Table 6) demon-
in marketing graduates, and to include graduate attribute
strates that the second and third intensive course students
development as one topic in the student online reflective
perceived that they developed their critical thinking about
journal entry.
marketing strategy by questioning taken-for-granted
assumptions, key themes in both personal and intellectual
autonomy and research and inquiry. Lastly, the lecturer 4. Ensure that students have substantial opportunities
feedback on the case studies (Table 8) shows how he rein- to engage in critical thinking processes and critical
forced the importance of the graduate attributes. reflection in class and online.
On the basis of this study, the following recommenda-
tions are offered: The findings suggest that designing a course that promotes
a deep approach to learning is important to support,
1. Constructively align graduate attributes with assess- develop, and assess the breadth of skills, abilities, and qual-
ment criteria. ities of business graduates. Students need a range of learn-
ing activities and assessment tasks, written and oral,
Constructive alignment of learning outcomes, expressed in individual and team-based, that provide opportunities to
terms of graduate attributes, with learning activities, assess- practice and thus develop graduate attributes (Bacon &
ment tasks, and assessment criteria is a way forward to Stewart, 2006). In this Marketing Strategy course, the
developing the employability skills required of marketing online reflective journal, discussion board debates, and
education in particular and graduate attributes in higher seminar discussions as well as the team-based written case
education more generally. Furthermore, there is a clear study and simulation were a multifaceted approach to such
imperative for universities internationally to integrate these provision. In contrast, the lecture–exam mode provides
attributes as a result of government and accreditation pres- little engagement with active learning to support develop-
sures (AACSB, 2007). ment in practice of the complex skills, values, and attitudes

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170 Journal of Marketing Education

(Thompson, 2006) denoted by personal and intellectual are illustrative and indicative for successive cycles while
autonomy and research and inquiry. contextualized by the specificity of the course and its local
context. Third, this brief account cannot do justice to the
5. Provide feedback to students that is both formal and pedagogical processes of active student learning engaged
informal in relation to their development of gradu- in the course, nor control for a different lecturer’s teach-
ate attributes throughout the course. ing strategies and conceptions of teaching. The latter are
Because it is well acknowledged that assessment drives well known to affect student learning outcomes, espe-
learning (Boud & Falchikow, 2006), lecturer feedback both cially in regard to deep and shallow approaches to learn-
written and verbal not only draws attention to but encour- ing (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999).
ages awareness and development as reflected recursively in Some of these limitations will be addressed when more
the USE student comments from the second and third inten- data are available from forthcoming Marketing Strategy
sive courses. courses, such as benchmarking the level of graduate attribute
development at entry. Although this study focused on only
6. Adopt a program-level approach to integrating the two graduate attributes, future research should address the
development of graduate attributes. integration of other, or preferably all five, graduate attributes.
Development of appropriate taxonomies for graduate attrib-
This study anticipates a new Master of Marketing in which utes may prove useful in mapping their development across
integration of graduate attributes will take place at the pro- programs (Popper, 2005). Once graduate attributes are more
gram level. Program-level learning goals are aligned with widely embedded in courses and programs, it will be impor-
program-level learning outcomes to be achieved by the indi- tant for future research to open up questions relating to dif-
vidual courses (Units of Study). This move means that each ferent strategies and their success in semester-long and
course will contribute to the overall development of gradu- intensive courses and in undergraduate and master’s courses.
ate attributes through a scaffolded approach across the full In conclusion, despite wide-ranging calls for higher edu-
program. Such a programwide approach to learning out- cation to attend more closely to the development of gradu-
comes through the achievement of program-level outcomes ate attributes for employability, there have been few studies
is being sought by accreditation bodies such as the AACSB. of integrating graduate attributes into marketing programs,
especially at the master’s level. This article therefore con-
tributes to the marketing education literature by illustrating
Limitations, Future Research Questions, how several graduate attributes were integrated through the
and Conclusions constructive alignment of the learning outcomes, across a
range of learning and teaching activities, varied assessment
There are three limitations to consider when interpreting tasks, and assessment criteria. In the context of increasing
these results. First, there was no baseline testing of graduate attention being placed on universities to ensure the quality
attribute levels of awareness or development achieved of student learning outcomes, generally, and on the accred-
prior to entry into the course. Second, presentation of itation of higher education programs, more specifically, this
student course evaluations and selected assessments from study offers some practical ways forward underpinned by
the small numbers is not statistically convincing or gener- sound pedagogical principles to address the challenges in
alizable. Rather, in an action research approach focused marketing curriculum design and an integrated approach to
on improving course design and student learning, they developing graduate attributes.

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 Appendix
Marketing Strategy Curriculum Alignment Matrix
Intended Graduate
Learning Attributes Learning
Outcomes Emphasized Activities Assessment Tasks and Assessment Criteria

On successful
completion of this Seminar and Online
unit of study, online reflective Team-based
students should be discussion board journal Team-based written computer
able to: participation 10% entries 10% case study 20% simulation 20% Exam 40%

Engage in lifelong Personal and Read text and other Ability to ask relevant Ability to question Demonstrated the Ability to work Ability to think
learning, reflective intellectual materials and be and thought- some of the traditional ability to develop independently and critically and
thinking in autonomy prepared to critically provoking questions assumptions of coherent and as a group to solve differently about key
marketing strategy analyze the topics marketing strategy convincing arguments any problems with concepts and theories
Ability to work Proactive in class that require critical the simulation or
Think critically independently and Make own notes and participation Ability to clearly thinking team process
about underlying sustainably, in a way summaries before articulate why you
marketing strategy that is informed by lectures disagree or agree
theories, concepts, openness, curiosity, with a particular
and assumptions and a desire to meet Contribute strategic topic or
new challenges constructively to concept
discussion board
topics

Reflect and
post online journal
entries

Manage, analyze, Research and inquiry Prepare for lectures Ability to transfer Ability to identify Demonstrated the Demonstrated Additional research
evaluate, and use by conducting new knowledge into and discuss concepts ability to summarize evidence of managing, to support your
marketing-related Ability to create new research on the class discussion and that are strategic the key articles and analyzing, and arguments when

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information knowledge and relevant topics beyond online discussion by develop coherent responding to vast answering the exam
efficiently and understanding the textbook researching extant Develop coherent arguments based on amounts of questions
effectively through the process academic and or arguments when academic journals information relating
of research and Be able to access practitioner-related recommending to the simulation Apply business
Appreciate the inquiry library databases and literature solutions and critically Identify, define, and theories and concepts
changing nature apply the arguments evaluating theories in analyze strategic to problems and
of the frontiers of in the articles to the major fields of study problems and practice
knowledge in classroom discussion recommend creative
marketing strategy solutions
through research
and conduct
research in
archives, libraries,
and the Web

171
172 Journal of Marketing Education

Notes Business, Industry and Higher Education Collaboration Council. (2007).

Graduate employability skills. Graduate employability skills report.
1. The term assessment, which may equate to assignment in some Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/
countries, is widely used in Australia and hence used in this article to higher_education/programmes_funding/programme_categories/key
denote a learning activity that the student or a group of students completes _priorities/documents/graduate_ employability_skills_pdf.htm
and submits for marking against a set of assessment criteria. It is distin- Catterall, M., Maclaran, P., & Stevens, L. (2002). Critical reflection in the
guishable from assignments that may not be assessed and from evaluation marketing curriculum. Journal of Marketing Education, 24(3), 184-192.
that takes place at the end of a course by staff and students. Celuch, K., & Slama, M. (2000). Student perceptions of a marketing
2. It is beyond the scope of this article to examine the challenges and course taught with the critical thinking approach. Marketing
advantages of intensive course learning and teaching. Education Review, 10(1), 57-64.
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Davis, R., Misra, S., & Van Auken, S. (2002). A gap analysis approach to
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