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SIMULATION Sponsored by

SEPTEMBER 2016

KONICA MINOLTA
MODELS SURFACE
PLASMONS TO
GRAFTECH
COOLS OFF
ELECTRONICS
WITH GRAPHITE
SOLUTIONS
PAGE 3
BRIGHTEN OLEDS
PAGE 24
ST. JUDE MEDICAL
DESIGNS NEXT
GENERATION WIRELESS
IMPLANTABLE DEVICES
PAGE 7
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ABB EXTENDS CHARGING ELECTRONICS
AND PHOTONICS
BEAM THROUGHPUT
LIFETIME OF POWER
TRANSISTORS
AT WITRICITY COOLING DESIGN
AT BELL LABS
AT FERMILAB
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MetaMaterials UPgrading the

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 M U LT I P H Y S I C S S I M U L AT I O N

CONTENTS
A NUMERICAL
ANALYSIS BEHIND 3   INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS OF

EVERY DESIGN CARBON AND GRAPHITE FOR

THERMAL MANAGEMENT
—GrafTech International, USA

By JAMES A. VICK, PUBLISHER, IEEE SPECTRUM

7   ENHANCING
PERFORMANCE
AND SAFETY OF MEDICAL
IMPLANTABLE DEVICES WITH
TODAY’S FAST-PACED DEVELOPMENT of new technologies and
products is quite remarkable. To remain competitive,
MULTIPHYSICS SIMULATION
—St. Jude Medical, USA
22  OUR 5G FUTURE: IN
THE FAST LANE WITH
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
businesses focus on design innovation. Many organizations
—COMSOL, USA
rely on mathematical modeling and numerical
simulation to get their designs right, or as close to 10  LIGHT, STRONG, AND

24 
DEFECT-FREE LASER LET THERE BE
real-world ready as possible, early in the development WELDING: PERFECTING LIGHT: A BRIGHTER
cycle. The benefits they have found are many, including THE PROCESS FOR THE
FUTURE FOR OLEDS
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
shorter time to market and higher quality products. —Konica Minolta, USA
—ArcelorMittal, France
This year’s issue of Multiphysics Simulation,
sponsored by COMSOL, serves as a great overview of
how organizations use numerical simulation. In the
pages that follow you will find applications such as
plasmonic nanoantennas, centrifugal heart pumps, 5G
for the Internet of Things (IoT), and acoustic cloaking.
Of particular interest is the expansion of simulation
throughout organizations with access to specialized,
easy-to-use simulation apps. The article from GrafTech,

13 
a leader in graphite solutions for industrial applications, MANIPULATE AND
highlights the full picture of this growing trend. The
research team developed a detailed model of graphite heat
CONTROL SOUND:
HOW MATHEMATICAL 27  FROM
NANOANTENNAS
TO DEEP SPACE SATELLITES,
MODELING SUPPORTS
spreaders used in the thermal management of smartphones, CUTTING-EDGE ACOUSTIC ELECTRON EMISSION
then turned their simulation into an app for their sales team METAMATERIALS RESEARCH ENABLES EFFICIENT
POWER GENERATION
to use when creating specifications for designs requested —Duke University, USA
—IIT, Italy
by customers. The heat spreader app and other examples
like it allow users to test the validity and performance of
different designs without requiring simulation expertise, 16  VIRTUALLY TUNING
AN AUTOMOTIVE
AUDIO SYSTEM
deploying the knowledge of the simulation specialists —HARMAN, France
to colleagues, collaborators, and even customers.
Read on to learn how numerical analysis is being
leveraged as a powerful tool in many industries,
in this issue of Multiphysics Simulation.

Email: [email protected] 30 

30 RAY OPTICS
SIMULATION LIGHTS
THE WAY FORWARD
—COMSOL, USA
ON THE COVER: Lighting design master Ingo
Maurer’s collaboration with Konica Minolta
resulted in this pioneering OLED product, 32  COMPUTATIONAL
NANOPHOTONICS:

18 
Whisper Wind. The lamp consists of 25 OLED DESIGNING FROM OPTICAL BLACK
flexible panels that are attached to a double- ENERGY-EFFICIENT HOLES TO PLASMON
sided steel branch structure with magnets, PHOTONIC SWITCHES TWEEZERS
which also serve as a power conductor. See the TO SUPPORT GROWING —Purdue University, USA
NETWORK TRAFFIC
full article on page 24 for more details about
—Huawei, Canada
modeling OLEDs.
Photo is courtesy of Ingo Maurer.

2 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL, COMSOL Multiphysics, and COMSOL Desktop are registered trademarks
of COMSOL AB. COMSOL Server and LiveLink are trademarks of COMSOL AB.
+ ONLINE: www.comsol.com/products
 T H E R M A L M A N AG E M E N T S I M U L AT I O N A PP S

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF CARBON AND

GRAPHITE FOR THERMAL MANAGEMENT
At GrafTech International, carbon and graphite products are designed and manufactured
for use in everything from industrial induction furnaces to consumer electronics. Numerical
analysis is the key to design and process optimization for any application, making it possible to
maximize performance while keeping power consumption and material expenditures in check.

By JENNIFER SEGUI

IDENTIFYING AND DESIGNING the best

materials for a particular thermal
management application can be a
challenging task, where industrial
designers are presented with
countless options from suppliers,
and often not enough information
to make an informed decision.
Researchers and engineers at
GrafTech International place
significant value on understanding
their products, allowing them to
provide their customers with the
information they need to select the
right carbon and graphite solutions.
“To better understand our
products and how they perform in
the context of a particular thermal
management application, we are
using numerical simulation in
combination with physical testing,”
explains Richard Beyerle, a senior
scientist in the Innovation and
Technology group at GrafTech. “The
latest computational tools that we Figure 1. A simulation application combines a user-friendly interface with an underlying
have under development may also multiphysics model, extending analysis capabilities to a broad pool of users. This app allows its
be used by our sales engineers, field user to compare heat transfer among graphite foils, which are used to dissipate heat in consumer
specialists, and customers to compare electronics. Image courtesy of GrafTech International.
how our products perform in virtual
prototypes before proceeding to The use of numerical simulation, In their work, Beyerle, Paul, and
physical implementation and testing.” and more specifically multiphysics senior scientist Nathanael May
An example of one such tool, modeling, is prevalent throughout use multiphysics modeling and
a computational application, is the Innovation and Technology simulation applications to better
shown in Figure 1. The application group. “Actually, all of our products understand the electrical, structural,
provides a user-friendly interface to and applications have seen the and thermal performance of carbon
an underlying mathematical model, use of multiphysics simulation,” and graphite, as well as for design
making it straightforward for anyone says Ryan Paul, Innovation & and process optimization for
who would benefit to run simulations. Technology Manager at GrafTech. several industrial applications.

SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 3

 T H E R M A L M A N AG E M E N T S I M U L AT I O N A PP S

Figure 2. The advanced material solutions designed and manufactured by GrafTech include rigid composite sheets, expanded flakes, powders, and
flexible graphite foils, among many other custom options. Photo courtesy of GrafTech International.

The [simulation apps]

that we have under
development may also be used
by our sales engineers, field
specialists, and customers to
compare how our products
perform in virtual prototypes.
— RICHARD BEYERLE,
SENIOR SCIENTIST,
GRAFTECH INTERNATIONAL Figure 3. Compared with amorphous carbon (left), graphite has a highly ordered structure
consisting of individual layers of graphene (right).

» UNDERSTANDING
CARBON AND GRAPHITE
THE ADVANCED MATERIAL solutions
manufactured by GrafTech from
carbon and graphite are available in
many physical forms including rigid
sheets, felts, powders, flexible foils,
and custom-machined structural
elements, a selection of which are
shown in Figure 2. Both amorphous
carbon and graphite are depicted
in Figure 3 for comparison, and are Figure 4. A reconstructed volume of graphite showing material porosity was generated using
made up of the chemical element, computed tomography (CT) and imported into COMSOL® software for simulation. The
validated model is being used to investigate the effect of porosity on the elastic properties of
carbon. Relative to amorphous
synthetic graphite. Images courtesy of GrafTech International.
carbon, graphite has a highly
ordered structure consisting of
many planar layers. Within a single material on record. However, weak a non-oxidizing atmosphere.
layer of graphite, a honeycomb bonding via van der Waals forces In order to use graphite in
lattice is observed, where covalent between the layers in graphite results applications where thermal
bonds between carbon atoms in lower through-plane electrical management is important, and benefit
produce a hexagonal arrangement. and thermal conductivity, which from its unique thermal properties,
The structure of graphite results gives graphite its highly anisotropic it is necessary to better understand
in excellent in-plane electrical and properties. Individual layers are also how the material performs
thermal conductivity, particularly in able to slide past each other making overall. A combination of physical
comparison to amorphous carbon. the bulk material relatively soft. characterization and simulation in
Graphite is also extremely strong, with Many forms of graphite, however, COMSOL Multiphysics® software
a single layer of graphite, referred can withstand temperatures in is being used at GrafTech for this
to as graphene, being the strongest excess of 3000 degrees Celsius in purpose, as shown in Figure 4.

4 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016

 heat spreaders, for example, are
among the graphite foils available,
and are designed for use in different
applications such as smartphones,
tablets, and displays. Figure 5
illustrates how graphite heat spreaders
work to cool an electronic component
or device, which allows them to
operate at lower temperatures,
extending their lifetimes and
improving their performance.
Graphite foil heat spreaders come
in a select range of thicknesses,
electrical and thermal conductivities,
contact impedances, and coating
options. “It is a common challenge
to balance the desired thermal
performance and cost, “says Beyerle.
“Numerical simulation is an excellent
way to evaluate how a graphite foil
will perform for cooling electronic
components in a particular device,
Figure 5. Flexible graphite foil heat spreaders enable dissipation of heat from an electronic enabling us to identify the most cost-
component with high in-plane conductivity, while protecting underlying heat-sensitive areas effective solution for our customers
with low through-plane conductivity. Photo courtesy of GrafTech International. without compromising performance.”
To evaluate anisotropic heat
“The design challenge is to model transfer, and the performance
the temperature-dependent of flexible graphite foils for
properties and performance of thermal management in various
graphite under dynamic thermal- electronics applications, Beyerle is
mechanical-electrical loads,” developing mathematical models
and simulation applications in
explains Paul. “By modeling graphite
COMSOL Multiphysics® software.
and its applications, learning
One custom application enables
happens much faster, and builds
the user to evaluate graphite heat
on experiment by deepening our spreaders in geometries that are
understanding of the mechanisms relevant to portable electronic
and theory, something experimental devices, such as cell phones, and
data alone cannot deliver.” was introduced in Figure 1.

» MODELING GRAPHITE FOIL

FOR ELECTRONICS COOLING
The application provides the
ability to change the location and
size of heat sources, slots, and other
FOR ONE POTENTIAL APPLICATION — the openings, specify the heat source
thermal management of electronic power, and visualize the finite element
components — GrafTech designs mesh and simulation results. Figure
and manufactures thin flexible 6 shows how changing the slot
graphite foil. SPREADERSHIELD™ length, for example, can affect heat

By modeling graphite and its applications, learning happens

much faster, and builds on experiment by deepening
our understanding of the mechanisms and theory, something
experimental data alone cannot deliver.
— RYAN PAUL , INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY
MANAGER, GRAFTECH INTERNATIONAL
Figure 6. By using GrafTech’s simulation
application, heat dissipation throughout a
graphite heat spreader can be evaluated,
taking into account the size and placement
of heat sources as well as the size of cutouts. SPREADERSHIELD is a trademark of GrafTech
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 5
Images courtesy of GrafTech International. International Holdings Inc.
 T H E R M A L M A N AG E M E N T S I M U L AT I O N A PP S

high-temperature furnaces, in 2D
4100
and 3D, such as induction furnaces,
3900
vacuum furnaces, and high-quality
3700
crystal growth furnaces,” says May.
3500 An example of an induction furnace
3300
Coils too hot from May’s work, as well as results
3100 from design optimization performed
2900
Coils sufficiently cool using numerical simulation, is
2700
shown in Figure 7. Simulation was
used to optimize the thickness of
2500
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
a GRAFSHIELD™ carbon bonded
graphite insulation layer in order to
Insulation Thickness, m
prevent temperatures from exceeding
100 degrees Celsius in the water-cooled
Figure 7. At left, temperature distribution from simulation of a furnace with water-cooled
induction coils. Additionally, keeping
induction coils. Right, results demonstrate the optimal graphite insulation layer thickness
the insulation layer as thin as possible
required to cool the coils. Images courtesy of GrafTech International.
reduces the amount of current required
to maintain the furnace temperature.
dissipation from a nearby source. Virtual prototyping
To ensure the simulation app is
a useful tool, an important step is
through mathematical » THE WIDE WORLD OF
CARBON AND GRAPHITE
verifying the underlying mathematical modeling is very useful for WHEN IT COMES TO GAINING a better
model. A particular concern for increasing the confidence of understanding of the performance
Beyerle is the accurate simulation potential customers, allowing us of GrafTech’s unique carbon and
of anisotropic heat transfer in both to demonstrate that GrafTech’s graphite solutions, modeling and
flat and curved layers of graphite solutions are thoroughly vetted. simulation are essential. Equally
adept at both experimental
heat spreaders. In this case, if the
simulation is not accurate, the results — NATHANAEL MAY, characterization and computational
SENIOR SCIENTIST,
could make the unique performance GRAFTECH INTERNATIONAL
modeling, Beyerle, Paul, and May
of graphite appear similar to that are combining the two, making
of an ordinary metal. In COMSOL® application-specific information
software, it is straightforward to about GrafTech’s solutions available.
create a user-defined coordinate many unique grades of materials By developing and deploying
system for modeling anisotropic manufactured by GrafTech can be custom applications — an exclusive
material properties, including challenging to model accurately capability in COMSOL Multiphysics®
in curved or branched parts.
– a challenge clearly shared by software — GrafTech can provide
Beyerle and Paul, as well as by easy-to-use, simulation-based
Running a simulation through
their colleague Nathanael May, design capabilities for thermal
the app was designed to be quick,
a senior scientist also in the management applications. In this
taking less than 12 seconds,
Innovation and Technology Group. way, simulation applications not only
making the tool convenient for use “Having many unique grades
during the sales cycle. By using an open up the wide world of carbon
of materials means we have to do and graphite, but numerical analysis
installation of the COMSOL Server™ the lab work to build a database
product, Beyerle is able to host the as well, to any colleagues or potential
of material properties that we customers who would benefit.
simulation app on local hardware can use in our models,” explains
at GrafTech, while giving colleagues May. “The effort is easily justified,
and customers the ability to run though. Virtual prototyping through
the app remotely from a COMSOL mathematical modeling is very
Client for Windows® operating useful for increasing the confidence
system or from a web browser. of potential customers, allowing

»
us to demonstrate that GrafTech’s
OPTIMIZING FURNACE solutions are thoroughly vetted.”
DESIGN AND OPERATION One of May’s major projects is
DESPITE THE NUMEROUS ADVANTAGES dedicated to creating a sophisticated
of using graphite in practice, the multiphysics model using COMSOL
anisotropic and highly temperature- Multiphysics. “I am mostly
dependent properties of the creating models for simulating

Richard Beyerle is a senior scientist in the

Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation Innovation and Technology Group at
6 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016in the United States and/or
other countries. GRAFSHIELD is a trademark of GrafTech International Holdings Inc. GrafTech International.
 I N N O VA T I V E M E D I C A L T E C H N O L O G I E S

life, as well as be compatible

with the internal environment of

ENHANCING PERFORMANCE the human body. Thoratec, now

part of St. Jude Medical, brought

AND SAFETY OF MEDICAL

LVADs to a wide market in 2010,
after years of clinical trials.

IMPLANTABLE DEVICES WITH » DESIGNING A

POWERFUL, EFFICIENT, AND
MULTIPHYSICS SIMULATION HEMOCOMPATIBLE PUMP
THE DESIGN OF AN LVAD must take
many factors into consideration.
At St. Jude Medical, ventricle assist devices are developed The device must be small enough
to improve the lives of patients with heart failure. Numerical to connect to the heart and be
made of compatible materials and
simulation is used throughout the design process to geometry that permit the device to
characterize diverse concurrent aspects of the design, from reside in the body without being
rejected. Fluid dynamics, power
thermal effects and fluid dynamics to power transfer. supply, and thermal management
must also be considered. As multiple
interacting physical effects must
By SARAH FIELDS be accounted for at each area of
development, multiphysics simulation
is vital to the design process.
Freddy Hansen, Sr. R&D Engineer
at St. Jude Medical uses his expertise
in physics and mathematical
modeling to characterize complex
implantable medical devices like
LVADs before experimental studies.
Hansen has been using
COMSOL Multiphysics® software
in 2011, and has since created
upwards of 230 models that address
a wide range of design challenges
pertaining to the unique physics
of artificial pumping devices.
“I use COMSOL Multiphysics
every day, from proof of concept
models to quite sophisticated
simulations featuring detailed CAD
geometries and coupled physics. I
work with some complex models for
months before I’ve taken all of the
Figure 1. An LVAD pump is responsible for circulating oxygen-rich blood throughout the body.
Image courtesy of St. Jude Medical.
information I want from them.”
With each generation of LVADs
introduced to market, improvements
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A DEVICE meant the left side of the heart, as the left are made that contribute to
to assist or completely replace ventricle is responsible for pumping enhanced safety and quality of
functioning of the heart is undeniably oxygen-rich blood throughout the life for the patient. Research and
complex. This design process involves body, a greater distance than the right development efforts at St. Jude
immense challenges, from supplying ventricle, which pumps blood through Medical are centered on improving
power to the device to ensuring it does the lungs. Often, in patients with biocompatibility, hemocompatibility,
not interfere with normal biological a poorly functioning left ventricle, and immunocompatibility, such
functioning. Researchers at St. Jude an LVAD (see Figure 1) can provide that the device does not illicit an
Medical use multiphysics simulation mechanical circulatory support. adverse immune response, nor
to engineer LVADs, Left Ventricular The ventricle assist device is one interfere with other bodily systems.
Assist Devices, in an ongoing effort of the most complex machines ever
to improve the outlook and quality implanted in a human being. An
of life of patients with heart failure. LVAD must circulate the entire
The condition typically begins with
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 7
human blood stream and support
 I N N O VA T I V E M E D I C A L T E C H N O L O G I E S

a.

c.

b.

Figure 2. External equipment of an LVAD.

Image courtesy of St. Jude Medical.

Geometry and size of the device Figure 3. (a) 3D CFD simulation depicting fluid velocity within the pump chamber. (b)
play an important role in its overall Visualization of the magnetically levitated rotor, which eliminates the need for ball bearings
effectiveness. To implant the LVAD, and other components with geometries that might promote clotting. Here, the magnitude and
the surgeon connects one end of the direction of the magnetic field in the rotor, as well as the magnitude of the magnetic field in the
LVAD to the left ventricle and the stator are shown. (c) Diagram of the centrifugal pump of an LVAD.
other end to the ascending aorta (see
Figure 2). If the device is smaller, the Rotating Machinery modeling Another significant advance was
it is less cumbersome, and less technology available in the software to the development of a pump system
likely to interfere with neighboring model both the magnetically levitated with pulsatile flow, rather than
organs or tissue. Simulation allows rotor and turbulent fluid flow. continuous flow, which more closely
for the evaluation of changes in A permanent magnet in the pump mimics a functioning heart. The
size or geometry of the LVAD rotor is driven by coils in the stator, pulsatile flow aids in the washing
design before implementation which exert a torque on the rotor of the blood, preventing blood
of a physical prototype. and provide active control of the clots, and is also believed to have

» OPTIMIZING LVAD DESIGN

FOR BIOCOMPATIBILITY
position of the rotor axis. The vertical
position — or levitation — of the
a positive physiological effect on
blood vessels throughout the body.

MANY SIMULATIONS WERE USED in the

development of the centrifugal pump
rotor is accomplished by magnetic
field line tension and does not need
» WIRELESSLY POWERING A
FULLY-IMPLANTABLE LVAD
of the LVAD. One challenge associated active control. The rotor receives
CURRENT LVADS REQUIRE POWER transfer
with engineering these devices is blood axially and redirects it radially,
from external batteries in a controller
the prevention of blood clotting in into the volute, or fluid collector (see outside the body to the pump by
any space in or around the pump. To Figure 3). Some of the blood flows way of a cable, made with materials
address this, a magnetically levitated back around the outer edge of the engineered to be biocompatible. But
rotor was developed, which eliminated rotor and into the rotor inlet, resulting what if the cable could be eliminated?
the need for ball bearings and other in a constant washing of the blood, Hansen explored transferring
components with geometries that which serves to eliminate places where power by way of magnetic resonance
might promote clotting. Hansen used the blood can stagnate and clot. coupling. Magnetic resonance coupling
occurs when two objects, having almost
I use COMSOL Multiphysics every day, from proof the same resonance frequency, transfer
of concept models to quite sophisticated simulations energy to each other through their
oscillating magnetic fields. In this way,
featuring detailed CAD geometries and coupled physics. I work power can be transferred from a power
with some complex models for months before I’ve taken all of the source to another device, even through
information I want from them. a biological medium such as tissue.
A Fully Implantable LVAD System
— FREDDY HANSEN, SENIOR R&D ENGINEER,
ST. JUDE MEDICAL
(FILVAS) would decrease infection
risk and improve patient quality
of life, as the patient would not
need to be concerned with cable
8 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
management. With this concept
 Figure 5. Simulation of a steel ball impacting
an LVAD controller to evaluate resiliency
Figure 4. Model of heating induced in the body through magnetic power transfer. Results show of the controller. Visualization shows
power density distribution in the tissue and the surrounding air. displacement along the vertical axis.

the patient could shower or swim

without concern for the cable.
» PROTECTING LIFE-
SUSTAINING BATTERIES
biocompatibility of the device as well
as the overall patient experience.
To assess the feasibility of wireless PATIENTS MUST LIVE WITH their LVADs The latest innovations to
power transfer to an LVAD and every single day, which inevitably mechanical pumping systems —
determine how much power could means that the external LVAD including a smaller device size, a
be transferred between reasonably controller must be able to withstand more hemocompatible pump and the
sized coils, Hansen coupled a 3D the wear and tear of life, as well introduction of pulsatile flow, and
magnetic field model with an now the possibility of wireless power
as the occasional dropping of the
electrical circuit model to determine transfer — hold much promise for
controller to the floor. To ensure
operating efficiency and power better treatment in the future.
that the controller (which contains
loss, as well as optimal circuit
crucial life-saving batteries) will
design and component values.
continue to function even if the FREDDY HANSEN
He evaluated different materials
for important components, such as patient tosses it around, Hansen received his
the wires of the transformer coils. He developed a mechanical impact undergraduate
also studied the misalignment of a analysis of the controller in order degree in
coil due to patient walking, running, to assess its resilience (Figure 5). engineering
and other activities, together with He also analyzed the edges and physics from
the effect of the presence of nearby surfaces of the deformed structural Chalmers
magnetic or metallic objects. shell and the frame for twisting, to University of
Engineers also had to ensure that verify the integrity of the controller. Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden.
body temperature and biological The analysis proved the controller He received his master’s, PhD, and
systems would not be affected by would continue to provide life- postdoc in applied physics at Caltech,
the implant. The wireless transfer of sustaining power to the LVAD specializing in plasma physics related
energy induces small currents in the even after a substantial impact. to spacecraft plasma propulsion.
Following this, he worked nine years
»
body tissue near the coils. Hansen
modeled the heat generated in the NEW TECHNOLOGY SHOWS at Lawrence Livermore National
tissue as a result of the induced IMPROVED OPTIONS FOR Laboratory doing research in fluid
currents, combined this with models PATIENTS IN THE FUTURE dynamics, astrophysics, and nuclear
of heat generated inside the implant IN DESIGNING DEVICES TO ASSIST and fusion. He has also written over 40
(in magnetic wires, electronics, replace the function of the heart, research papers; has half a dozen
and batteries), and then used the multiphysics analysis has proven patents, pending or approved; and
thermal conductivity coefficient to be essential. Hansen combines co-created a popular college physics
determined from a famous Cleveland experimental characterization and textbook. Freddy is currently working
Clinic experiment, to determine the mathematical modeling to understand at St. Jude Medical using his expertise
temperature increase in body tissue the physics pertaining to ventricle in electromagnetics and fluid
near the implant (see Figure 4). assist devices, and improve the dynamics to design artificial hearts.

SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 9

 OPTIMIZING LASER BEAM WELDING

LIGHT, STRONG, AND DEFECT-FREE LASER

WELDING: PERFECTING THE PROCESS FOR
THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
Between reducing emissions, constantly improving safety, and keeping costs low, the
automotive industry faces challenges arising from recent shifts toward eco-friendly vehicles.
Engineers at ArcelorMittal are optimizing the use of material for automotive design that meets
safety standards and decreases environmental footprint.

By LEXI CARVER

SAFETY. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT. COST-

EFFECTIVE DESIGN. The number of
factors an automotive manufacturer
must consider when developing a car
is staggering. With safety standards
that continue to evolve over time,
and the ever-present need to reduce
emissions and price, one area that has
major impacts on all of these concerns
is the design and weight of the vehicle.
Automotive manufacturers rely
on laser welded blanks (LWBs),
which comprise metal sheets of
different thicknesses and grades, to
minimize and control the amount
of material employed in different
regions of a car, such as the frame
and body (see Figure 1). Among other
regulations, these blanks must keep Figure 1. Top: Examples of regions where
up with crash safety requirements. LWBs may be used. Orange indicates
Enter ArcelorMittal, a company that components where properly designed LWBs
produces strong, high-quality steel. can contribute to weight reduction, such as
the B-pillar, side members, tunnel, and door
Through numerical simulation, they
rings. Bottom: A laser welded blank with a
are optimizing their LWB welding zoomed section showing the butt weld.
process to create blanks that ensure
proper performance and minimize part laser applies so much energy that
press-hardened steels. Ultimately,
weight by finding the best combination some of the metal vaporizes. When
we want excellent weld quality
of different grades and thicknesses the steel melts, its density suddenly
that meets safety requirements
in their welded steel sheets. decreases and volume and material
for crash tests,” remarks Dr. Sadok
» MEETING CRASH AND
EMISSION REQUIREMENTS
Gaied, who manages a team at
ArcelorMittal working on modeling
movement increase, generating
a very high-pressure vapor. This
“WE OPTIMIZE STEEL PLACEMENT so that and simulation of welding. For a weld creates a ‘keyhole,’ a narrow hole
certain regions of a car are thinner to be considered safe, it cannot crack, at the point of laser impact,” Gaied
and lighter but still strong enough, break, or otherwise fail during a test. explains. “Then the surrounding steel
using advanced high-strength and ArcelorMittal uses laser welding melts, forming a molten pool. When
to transform solid steel into molten that cools, it creates a connection
metal by providing a concentrated between the two sheets of metal.”
heat source, allowing for narrow, deep “Most mechanical failures originate
10 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
welds (see Figure 2). “The high-power from defects in joining, because the
 Figure 3. Top: A hole due to inappropriate
collapse of the molten metal (left)
and a bubbly weld due to complex
hydrodynamic behavior (right). Bottom:
Figure 2. Keyhole creation and the molten Undercut geometry in the form of
steel pool during laser welding. The keyhole grooves at the top and bottom of the
migrates as the laser moves along the seam weld, caused by the ejection of molten
between two sheets, with molten steel filling steel, where a gap is left between the two
in the space around and behind it as it travels. sheets (left). Simulation results show fluid
distribution near the keyhole and the
predicted undercut in the weld
joint is where different materials
are connected. If the joint is done
» UNDERSTANDING HOW
OPERATING CONDITIONS
geometry (right).

improperly, you can end up with IMPACT WELD QUALITY

in one COMSOL® software simulation,
stresses that are too high.” Welding WITH THE NUMBER OF FACTORS beginning with an electromagnetic
with inappropriate parameters can influencing the quality of a weld, the model that determined reflection
also create instabilities that result devil’s in the details: laser power, and material absorption properties
in porosity in the weld, partial material reflection off the laser beam, based on the angle of the laser’s
penetration, or undercutting, which welding speed, and wavelength affect reflection (see Figure 4).
results in a weaker connection. behavior around the keyhole such as They also tested changing the power
Examples of different weld heat transfer, phase change, and fluid level, wavelength, and welding speed
defects are shown in Figure 3. flow. In particular, the keyhole angle in order to predict the keyhole shape
“To predict defects for different and shape of the molten pool influence for different operating conditions.
welding situations, we use numerical fluid flow behavior resulting from the This model described the heat
simulation that allows us to phase change and thermal loading. transfer and phase change as the
investigate the effects of changes in “Fluid, thermal, and electrical metal melted, allowing the team to
parameters like the laser power level,” behavior are all intertwined here,” analyze the resulting vaporization,
Gaied continues. “In this way we can
Gaied says. “It’s very important to fluid dynamics of the liquid-vapor
virtually test how operating conditions
know what’s happening in the weld in interface, and the growth of the
affect the likelihood of defects, as well
order to prevent defects. We needed molten pool (see Figure 5).
as predict the fluid dynamics, thermal
to study all the physics together in
behavior, and final shape of the weld.”
order to track the fluid flow in and » MODELING COUPLED
BEHAVIOR SHEDS LIGHT
around the keyhole and understand
We can virtually test its effect on the weld stability.” ON FINAL WELD RESULTS
how operating conditions Gaied’s team collaborated with TO PREDICT THE FINAL SHAPE of the
affect the likelihood of defects, Mickael Courtois, Muriel Carin,
and Philippe Le Masson from
joint, Gaied’s team and the team
from Université Bretagne Sud
as well as predict the fluid Université Bretagne Sud and used then modeled the penetration
dynamics, thermal behavior, COMSOL Multiphysics® software to depth of the weld as a function of
and final shape of the weld. analyze the temperature distribution welding speed, laser power, and
in the molten and solid steel, the angle the size of the keyhole, based on
— SADOK GAIED, PROJECT MANAGER,
of the keyhole, and the fluid flow field results from their earlier study.
ARCELORMITTAL
as they change throughout the welding Full penetration into the sheets
process. They included several studies is required for a high-quality weld;
partial penetration can occur
when energy density is limited, at
20° 40° 80° Figure 4. COMSOL®
low power or high speed. Partial
software simulation of the
penetration can cause undercuts,
laser reflection. Results
resulting in a gap remaining between
show the electric field
norm for different angles the two blanks (see Figure 6).
of reflection, resulting
in different amounts of
energy absorbed.
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 11
 OPTIMIZING LASER BEAM WELDING

Figure 5. Top left: Temperature field in the molten steel flowing around the keyhole. Bottom left: Results showing capillary inclination
(keyhole angle) for different welding speeds, the temperature field in the surrounding metal, and the fluid flow field in the molten pool and
the keyhole (arrow plots). Right: Three-dimensional view of the fluid flow directly around the keyhole during its formation. [1]

» PERFECTED WELDING
TECHNIQUES FOR SAFETY
AND EMISSION REDUCTION
OFFERING THE RIGHT LWBS to their
customers — with the appropriate
steel grade and sheet thicknesses
to accommodate crash test
specifications, weight requirements,
and cost — requires choosing
the right combination of welding
parameters. Based on their
simulations, Gaied’s team helps
Figure 6. Comparison between COMSOL results (yellow curve) and experiments showing the determine a range of operating
penetration depth and shape of the weld defect. Penetration depth for welding speeds of 6 m/ conditions for defect-free joints.
minute (left) and 8 m/minute (right) with a 4kW laser. The slower case achieves full penetration, “Being able to understand these
indicating sufficient energy density in the deposition. The faster case results in only partial interacting physical phenomena
penetration, indicating that there was not enough energy to create a high-quality connection. [2] and run a simulation that combined
them all, rather than running
multiple studies in parallel, was of
huge benefit to us,” Gaied concludes.
“We’re helping the automotive
industry decrease car weight, and
making sure that our welds are of
high quality and safe for drivers.”

References
1.
M. Courtois, M. Carin, P. Le Masson, S.
Gaied, M. Balabane. Guidelines in the
Left to right: Sadok Gaied of ArcelorMittal; Philippe Le Masson, Mickael Courtois, experimental validation of a 3D heat and
and Muriel Carin of UBS. fluid flow model of keyhole laser welding.
Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
(2016), 49 (15)
We’re helping the automotive industry decrease car 2.
M. Courtois, M. Carin, P. Le
weight, and making sure that our welds are of high Masson, S. Gaied, M. Balabane. A new
quality and safe for drivers. approach to compute multi-reflections
of laser beam in a keyhole for heat
— SADOK GAIED, PROJECT MANAGER, ARCELORMITTAL transfer and fluid flow modeling in
laser welding. Journal of Physics D:
12 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
Applied Physics (2013), 46 (50)
 ACO U S T I C M E TA M AT E R I A L S

MANIPULATE AND CONTROL SOUND: HOW

MATHEMATICAL MODELING SUPPORTS CUTTING-
EDGE ACOUSTIC METAMATERIALS RESEARCH
From consumer audio to ultrasound imaging, the implications of research into metamaterial
structures for acoustic cloaking are far-reaching and fascinating. Researchers are using
mathematical modeling to design acoustic metamaterials by combining transformation
acoustics and highly anisotropic structures.

By GEMMA CHURCH AND VALERIO MARRA

in the real world. Steve Cummer,

professor of electrical and computer
engineering at Duke University, said:
“Mathematical models are the starting
point. The acoustic metamaterial
designs are optimized through
numerical simulations, which we then
translate into modern fabrication
techniques and experimentally test.”
One focus of the group’s current
research efforts is on developing
acoustic metamaterial structures
Figure 1. Controlling acoustic wave scattering from an object. Left: The scattering of a wave that can be used in water-based
incident from the left from a rigid object is obvious: the reflection is quasi-specular, the shadow is environments, including the human
deep, and a portion of wave power is spread in all directions. Right: Surrounding the same object body, to arbitrarily transform and
with an ideal cloaking shell shows the absence of both reflection and shadow, while power is
control incoming sound waves.
transmitted around the metamaterial object with virtually no losses.
Acoustic cloaking structures (Figure
1) have proven a useful testbed for
METAMATERIALS ARE MAN-MADE, the impression the waves went demonstrating the arbitrary control
specially fabricated materials straight through the surrounding air. enabled by transformation acoustics.
featuring properties never found Acoustic invisibility is just one Designing for aqueous environments
in nature, such as zero or even aspect of the broad concept of represents a shift in metamaterial
negative refractive index. The result transformation acoustics, in which research, which has evolved from
is the creation of cutting-edge carefully designed materials can electromagnetic cloaking and
designs and functionality, such as deform or control sound waves transformation optics, to acoustic
superlenses and sound absorbers. in almost arbitrary ways. From cloaking and transformations in
Recent research efforts have turned sci-fi to mundane, there are many 2D and then 3D structures in air.
to the arbitrary manipulation of possible applications of this COMSOL Multiphysics® software
sound waves using metamaterial technological breakthrough. has been a vital commodity at every

» »DESIGNING SILENT
devices, including making an stage of the research, going back to
object acoustically invisible. the very early days of electromagnetic
The research has been a success. METAMATERIALS
cloaking. Cummer said: “In the first
Using little more than a few DUKE UNIVERSITY, ALONGSIDE MIT, paper where we showed simulations
perforated sheets of plastic and a University of California, Berkeley, of electromagnetic cloaking using
staggering amount of mathematical Rutgers University, and the University real electromagnetic material
modeling and numerical simulation of Texas at Austin, forms part of a parameters, we used COMSOL®
work, engineers at Duke University five-year research program sponsored software specifically because it was
have demonstrated the world’s first by the US Office of Naval Research
3D acoustic cloak. The device bends to develop new concepts for acoustic
sound waves smoothly around an metamaterials with effective material
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 13
object, fills in the shadow and gives parameters that can be fabricated
 ACO U S T I C M E TA M AT E R I A L S

Figure 2. Design (left) and constructed version (right) of the

pyramid-shaped 3D acoustic cloaking shell.

one of the only electromagnetic COMSOL makes it so easy and relatively

software tools that had the ability to
accommodate arbitrarily anisotropic
straightforward to manipulate the material properties
electromagnetic material parameters.” and the underlying dynamic equations.
To attack the acoustics problem, — STEVE CUMMER, ELECTRICAL AND
the researchers began with deriving COMPUTER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, DUKE UNIVERSITY
the needed material properties.
Cummer explained: “To arbitrarily
control sound using transformation
acoustics, we first apply a coordinate Cummer. “The gold standard in an earlier project, a 2D acoustic
transformation to describe how you metamaterials publications these cloaking shell featuring a series of
would like to bend or twist or deform days, to show whether a structure tiny holes was designed and built,
works the way you want it to and but the experiments did not match
the sound field in a particular device.
produces the physics you want it the simulations. The team was
Once you’ve defined that coordinate
to, is to take a measurement of the flummoxed and could not see any
transformation, then you can derive
full sound field produced by the viable reason for the discrepancy.
the effective material parameters
acoustic metamaterial and compare They suddenly realized that holes in
you need to create that particular
that to the simulation,” he added. the structure were the wrong size due
deformation of the sound field.”
COMSOL Multiphysics® software to a mix up during its construction.
That resulting set of material
is able to consistently achieve such Cummer said: “The efficiency of
parameters is almost always
agreement, even when human error COMSOL has been pretty critical
anisotropic, which means the material
has tried to derail the research. In in our work because we can do
properties behave differently in
different directions. To handle this
the researchers needed to be able to
change the equations representing the
physics being simulated. “COMSOL
makes it so easy and relatively
straightforward to manipulate the
material properties and the underlying
dynamic equations. This was really
important because we could add
that one extra twist of the anisotropy
to the model and start simulating
some of the designs that we were
exploring within the transformation
acoustics approach,” Cummer added.
The resulting real-world designs
have been very successful and their
performance matched the simulations
“astonishingly well”, according to Figure 3. (left) To test the metamaterial shell, a sound pulse is launched in three different
configurations and the reflected sound pulse is measured with a scanned microphone. (right) The
reflected acoustic pulse from the test object is dramatically different than that with no object.
When the cloaking shell is placed on the object, the reflected pulse is almost identical to that
14 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
with no object, demonstrating its invisibility to sound.
 different from those of water. Cummer
explained: “That’s why in air we
can get away with building acoustic
metamaterials in plastic, or whatever
solid is convenient, as the solid can act
essentially as a perfectly rigid structure
to control the sound field flow. It
doesn’t really matter what it is made of.”
But the mass density and
compressional stiffness of water are
not so different from solid materials.
“When sound waves hit a solid
structure in water, the mechanical
properties of that solid start to
Figure 4. The good agreement between simulations (left) and measurements (right) of the matter a lot. We need to come up
scattered acoustic fields not only shows the degree of acoustic cloaking of the object, but with new techniques in the design
confirms that COMSOL accurately predicts the performance of the fabricated device. phase to be able to control how that
sound wave energy interacts with
numerical simulations of both the concert hall or dampen it in a noisy the solid so that we can maintain
idealized parameters and then of restaurant environment, for example. the properties we want,” he added.
the full structure that we would Cummer said: “The cloaking material “The ability to easily merge acoustics
actually build, to confirm that is not just magic paint you can spray and structural mechanics is essential,
they behave the same way.” onto something. Generally speaking, especially when we’re dealing with
structures in water where we can’t
» »FABRICATING AND TESTING
that’s not the way that these kind of
ideas can be deployed in practice.” ignore the mechanical responses
AN ACOUSTIC METAMATERIAL Beyond the design stage,
of the solid material that we’re
THE DESIGN OF A 3D ACOUSTIC CLOAKING using to build the metamaterial.
modeling and simulation have been
shell employed the same basic In airborne acoustics, we can get
used to predict the quantitative
perforated plate structure in a away with treating the solid as a
performance of metamaterial
material that is infinitely rigid,
pyramidal shape (Figure 2) under shells like this, including a detailed
which is easy and computationally
which an object could be hidden analysis of the scattering from a
efficient, but for the water-based
from sound waves. The structure 2D cloaking shell implementation material it is essential to be able to
may at first appear to be relatively (Figure 4). Not only does this show consider fluid-structure interaction,
simple in its design, but many factors how much the scattered field is which is easy with COMSOL.”
are balanced to achieve the desired reduced by the shell, but COMSOL The leap from research into
acoustic transformation, including the accurately predicts the amount of commercially viable acoustic
hole diameter, the spacing between scattering reduction given design metamaterial structures is far from
the plates, and the angle of the plates. tradeoffs made in the fabrication simple and means such structures
All of these parameters combine to of the acoustic metamaterial. must be able to be fabricated reliably
give just the right amount of acoustic
anisotropy to make the structure work. » »FROM AIR TO WATER:
DIFFERENT MEDIUM,
and repeatably. Cummer concluded:
“The next step to creating any acoustic
This pyramid structure was the metamaterial is that it is able to hit
world’s first 3D acoustic cloak, and
NEW CHALLENGES specific quantitative metrics. That
laboratory measurements confirmed ATTENTION HAS NOW SHIFTED to getting means we have a more complicated
that it is capable of rerouting sound acoustic metamaterials to work in design process, but that’s exactly
waves to create the impression that an aqueous environment, such as what COMSOL is designed to do. [It
both the cloak and anything beneath underwater or inside the human allows] much more design iteration
it are not there (Figure 3). The device body. Multiphysics modeling is and clever use of optimization to
works in all three dimensions, no used as the primary design tool to identify degrees of freedom in the
matter which direction the sound is first map the previously designed design that can be manipulated to
coming from or where the observer structures and run simulations in then hit those specific numerical
order to test how they will perform targets. That’s definitely the key going
is located, and holds potential for
in water. The move from air to water forward in transitioning these ideas
future applications such as sonar
is more difficult than it sounds. from proof of concept demonstrations
avoidance and architectural acoustics.
The problem is that the mechanical to something that’s actually practical
Given the necessary thickness of the
properties of air are dramatically and deployable in the real world.”
acoustic metamaterial shell, the latter
is the more plausible option, where
such acoustic cloaking devices could
be used to optimize the sound in a SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 15
 VIRTUAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

In one case, they both measured

and simulated the sound pressure

VIRTUALLY TUNING AN levels generated by a loudspeaker

in the cabin of a Mercedes-Benz

AUTOMOTIVE AUDIO SYSTEM ML car (see Figure 1) in order to

validate their numerical models and
later use them to optimize acoustic
Experts at HARMAN are using physical experiments in equipment. “Car cabin simulations
conjunction with mathematical modeling and numerical are among the most challenging to
run because they cover many different
simulation to improve the development process for the areas of physics,” explains Strauss.
latest vehicle infotainment technology. Fortunately, COMSOL® software
offers options to couple together the
acoustic, mechanical, and electrical
By LEXI CARVER effects throughout the system.
To support companywide
engineering efforts, Strauss’ team
TODAY’S VEHICLES OFFER DAZZLING the final car designs are complete.
established a library of validated
electronic entertainment possibilities, “We may become involved very early
models and known solutions that
from smartphone connectivity to in the car development process, when
allows for performance predictions
interactive displays and video screens. a vehicle designer has not yet decided
of a wide variety of loudspeaker
HARMAN is the market leader in what is required from the audio
configurations. “We are able to
these connected car setups, equipping system,” explains Michael Strauss,
offer everything from a high-level
more than 80% of the world’s luxury senior manager of Virtual Product
trend analysis to a detailed design
cars with premium audio systems. Development and Tools (VPD) at
examining the performance of
Each vehicle model requires a unique HARMAN. “Or we may only have basic
a subsystem,” he continues.
configuration, and HARMAN’s team details such as the size and volume
of acoustic and simulation specialists
ensure that different components
of the car cabin. Yet frequently we
need to present a concept within a
» ANALYZING VEHICLE
LOUDSPEAKER PERFORMANCE
and car acoustics are accounted for in few days, creating a tricky challenge IN ONE STUDY, ENGINEERS AT HARMAN
their design process. Details such as to meet our clients’ requirements used COMSOL to create a simulation
the ideal placement and orientation and deliver high-quality systems.” of a car cabin’s sound system in order
of speakers, speaker packaging, and
driver enclosure geometry such as car » SIMULATION AND
EXPERIMENTS TEAM UP FOR
to optimize the speaker acoustics,
specifically for low-frequency
doors all influence the sound quality. soundwaves. They then designed a
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
The team uses physical experiments series of tests to validate the model.
TO PROVIDE CUSTOMERS with a
in conjunction with numerical analysis Once validated, the model would allow
to accelerate product development response that is both quick and
the HARMAN team to deduce the best
by virtually “tuning” their systems accurate, engineers at HARMAN
loudspeaker setup for a given car.
before ever creating a live prototype. turn to mathematical modeling in
In validation tests, a loudspeaker
COMSOL Multiphysics® software. “We
This saves time on physical testing,
needed capabilities for mechanical,
and allows virtual tests to replace in
acoustic, and electrical simulations
situ listening, so that the team can
in one integrated environment, and
design their products even before
we wanted a program that would
free up the time and effort spent
on creating and updating our own
tools,” says François Malbos, senior
acoustics engineer at HARMAN.
“The multiphysics approach is
one of the most important parts of
the virtual product development
process,” says Michał Bogdanski,
project leader in virtual product
Figure 1. Loudspeaker positioning in the
development at HARMAN. “We can
vehicle interior. explore how the acoustic behavior of
a loudspeaker relates to any part of a
vehicle structure — for example the
stiffness of a door — and then provide Figure 2. Top view of the microphone arrays
16 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
design guidelines to our customer.” positioned at four different locations.
 Figure 3. HARMAN’s 3D scan of the
car cabin.

was mounted on a rigid enclosure

near the driver’s seat of the car.
Four sets of microphone arrays Figure 5. Sound pressure levels for one microphone array (left) and throughout the cabin (right).
throughout the cabin served to
measure average sound pressure
levels at each location (see Figure 2).
For frequencies below 1 kHz, the
» OPTIMIZING THE
ACOUSTIC MODEL
user to listen, evaluate, and compare
any optimized audio system including
loudspeaker was represented as a IN ADDITION TO ACCOUNTING for
subwoofers, midranges, and tweeters,”
rigid flat piston tied to a simplified many different materials, the team says Malbos. “Design modifications
lumped parameter model (LPM) also defined speaker membrane are done much quicker in the virtual
taking into account the voltage at the motion and acceleration based domain than rebuilding a real
voice coil terminals and the stiffness on the volume of the enclosure prototype.” Listening tests demonstrate
of the suspension and speaker using LiveLink™ for MATLAB®, and that this scientific approach can
membrane surface. The geometry was developed special MATLAB® software successfully replace in situ listening.
generated from a manual 3D scan scripts to simplify the preprocessing The ability to assess an audio
(see Figure 3). Using a preprocessing and postprocessing activities. system based purely on simulation
algorithm implemented in MATLAB® “Everything is fully optimized is increasing the quality and speed
software and an add-on product and automatic so that we do not of the product development process
to COMSOL® called LiveLink™ for have to calculate the acceleration at HARMAN, improving customer
MATLAB® that creates a bidirectional for each case; when one simulation responsiveness, and lowering the
link between the two programs, finishes, the next launches,” explains cost of design amendments, thus
the team converted the point cloud Bogdanski. “This ensures that the creating more sense of design
created by the scan into a surface whole process is easy and error-free; freedom for the engineers.
mesh of the car cabin (see Figure 4) we simply let the scripts run.” “The beauty of simulation is that
and created an optimized mesh for The team also optimized the a systems engineer can sit at a desk,
studying acoustic pressure waves. frequency-dependent absorption put headphones on and begin to
The simulation analyzed the coefficients necessary to achieve tune a system without the car. Using
interaction of the sound waves a strong correlation between the simulation we can assess, optimize and
generated by a speaker with the measured and simulated sound predict the performance of a proposed
different materials of the windshield, pressures. The analysis then sound system, even though it does
floor, seats, headrests, steering provided the sound pressure not actually exist yet,” says Strauss.
wheel, and other sections of the levels emanating from each
car such as the roof, doors, and microphone array (see Figure 5).
instrument panels, each of which
have different absorption properties. » VIRTUAL TUNING
TAKES A NEW TURN
AS A RESULT of their validated
simulations, HARMAN is able to start
developing a sound system even as a
vehicle is still being designed. Only
when the car is ready for test-driving
does an acoustics engineer need to
get into the car to fine-tune the audio.
They’re now setting up a playback The HARMAN VPD team consists of
system that will, “based on simulation François Malbos, Michael Strauss,
Figure 4. Surface mesh of the car cabin. results and signal processing, allow the and Michał Bogdański.

MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 17
 THERMO-OPTIC SWITCH DESIGN

at various points in the

network, the optical signal

DESIGNING ENERGY- EFFICIENT is traditionally converted

back to an electrical

PHOTONIC SWITCHES TO SUPPORT signal, switched, and then

converted again to an

GROWING NETWORK TRAFFIC

optical signal as shown in
Figure 1. Converting the
signal uses large, power-
hungry equipment, which
Thermo-optic silicon photonic switches are under development at adds latency while each
Huawei Technologies Canada for the communications and high- packet is converted. In
comparison, photonic
performance computing industries. Design optimization via switches do not convert
numerical analysis aims to minimize power consumption and the signal format. Hence
photonic switches are
maximize switching speed. often faster, smaller, and
more energy efficient.
Existing photonic
By JENNIFER SEGUI switches, however, are
bulky and expensive, and
ALL-OPTICAL NETWORKS WERE ENVISIONED DECADES AGO photonic switches, using are made of many hand-
because of their potential for high transmission speeds silicon photonics (SiPh). assembled components. To
to address the ever-increasing demands on network Optical networks use address the issue, Huawei
performance. Photonic switches are already widely waves of light to transmit is developing circuits using
deployed throughout cities and long-distance networks, data, for example, when a integrated SiPh technology.
while experiments in data centers and high performance phone call is placed or a Optical circuits are made in
computing are ongoing. Huawei Technologies Canada is search request or email is CMOS chip foundries with
radically improving critical optical components, such as handled. To route the data silicon waveguides about
0.5 micrometers across,
which is possible because
Electrical Switching Matrix silicon is transparent at
the signal wavelengths.
At Huawei, they are
prototyping some of the
Demux Mux most complex silicon
photonic circuits in
the world, relying on
an integrated design
environment. Highly
Figure 1. Optical fibers and switches can accurate numerical physics
carry light of one or more wavelengths at models are fine-tuned
the same time. Top: the optical signal is through iterative
converted to an electrical signal for routing, prototyping cycles, while
then electrical signals are converted back photonic circuit layout
to optical signals before being sent out on software ensures first-
another optical fiber. Bottom: an all-optical time-right chip design.
switch does not require the additional The thermal performance
electrical-optical conversion stages. of the thermo-optic SiPh
switch is a core part of
Output this design workflow.
Input Ø1
1 1 Bar State » »ROUTING DATA
WITH THERMO-OPTIC
Ø2 SWITCHES BASED
2 2 ON PHASE SHIFT
Splitter Coupler Cross State
THE THERMO-OPTIC SWITCH
Figure 2. In a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, light entering an input waveguide is split onto two arms, where under development
the waves will experience a phase shift depending on the optical properties of each arm. At the output, the is a silicon photonic
coupled waves will undergo constructive and destructive interference representing the cross and bar states of Mach-Zehnder (MZ)
18 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
interferometer, which has a
an optical switch. The path in green shows the default switch state.
 Contacts Etched Windows Heater
Heater

Si
Buried
Symmetry
Line Si substrate

Heater
Input Output
Waveguide Arms Si
Buried

Si substrate

Figure 4. Cross-sectional view

of the heated waveguide arm of
Figure 3. Diagram of a thermo-optic Mach-Zehnder phase shifter with a thermo-optic Mach Zehnder
thermal undercut, at top, where a resistive heater (pink) located switch without (top) and with
above one of the waveguide arms (blue) is used to change the index of (bottom) thermal undercut. The
refraction causing a phase shift in the propagating light wave. The photo thermal undercut isolates the
at bottom shows the heated waveguide as fabricated. waveguide and heater reducing
wasteful heat transfer to the
surrounding material.

cross state and a bar state. switch and is divided prevents heat conduction thermo-optic MZ switches.
By default, the MZ shown between the two folded to the underlying substrate, To arrive at a final design,
in Figure 2 is in the cross waveguide arms, which allowing the heater to thermal analysis in
state. A light wave arriving are represented by blue raise the temperature of COMSOL Multiphysics®
at an input (e.g. input 1) lines. Above one arm is the buried waveguide 23 software provides
is split and travels along a titanium nitride (TiN) times more efficiently, an efficient means
both arms. The light from resistive heater, indicated and therefore consume to quantitatively
the two arms interferes by the pink shaded region 96 percent less power. evaluate new designs

»
at the output coupler. in the figure. Applying a before manufacturing
Because of the relative voltage to the electrical THERMAL ANALYSIS physical prototypes.
phase of the light from the contacts causes the heater AND DESIGN “Our move toward
two arms, all of the light to increase the temperature OPTIMIZATION large-scale product
comes out of output 2. of the underlying THE REQUIREMENTS ON POWER development demands
A thermally induced waveguide to produce a π consumption, switching thorough optimization
phase shift provides a way phase shift, which changes speed, and physical work, where every mW
to flip the switch state. To the switch state. The size, together with the of power consumption
switch a thermo-optic MZ triple-folded waveguide manufacturing design counts,” says Dritan Celo,
to its bar state, one arm increases the interaction rules of the thermal a senior research engineer
of the MZ is heated. This length between the heater undercut, combine at Huawei. Therefore,
changes the refractive index and waveguide, thus to create a significant COMSOL® software was
of the waveguide, creating improving the efficiency optimization problem for added to the integrated
a π phase shift in the light by a factor of three. the implementation of design environment for
propagating in that arm. The heated waveguide
Interference causes the arm of the thermo-optic
light to come out of output switch in Figure 3 is a Our move toward large-scale product
1, carrying data toward suspended structure, development demands thorough
a different destination. where the surrounding optimization work, where every milliwatt of
By combining a large cladding material is power consumption counts.
number of these switch etched away, forming
—DRITAN CELO, SENIOR RESEARCH ENGINEER, HUAWEI
cells on one chip, a large a thermal undercut. A
switch matrix is created. cross-sectional view of
The MZ switch design the waveguide with and
implemented by Huawei without thermal undercut
is presented in Figure 3, is shown in Figure 4.
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 19
where light enters the The thermal undercut
 THERMO-OPTIC SWITCH DESIGN

Without Thermal Undercut

trise tfall

With Thermal Undercut

Figure 5. COMSOL Multiphysics® software model of a thermo-optic switch without (top) and with (bottom) thermal undercut. Plots show the
steady state temperature distribution (left), temperature difference between heater and waveguide (middle), and transient analysis indicating time
required for the waveguide to reach target temperature (right).

silicon photonic devices. half symmetry was used The titanium nitride heater A difference of 0.2 Kelvin
For example, thermal as indicated by the dashed in the heated waveguide was achieved in the design
analysis is used to quantify black line in Figure 3, arm is defined as the with undercut, compared
the performance of and the resulting model heat source in the switch to a 13 Kelvin difference
different thermo-optic geometry is shown at model, and simulation without. Transient analysis,
designs, both with and left in Figure 5. Silicon results reveal how much using quarter symmetry to
without thermal undercut, waveguides that are 100s applied thermal power further reduce computation
which is an important of micrometers in length is required to produce a time, provides information
consideration since are buried in silica glass on π phase shift for a given on how long it takes to
undercut adds additional top of a silicon substrate. design. To produce a π tune the waveguide to the
steps to the manufacturing Material properties assigned phase shift, the waveguide desired temperature and
process. Additionally, to each domain in the model temperature must change phase, which limits the
while using a thermal were chosen from options by 13.3 Kelvin, which is cross/bar switching speed
undercut can improve that are already available a value determined from of the device. Although
the energy efficiency of a in the software. Since SiPh optical test measurements. devices with undercut are
device, there is a decrease structures have high-aspect Steady state analysis more energy efficient, they
in switching speed, hence ratios of 1000:1, of the thermo-optic SiPh do not tune as quickly as
a device geometry with COMSOL Multiphysics® switch demonstrates devices without undercut,
undercut is suited only meshing algorithms a 23x reduction in the as demonstrated by
for certain applications. were critical for fast and amount of power required the rise and fall times
The device geometry accurate modeling. to achieve a π phase shift at right in Figure 5.
shown in Figure 3 was Heat transfer in solids when a thermal undercut is The validated steady state
implemented in COMSOL® is modeled throughout included in the design. The and transient models are
software, both with and the device geometry, temperature distribution is also critical for evaluating
without using a thermal with insulating boundary shown at left in Figure 5 for the thickness of the silica
undercut. To reduce the conditions defined on the each device geometry. The glass, overall size of an
computation time required surface passivation layer plots in the middle depict individual MZ switch,
for steady state thermal and thermal undercut the temperature difference and effect of a cooling
analysis of each design, boundaries when present. between the heater and passivation layer on top of
waveguide, demonstrating the device, thus enabling an
the extent of heat loss to the application to maximally
surrounding materials in benefit from reduced
20 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
devices without undercut. power consumption.
» »PACKING
THOUSANDS OF
optical signals out of the
switch are very clean. The
generates the necessary
π phase shift that allows
their time between the
R&D facilities at Huawei
SWITCHES ONTO architecture at left in Figure a signal to propagate and the foundry. “Thermal
A SINGLE CHIP 6 represents a 32x32 SiPh along a chosen path. performance is a small, but
ALTHOUGH THE FOCUS of the switch matrix containing A fabricated prototype important piece of the very
heat transfer simulations 448 2x2 thermo-optic MZ of the 32x32 switch large puzzle that represents
is to optimize a single switch cells. A light path matrix is shown at right the device design workflow,”
thermo-optic MZ switch, passes through one cell in Figure 6, and was explains Celo. “Looking
in actual practice, they are in each column, and the produced at a CMOS toward large-scale product
not found alone, but used path is defined by applying foundry that specializes development, fabricating a
in large switching matrices the appropriate cross or in the manufacture of 128x128 SiPh switch with
as shown in Figure 6. bar drive power to those SiPh devices, including thousands of MZ cells on
Huawei’s matrix is designed cells. Supplying power to a the thermal undercut a single die that consumes
to prevent optical crosstalk, switch raises the underlying technique. The prototype no more than 50 watts
which ensures that the waveguide temperate and also includes on-chip of power, which may be
monitor photodiodes for used in many different
each cell to determine the environments, raises
cross/bar drive current, and questions about mechanical
represents an important stability. Structural analysis
advance in their work. of the packaged switch
Entering the prototyping has now become a focus,
and large-scale product and numerical simulation
development phase opens in COMSOL® software
up new challenges, which will again prove useful to
require designers to divide optimize its design.”

Dritan Celo, Eric Bernier and Dominic Goodwill from the Huawei
Technologies Canada advanced photonics team.

References
D. Celo, D. J. Goodwill, J. Jiang, P. Dumais, C. Zhang, F. Zhao,
X. Tu, C. Zhang, S. Yan, J. He, M. Li, W. Liu, Y. Wei, D. Geng, H.
Mehrvar, E. Bernier. 32x32 Silicon Photonic Switch, presented at
Optoelectronics and Communications Conference/International
Conference on Photonics in Switching, Niigata, Japan 2016.

D. Celo, D. J. Goodwill, J. Jiang, P. Dumais, M. Li,

E. Bernier. Thermo-optic silicon photonics with low
Figure 6. A 32x32 switch matrix with 448 2x2 thermo-optic MZ cells power and extreme resilience to over-drive, presented
(top), and the fabricated prototype with on-chip monitor photodiodes at IEEE Optical Interconnects Conference, San Diego,
with each cell (bottom). CA 2016. DOI: 10.1109/OIC.2016.7482994, IEEE.

SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 21

 5G S I M U L AT I O N A PP S

OUR 5G FUTURE:
IN THE FAST LANE
WITH NUMERICAL
SIMULATION
By JIYOUN MUNN

5G AND THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT) are among the Figure 1. Isotropic radiation pattern was preferred before the 5G era
hottest topics being discussed in the radio frequency (top). Antennas generating a higher gain (directivity) radiation pattern
(RF) and microwave industry. Everyday activities and are required for 5G millimeter wave communication to compensate for
technological advancements depend more than ever on the path loss in free space (bottom).
reliable and fast data communication. Designers are now
faced with one their biggest challenges as they need to safely provide the input software could run apps
bring real-time data usage and availability to the next data needed to get a useful specifically designed just
level, which requires access to the best design tools and output from a model. for them? Simulation
significant advances in signal processing, device-centered They therefore have to be apps make it possible for
communications, and evolving technical standards. involved in the iteration simulation specialists to
process every time there efficiently and effectively
» FROM 4G LTE TO 5G is a new request or
change to be made in the
support the designers
IT’S EXPECTED THAT 5G WILL NEED to utilize higher frequency relentlessly working on the
spectrums in the millimeter wave range when deploying device being simulated. next breakthrough in the
active electronically scanned arrays (AESA), which enable Additionally, results or ultra-competitive landscape
multi-beam multiplexing and massive multi-input-output outputs are often presented of wireless communication.
(MIMO) technologies (Figure 1). Researchers working on in an environment only Supplied with the right
the frontlines of forging this ultra-fast and high bandwidth familiar to the specialist, so tools, designers working
successor to 4G LTE are relying on modeling and simulation distributing the information on 5G implementation
tools to optimize product development and test cycles. to their colleagues often can freely collaborate
Simulation supports designers throughout the design requires a meeting to and complement their
cycle by allowing them to virtually evaluate several design present an explanation and skills with those of their
ideas and implement physical prototypes based on the interpretation of the results. colleagues and collaborators
most promising concepts. Another advantage consists in But what if simulation who specialize in physics
the possibility to investigate different boundary conditions: specialists could easily build and numerical analysis.
in this case simulation allows an engineer to efficiently simulation apps, i.e. wrap
measure and test several scenarios without damaging
a prototype, in cases such as extreme temperature
an intuitive interactive user
interface around a complex
» WHAT SIMULATION
APPS CAN DO
variation, structural deformation, and chemical reactions. mathematical model? What FOR WIRELESS
The goal of simulation specialists is to mimic the real if users without any previous COMMUNICATION
world as closely as possible, so that the prototype is experience using simulation DESIGN
based on numerical results that achieve the expected LET’S TAKE THE EXAMPLE
performance in fewer design and test iterations. of active electronically

»
scanned arrays, or phase
DESIGNERS JOIN FORCES WITH antenna arrays. They have
SIMULATION SPECIALISTS THROUGH APPS become popular for military
IN PREPARATION FOR THE 5G ROLLOUT, designers are working use in radar and satellite
through a number of obstacles, including frequency choices, applications and are now
propagation, reliability, battery life, and interference, to name occupying a conspicuous
a few. Each of these challenges is represented by a unique position for commercial
blend of physics that require a simulation specialist in that purposes due to the growing
specific area who is equipped with the right tools to set up
the underlying mathematical model properly. The symbiosis Figure 2. 4x2 phased microstrip patch antenna modeled using
between designers and simulation specialists needs to be COMSOL Multiphysics® software. The top plot shows the logarithmic
perfect in order to deliver the right product at the right time. electric field norm on the patch and the 3D far-field radiation pattern. The
SEPTEMBER 2016
Simulation experts are typically the only ones who can lower plot depicts the logarithmic electric field norm on feed line planes.
Figure 3. Single patch antenna.
Logarithmic electric field norm
on patch, mesh, and 3D far-field
radiation pattern are visualized.

needs of higher data rates in

communication devices. The
size of a simple component
can easily exceed tens of
wavelengths, making its
numerical analysis very
memory intensive. As
a result, models take a
very long time even when Figure 4. The user interface of the Slot-Coupled Microstrip Patch Antenna Array Synthesizer simulation app
approximated values would built using the Application Builder tool available in COMSOL Multiphysics.
be sufficient to evaluate a
proof-of-concept design. specialists to perform an model. An app built for in a variety of practical
Fast prototyping would accurate simulation of a simulating the antenna ways, from building
help to reveal performance single microstrip patch array we just discussed reports for stakeholders
tendencies and determine antenna and then take into is shown in Figure 4. and management, to use
design parameters quickly. account user inputs such This app allows the as a training tool for new
Figure 2 shows a as array size, arithmetic designer to change the hires in the company.
simulation of a 4x2 phased phase progression, and physical size of the single Apps can also be easily
microstrip patch antenna angular resolution to microstrip patch antenna deployed to colleagues
array which can steer describe, for example, the as well as the thickness and collaborators through
the beam in the desired 3D far-field of the entire and material properties of a local installation of the
direction. This example is array. COMSOL makes it each layer, in addition to COMSOL Server™ product,
significantly more memory easy for specialists to couple other relevant parameters which allows authorized
intensive and will take a physics interfaces already determined by the users to access apps
longer time to compute available with equations or simulation specialist. In through COMSOL Client
than a single microstrip algorithms needed to model this particular example, the or a major web browser.
patch antenna (Figure 3). a specific application. simulation specialist has We have a lot of work
Results shown in Figure In this case, the two- included an interactive user ahead of us before 5G is
3 are based on a full finite dimensional antenna experience by indicating unveiled to the public.
element method (FEM) array factor has been whether the chosen design When designers are
model of a single slot- implemented to include the parameters are appropriate equipped with the right
coupled microstrip patch translational phase shifts or not by comparing the set of tools, they can
antenna built on low- and array element weighting computed S-parameter freely collaborate with
temperature co-fired coefficients needed to (S11) value to the pass/ colleagues throughout
ceramic (LTCC) determine the radiation fail target criterion. This their organization and
layers, initially pattern of the entire array. app also includes a results beyond. Working cross-
operating at 30 GHz. Can we present such a report and documentation departmentally will
Can we use the analysis model to designers in a user- that concisely explains how be key to competing
of a single antenna to friendly way? Simulation the app is working. This and succeeding in
describe the behavior specialists are now provided last feature can be used the 5G race.
of the entire array? The with an intuitive workflow
power and flexibility of to create custom user
COMSOL Multiphysics® interfaces based on their
software allow simulation multiphysics simulation SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 23
 SURFACE PL ASMON MODELING

LET THERE BE LIGHT: A

BRIGHTER FUTURE FOR OLEDS
Surface plasmon modeling and nanostructured electrode
design show promise for increased light output and efficiency
in organic LED (OLED) systems.

By LEXI CARVER

ALTHOUGH IT’S BEEN NEARLY a century at the Konica Minolta Laboratory

and a half since Thomas Edison USA in San Mateo, CA, working
flipped a switch to turn on the world’s with a team that uses numerical
first practical light bulb, the search simulation to analyze light-loss
for better light sources continues mechanisms in OLEDs to virtually
unabated. Many other lighting test ways to improve designs. “Despite
technologies have been developed since all their advantages, OLEDs suffer Figure 1. Huis Ten Bosch is a theme park in
that day in 1879, bringing features such from a number of limitations we are Sasebo, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan, designed
as brightness, color quality, dimming working to minimize,” he said. “Most to look like the Netherlands. Konica Minolta
capability, and low life-cycle costs. impactful is a complex plasmon developed “OLED tulips” in collaboration
Organic LEDs, or OLEDs, are coupling phenomenon accounting with the park for use in its tulip festival.
attracting strong interest because for 40% of the light lost through
they can be used in lightweight, interactions within the device.” layer to release energy in the form

» HOW OLEDS WORK

paper-thin, light-emitting panels in of photons. This happens quickly
a variety of shapes and sizes. They while current is flowing, causing
can be used to create flexible or OLEDS ARE COMPOSED of organic a stream of continuous light.
bendable lighting devices applied to semiconductors sandwiched between
a flat or curved surface area to build
parts such as car tail lights and even
positive (anode) and negative (cathode)
electrodes. Figure 2 shows the layout of
» CATCHING THE
PHOTON THIEVES
“lighting flowers” (see Figure 1). an OLED device, with an anode made BUT SOME PHOTONS NEVER make it to
But OLEDs aren’t nearly as bright or of transparent indium tin oxide (ITO), the outside world. Light losses in an
as energy-efficient as their inorganic three organic layers — a hole transport OLED can occur through several
cousins, LEDs, and so researchers layer (HTL), emitting layer (EML), and mechanisms, such as differences in
at Konica Minolta, Inc. are racing electron transport layer (ETL) — and a the refractive indices of each layer
to develop designs to meet growing silver cathode. These are all fabricated that can cause light to reflect within
demand. The company is a world on a glass substrate, which light passes the layers rather than traveling
leader in OLEDs that supports through when the device is turned on. outward, as Figure 2 depicts.
the development of cutting-edge When current is applied, electrons
devices for imaging and optics, are injected at the cathode and holes
often working in partnership with at the anode. Electrons and holes
Japan’s leading universities. travel toward each other through the
Leiming Wang is a senior researcher layers, combining in the emissive

We could understand the breakdown

of loss mechanisms, easily test the
influence of different design constraints,
and adjust our OLEDs accordingly.
COMSOL has shown us how to cut these
plasmon losses in half.
— LEIMING WANG, SENIOR RESEARCHER,
KONICA MINOLTA
Figure 2. Schematic of a multilayer OLED
24 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
structure showing various types of light losses.
Figure 3. Schematic showing surface
plasmons coupling with dipole radiation in
the OLED, catching the photons in the SPP Figure 4. Left, Nanograting surface for the cathode. Wang’s simulation team tested the effects
wave rather than allowing them to be emitted of different pitch heights and widths to determine the optimal arrangement. Right, simulated
through the OLED glass substrate. 2D field distribution of dipole emission with (a) flat and (b) nanograting cathode surfaces. For
the flat surface most of the emission is coupled to the SPP wave, with only a small portion
Wang’s team primarily explored radiated as free light. The coupling is greatly suppressed by the nanograting structure in (b).
another mode of loss, the coupling of
dipole emission with surface plasmons (see Figure 4, left) that disrupts the a simulation to study the influence
at the interface between the cathode formation of the SPP mode, reducing of different dipole orientations,
and the organic material. Surface the energy coupling between the studying the effect of the dipole
plasmons are waves of oscillating dipole emission and the plasmons. position and wavelength on the level
electrons on the surface of a conductor. Wang’s simulation revealed the of light loss due to SPPs. They used
In OLEDs, light emitted from radiating electromagnetic field distribution a power flow analysis to calculate
dipoles (molecular excitons) in the and the portion of light that escaped the portion of light emitted from the
emissive layer can couple to the from the OLED for different cathode EML that actually escaped the glass.
electron oscillations in the cathode, shapes (see Figure 4, right). From the Through their simulations, Wang’s
resulting in the presence of waves called results, his team was able to confirm team determined that they could
surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs). that this phenomenon accounts for reduce the plasmon losses by 50%
These travel along the cathode surface significant amounts of light lost. using the optimized nanostructure
as they decay, carrying away the emitted COMSOL® software is an important surface for the cathode.
photons rather than permitting them to
»
tool at Konica Minolta Laboratory
radiate through the glass (see Figure 3).
In other words, due to the presence
because it’s not only powerful but »VERSATILE MODELING
BRINGS BRIGHTER LIGHTING
versatile and user-friendly. Lab
of the metal cathode in the close personnel use the software for a THROUGH HIS SIMULATION WORK, Wang
vicinity of the organic emitters, some variety of topics under study there. was able to offer a promising new
light is absorbed by the electrons in “For this OLED project we were OLED design with significantly
the cathode, causing the electrons able to do everything in COMSOL, increased efficiency. “We were able
to oscillate and form SPPs. These including postprocessing the data. to model the OLED system and
are eventually dissipated as heat, We also imported wavelength- determine the optimal configuration
leading to significant energy loss. dependent optical properties from of the cathode nanograting
Using numerical simulation in our own files and incorporated them structure,” he concluded. “We could
COMSOL Multiphysics® software into the simulation,” Wang said. understand the breakdown of loss
Wang modeled light emission from His team modeled the OLED mechanisms, easily test the influence
the EML and the SPPs present in the with flat and nanograting cathodes, of different design constraints, and
system to analyze ways to prevent light changing geometric parameters to adjust our OLEDs accordingly.
loss. One promising concept included determine the optimal configuration COMSOL has shown us how to cut
a nanograting cathode structure (see Figure 5). They also performed these plasmon losses in half.”

Flat

λG = 50 nm

λG = 100 nm

λG = 300 nm

λG = 1000 nm

Figure 5. COMSOL® software results showing the distribution of emission when a flat structure
is used (left) and a nanograting (center). The intensity is normalized and plotted on a log scale.
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 25
At right are shown emission patterns for several nanograting cathode designs.
 SURFACE PL ASMON MODELING

SURFACE PLASMON POLARITONS EXPLAINED

By ANDREW STRIKWERDA

SURFACE PLASMON POLARITONS, or Just because an SPP can exist at will focus on the use of a grating.
SPPs as they are often known, are that interface, however, does not A grating has a regularly
an integral and exciting element mean that it is trivial to generate repeated pattern, like a sine
of plasmonics and nanophotonics and control them. Generating an wave or sawtooth pattern.
research. As the name suggests, SPP with a traditional light source This periodicity has its own
SPPs are electromagnetic waves such as a laser is slightly more wavevector, which can be
in the infrared or visible region complicated, as is the inverse added (or subtracted) to the
of the spectrum propagating process – converting a SPP to wavevector of the SPP to allow
along surfaces, and much visible light as in an OLED. dispersion curve matching.
of the recent interest into To couple freely propagating This is represented by the
SPPs is due to their excellent light and SPPs, their dispersion red arrow in the figure.
confinement of electromagnetic curves need to intersect, which So how do we do implement
energy beyond the diffraction is analogous to matching the this coupling in the software? It’s
limit. As a result, they are well energy and moment of the two. quite straightforward, actually.
represented in numerous areas of If we look at the figure shown Simply create the geometry of
here, the diagonal black line is interest, and then assign the
near-field optics, biosensing, and
the dispersion curve for light material properties and boundary
metamaterials. Unfortunately,
propagating freely in air, while conditions as in any other high-
the presence of SPPs is not
the blue line is the dispersion frequency electromagnetics
always desirable! In the previous
curve for an SPP at an air/metal simulation. That’s it! This is
article on optimization of a
interface. The two lines approach because COMSOL Multiphysics®
multilayer organic light-emitting
each other asymptotically, but is solving Maxwell’s Equations,
diode (OLED), SPPs are a
they do not intersect. There are which means that the
dominate loss factor. If the loss
several techniques to make these coupling between free space
via SPPs can be reduced, the
two curves meet, such as using a light and SPP is inherently
out-coupling efficiency of the
prism in either a Kretschmann or accounted for without any
OLED can be increased, which
Otto configuration, but today we additional modifications.
means better, more efficient
devices for you and me. Here
we will briefly discuss what an
SPP is, when they may occur,
and why they will automatically
be accounted for in your
COMSOL® software simulation.
As mentioned earlier, SPPs
propagate along surfaces. But
not any surface. SPPs can only
propagate along an interface
between two materials that
have a different sign in their
permittivity. Many common
materials, such as air, water,
plastic, and paper have a positive
permittivity. Metals like gold, FIGURE 1: Plot in COMSOL® software showing the SPP dispersion curve. The black
silver, and aluminum have a diagonal line represents the light line while the green horizontal line represents the surface
negative permittivity, and so SPPs plasmon frequency. The blue SPP dispersion curve approaches these asymptotically in
can exist at the interface between the low- and high-frequency limit, respectively. The red arrow represents the grating
gold and air, for example. wavevector that allows a surface plasmon to couple to a freely propagating light wave.

26 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016

 P OWE R G E N E R AT I O N F O R E X T R E M E E N V I R O N M E N T S

» BETTER SOLAR POWER IS

COMING TO SATELLITES
FROM NANOANTENNAS TO DEEP PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS CONVERT
sunlight into electricity and are

SPACE SATELLITES, ELECTRON effective for solar panels on or near

Earth, but are not very efficient for

EMISSION ENABLES EFFICIENT

near-sun missions in deep space,
where high temperatures destroy

POWER GENERATION
the efficiency of the photovoltaic
conversion. Photon-enhanced
thermionic emission (PETE)
Engineers at the Italian Institute of Technology (IIT) are using solar cells, first developed in 2010
at Stanford University, offer a
multiphysics analysis to illuminate ways electron emission can promising alternative by combining
be used to improve power efficiency in extreme-environment photovoltaics with thermionic
emission — the thermally-induced
technology and biomedical applications. flow of charge that releases electrons
from a heated semiconductor —
By LEXI CARVER to boost power generation.
A PETE cell (see Figure 1) comprises
a vacuum chamber sandwiched
DEEP SPACE AND THE HUMAN BODY to an electrostatic field, heat, or between an anode and a cathode
have something in common: the incoming light that causes electrons to made of a semiconductor such as
challenge of designing devices that escape the metal, often into a vacuum, Gallium Arsenide. Incoming photons
can operate in them safely, reliably, so that they can be collected for usable excite electrons in the valence band
and efficiently. For equipment electricity. The Italian Institute of of the cathode into the conduction
used in aqueous conditions, severe Technology (IIT) and the European band, causing some electrons to be
temperatures, high pressure levels, Space Agency (ESA) are collaborating released into the vacuum gap and
and other extreme environments, to develop systems based on electron others to shift closer to the vacuum
stable and efficient power generation emission for solar power collection energy level of the semiconductor,
can be hard to come by. The search for on deep-space satellites. Researchers readying them for easier escape by
better power efficiency in equipment at IIT are applying similar concepts thermionic emission. Heating the
such as deep-space satellites and to power nanoantennas for studying cathode then causes more electrons
medical devices has recently identified electrical signals in the brain. They to “boil” away into the vacuum
electron emission as a potential use numerical analysis to study gap. The freed electrons travel to
method of power generation. the behavior of emitted electrons the anode at the other end, where
Electron emission occurs when a and optimize their devices for best they create charge buildup that
metal surface or electrode is subjected functionality and highest efficiency. can be used for electrical power.
“Photon-enhanced thermionic
emission takes advantage of the
semiconductor structure of the
cathode and the temperature
difference between cathode and anode,
transforming heat into electrical
power,” explained Pierfrancesco Zilio,
a post-doctoral fellow at IIT. “Unlike
standard photovoltaics, both the
ultraviolet-visible and the infrared
regions of the solar spectrum are
exploited in the conversion, with
the former promoting electrons
to the conduction band of the
semiconductor and the latter enabling
their escape to the vacuum gap. “
However, the emitted electrons

Figure 1. Schematic of a PETE. Electrons escape the cathode due to light (shone on the
semiconductor) and heat (due to an electrical load). Space charge buildup occurs due to
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 27
electrons getting “stuck” in the vacuum gap as they repel each other during travel to the anode.
 P OWE R G E N E R AT I O N F O R E X T R E M E E N V I R O N M E N T S

Figure 2. COMSOL® software results showing the current density at the anode (left) and power
conversion efficiency (right), calculated for different distances between anode and cathode and
different operating voltages.

repel each other, so some are deflected as they traveled due to the SC cloud.”
back to the cathode or get “stuck” in Using numerical simulation they
the middle of the vacuum gap. The were able to test different layouts,
latter case can create a space charge changing the arrangement of the
(SC) cloud that interferes with the two electrodes in order to see Figure 3. COMSOL results for the model of a
further passage of electrons and nanocone. The plots show particle trajectories
which one resulted in the highest
and velocity magnitude, as well as electric
strongly reduces the device efficiency. current output and efficiency (see
field norm throughout the cone surface.
» SIMULATION LENDS A HAND
Figure 2). “COMSOL allowed us to
couple the space charge behavior
ZILIO AND HIS COWORKERS Waseem Raja, to other physical effects involved, overcome the SC cloud to increase
a PhD student, and Remo Proietti, namely light absorption and the output current. So Zilio’s team
a senior researcher, worked with the carrier transport in the cathode.” turned to a new tactic. “We added
ESA to investigate different PETE To analyze electron emission and a positively-charged mesh gate in
systems in order to maximize charge propagation in the vacuum chamber, the vacuum gap to attract electrons
buildup at the anode and create a they coupled a particle tracing model as they are released and pull them
design robust enough to travel aboard to the electrical and thermal model. across,” he said. “This boosted electron
deep-space satellites. They used “We determined the current density extraction, strongly reducing the SC
COMSOL Multiphysics® software to at the anode based on the electron cloud between anode and cathode.
study the PETE cell, creating several trajectories and the electric potential,” “Then we had to optimize the
models to analyze possible designs Zilio continued. “From there we size of the holes and power used to
and determine which ones would calculated the net current output and charge the gate, so that we maintain
be most practical and efficient. the power conversion efficiency of the right compromise between
His team tracked the flow of the PETE cell for our chosen setup.” efficiency, electron collection, and
electrons between the cathode and They also tested several strategies to minimizing the number of electrons
anode and studied the formation minimize the space charge cloud. One that get stuck to the gate.”
of the space charge cloud. They concept used a cathode with a surface They tested different pitch sizes
began with a model that calculated in the shape of a nanocone array, the (the distance between centers of
the electric fields at the cathode rationale being that the sharp tip adjacent holes) to see which gate
due to the photon impact and their would result in a higher electric field configuration resulted in the highest
absorption, then analyzed the effect and therefore more electrons emitted. current output at the anode. They also
this had on the electrons’ ability to Zilio modeled the electric fields and factored in the power fed to the gate,
break free of the cathode surface. electron trajectories for a nanocone which affects the overall conversion
“This allowed us to predict how (see Figure 3), and evaluated the efficiency. Figures 4 and 5 show
the SC cloud formation would hinder resulting current density at the anode. results for different configurations,
electron accumulation at the anode, Despite causing more electrons gate voltages, and pitch sizes.
and therefore the final current output,” to be released from the cathode, From the simulations, the team
Zilio said. “We calculated the barrier the nanocone design was unable to chose a gate voltage, pitch size, and
the electrons had to overcome in order
to reach the anode, including the With the range of physics we needed to simulate, such as
energy needed to free them from the combining particle tracing with other behavior and including
cathode and the decelerating forces
strongly nonlinear phenomena, COMSOL was a huge help.
— PIERFRANCESCO ZILIO, POST-DOCTORAL FELLOW, IIT
28 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
 Figure 5. Simulation results show the power conversion efficiency for varying levels of voltage
fed to the gate and a 20μm anode-cathode distance (left). The accumulated current density at
the anode for different gate voltage levels and pitch sizes is shown at right.

Figure 4. COMSOL results showing electron but if the electron density around invaluable. “With the range of
accumulation at the anode for cases with a the antenna grows to a certain physics we needed to simulate, such
gate (left) and without (right). level, exponential ionization of the as combining particle tracing with
water molecules will occur and other behavior and including strongly
the antenna will no longer work,” nonlinear phenomena, COMSOL
anode-cathode distance to improve
Zilio explained. Femtosecond laser was a huge help,” Zilio commented.
the efficiency of the design. Once
pulses applied to the antenna cause From exploring the endless frontier
they’d completed studies of the PETE plasmonic resonance that enhances of deep space to someday attempting
cell, they used similar techniques the electric field at the surface of the to stimulate single neurons,
to perform plasmonic simulations metal, which increases the electrons’ engineers at IIT plan to continue
of nanoantennas for biomedical acceleration after emission. using simulation to contribute to
and neurological equipment. Zilio’s team coupled a simulation the development of technology
» HOMING IN ON THE BRAIN of the antenna’s optical response
to their model of electron emission
in extreme environments.
ZILIO ALSO USED ANALYSES IN COMSOL to and trajectories, and correlated
investigate electron photoemission the local field enhancement to the
in nanoantennas, which are made of distribution of emitted electrons.
dielectric nanotubes coated with gold His team then studied the “electrical
or silver (see Figure 6), when they are hotspot,” or the area with the highest
immersed in an aqueous environment electron density, and analyzed the
representative of the human brain. catalytic reactions occurring based on
These antennas will eventually be collisions between water molecules
used to optically excite neurons, study and the emitted electrons. “The
electrical signals between them, and collision modeling functionality
in medical treatment and diagnosis. in COMSOL had everything we
Submerging the antenna in a needed,” he remarked. “I was able
fluid environment lowers the work to simulate excitation, ionization,
function, or the amount of energy Figure 6. Close-up of gold nanotube
and elastic collisions all together.”
required for an electron to be antennas fabricated by secondary electron
The simulation (see Figure 7)
released from the metal. “This makes lithography. These antennas are able to
revealed the electric field levels produce strong plasmonic hotspots in the
it easier for electrons to escape, around the antenna and the hotspot, visible and near-infrared spectral ranges.
and predicted electron density and
trajectories during release. After
studying the antenna response as a
function of height and laser power,
the team to choose an operating Pierfrancesco
range that would minimize risk of Zilio, post-
doctoral fellow
ionization and antenna failure.
at IIT.
» LOOKING AHEAD TO
NEW TECHNOLOGY
AS THE IIT TEAM EMBARKED on the task
of optimizing the performance of
deep-space satellite devices and
Figure 7. Particle trajectories as electrons are nanoantennas, the assistance lent
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 29
released from the metal. by multiphysics analysis proved
 G E O M E T R I C A L O P T I C S S I M U L AT I O N

optoelectronics.
Because multiphysics

RAY OPTICS SIMULATION LIGHTS simulation has long been a

central tenet of COMSOL’s

THE WAY FORWARD

philosophy, it quickly
became obvious that the
same principle had to apply
to ray optics modeling
By CHRIS BOUCHER in the software. The ray
optics tool had to be
THESE ARE EXCITING TIMES TO BE WORKING IN THE FIELD of be a comprehensive and implemented in a versatile
mathematical modeling and numerical simulation of self-contained solution enough manner that it
optical systems. Computational tools have become more for every step of the could easily be combined
powerful and easier to use, and can support researchers modeling process. with the rest of the modules
in the product suite, which
»
and engineers with design, optimization, and diagnostics
tasks in many optical engineering applications. Simulation THE MULTIPHYSICS support electrical, fluid,
specialists are focused on reproducing the behavior of APPROACH EXTENDS mechanical, thermal,
real-world systems as accurately as possible, reducing OPTICAL SIMULATION and chemical analysis.
CAPABILITIES
the dependence on prototyping and experimentation.
Here we will discuss how the tools available in WHEN EXTREMELY HIGH » UNIDIRECTIONAL
AND BIDIRECTIONAL
COMSOL Multiphysics® software allow for the needed accuracy is required, an
THERMAL COUPLINGS
accuracy, specifically in high-frequency optics. optical model becomes
very complex, or when AMONG THE MOST HIGH-END

» INTEGRATED SOFTWARE STREAMLINES

THE DESIGN PROCESS
devices are exposed to features of the Ray Optics
Module is its capability
extreme environments,
THE COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SOFTWARE SUITE has traditionally often it is not sufficient to for unidirectional or
been a fully integrated, multidisciplinary modeling consider electromagnetic bidirectional coupling to
and simulation tool. Among the software’s greatest wave phenomena alone. other physics, most notably
strengths is its ability to incorporate every step of In COMSOL, the output heat transfer and structural
the simulation process, including geometry setup, of electromagnetic wave mechanics. Unidirectional,
physics, meshing, solving, and results evaluation, simulations can seamlessly or one-way, coupling is
into a single streamlined user interface (Figure 1). be combined with observed when rays simply
During the development of the Ray Optics Module, an governing equations for heat an absorbing material
add-on product of the COMSOL® software, it was obvious other physical phenomena or a surface, or when the ray
that this self-contained workflow had to be a strength of the to capture effects such as directions are perturbed by
ray tracing tools as well. Many users had expressed a similar Joule heating, microwave structural deformations.
frustration while working in optical simulation: the need to heating, laser heating, Unidirectional couplings
exchange data between several different, more specialized the piezoelectric effect, are observed, for example, in
software packages in order to accurately depict real-world magnetostriction, and solar thermal energy (STE)
systems. Thus, the Ray Optics Module was designed to even semiconductor applications (Figure 2).
High temperature collectors
usually involve a reflective
parabolic trough or dish, or
Ribbons an array of such reflectors,
which focus solar energy to
Graphics a small target, or receiver.
Geometry Rays Both the magnitude and
Setup Focusing mirror distribution of the incident
Collimating mirror heat flux at the receiver
Physics Grating have large effects on the
Release rays
CCD detector efficiency of the conversion
Specify boundary of solar energy to electricity.
interactions
A bidirectional, or
Results two-way, coupling occurs
Evaluation when a high-powered
Plotting beam induces structural
Export
and thermal changes in
Reports
the simulation domain,
which in turn perturb the
30 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016
ray trajectories (Figure
Figure 1. The software user interface provides access to every step of the model setup.
 specialists who work Furthermore, the
in the area of optics capability to incorporate
with a general-purpose thermal and structural
high-frequency optical phenomena into ray
simulation tool that can tracing simulations
be used for almost any allows for accurate,
application. The underlying high-end multiphysics
physics and mathematics models of complex
of geometrical optics devices and systems, even
are readily extensible when operating under
to a tremendous variety extreme conditions. The
of industries, including multiphysics approach
ophthalmology, solar enables simulation
energy harvesting, specialists, engineers,
Figure 2. Solar rays are reflected by a parabolic dish and focused toward a and design of and designers to lead
small receiver (left). The ratio of incident heat flux to ambient solar flux, cameras, telescopes, innovation in the
or concentration ratio, is plotted in the focal plane of the dish (upper monochromators, high-tech, fast-paced optics
right). In this benchmark model, the concentration ratio as a function of and spectrometers. industry and beyond.
radial position compares well to a known solution (lower right).

Temperature-dependent refractive indices

3). A temperature shift from users continues to
can affect the ray paths pour in, however, the need
through a lens system for application-specific Geometrical Optics Attenuation Heat Transfer

by several mechanisms, functionality in key areas

including temperature- has been recognized, such as Deformation Solid Mechanics Thermal Stress
and strain-dependence dedicated solver sequences
of the refractive index and postprocessing Figure 3. Typical workflow for a bidirectionally coupled simulation with
and thermal expansion. features. For example, optical, thermal, and structural effects.
The bidirectional coupling specialized plots for
between ray propagation visualizing monochromatic
and the structural and aberrations such as coma,
thermal effects can be seen defocus, astigmatism, and
in phenomena such as spherical aberration are
thermal lensing, in which now available (Figure 5).
a high-powered beam The ability to quantify
propagating through a slab and visualize optical Figure 4. Thermally induced
of an absorbing material aberrations focal shift in a high-powered
will be focused somewhat in COMSOL Multiphysics® laser focusing system.
(Figure 4). It is also possible software is a powerful
to observe and quantify complement to the
thermally induced focal multiphysics capability of
shift, the change in the the Ray Optics Module.
focal position in a lens It is now easier than ever
system due to thermal to observe how factors
expansion and changes such as temperature
in the refractive index. changes and stresses

» USER-DRIVEN
can distort an image.
FEATURES GUIDE
PROGRESS IN RAY
» LOOKING FORWARD
AS IN MOST SUBJECT AREAS,
OPTICS SIMULATION the increasing prevalence
AS A SPECIALIZED PART of a of computational models
general-purpose modeling in optical systems has
and simulation software illustrated the need for an Figure 5. Ray trajectories in a system of two convex lenses. The
package, the Ray Optics integrated modeling and monochromatic aberrations are plotted as a superposition of the
Module has built upon simulation environment. Zernike polynomials, from which individual terms can be selected.
many of the convenient The introduction of
features that are found specialized plot tools for
throughout the entire aberrations is yet another
product suite. As feedback
SEPTEMBER 2016 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS 31
step toward supporting
 GUEST EDITORIAL

COMPUTATIONAL NANOPHOTONICS: FROM

OPTICAL BLACK HOLES TO PLASMON TWEEZERS
By ALEXANDER V. KILDISHEV

COMPUTATIONAL NANOPHOTONICS, Prof. Klar (Johannes Kepler programmable nanoassembly,

or CNP, has a broad range University, Austria). Working with ultra-resolved optofluidic screens,
of applications in physics, Prof. Narimanov (Purdue) and and plasmonic circuitry for
photochemistry, and engineering. Dr. Prokopeva (Novosibirsk State integrated quantum logic units.
Nanoscale nonlinear optics, University, Russia) has resulted in CNP is a growing field that
enhanced light harvesting, dielectric exact full-wave and approximate is, and will continue to have, an
metasurfaces, plasmonic nanolasers, transformation optics methods for important impact on everyday
spasers, and graphene nano- optimizing omnidirectional light life. With the right computational
photonics are just a few examples. absorbers, or optical black holes, which tools, we are able to validate our
The choice of computational tools we most recently tested using the theoretical assumptions and
for the numerical simulation of Wave Optics and Ray Optics Modules designs, and analyze nanophotonics
nanophotonic applications depends available with COMSOL® software problems in their entirety.
on capabilities for modeling the (J. Opt. vol. 18, p. 044014, 2016).
complex interplay between nanoscale- Our graduate student Justus
confined light and nanoscale- Ndukaife introduced an original design
confined matter phenomena. In for plasmon-assisted optical trapping
most cases the near-field interaction (see figure). Plasmon nano-optical
is also translated into the far-field tweezers are being actively investigated
radiation, which results in a as an elegant approach to stably trap
huge geometrical scale mismatch submicron and nanoscale objects. At
where an accurate mathematical Purdue, Justus fabricated a prototype
representation is of the essence. in Prof. Boltasseva’s lab and successfully
Choosing the right tool is challenging compared numerical results with the
— yet COMSOL Multiphysics® experimental data obtained from a
software fits these tough requirements setup designed by Prof. Wereley (see
for many practical applications. Design of a nanotweezer. The illuminated
Nat. Nanotechnol., vol. 11, pp. 53-59,
My collaborators and I have used it plasmonic nanoantenna heats the fluid
2016). There are complex multiphysics and induces local gradients in its electrical
with success in the multidisciplinary
phenomena present in such devices, permittivity and conductivity. An applied
field of mathematical modeling
which are described by tightly coupled AC field induces electrothermoplasmonic
for nanophotonics. My current
systems of PDEs. Nanotweezers can (ETP) flow, enabling delivery of particles to
research focuses on developing
be used in applications such as the plasmonic hotspots. Switching the AC field
methods for CNP to design 3D
manipulation and analysis of micro- to DC immobilizes the particles held in the
optical metamaterials and low-
and nano-objects in biosensing, plasmonic hotspots.
dimensional metamaterial structures,
or metasurfaces, capable of guiding
and manipulating light in unusual, ALEXANDER V. KILDISHEV is an Associate Professor with
extraordinary ways. I also work the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
with the development of gain- and the Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue
University, USA. Prof. Kildishev belongs to a handful
assisted plasmonic nanostructures.
of world-leading experts in the field of numerical
The initial effort in this direction
modeling of nanophotonic structures and devices
and more recent research have already in real-life environments. His results include a
brought us closer to designing a number of breakthroughs in negative refractive index
new enabling machinery for active metamaterials, optical artificial magnetic structures, loss
nanophotonics. These studies are compensation in metamaterials, plasmonic nanolasers,
performed in close collaboration and optical metasurfaces, as well as the theory and
with Prof. Shalaev (Purdue) and numerical models of optical cloaks and hyperlenses.

32 COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS SEPTEMBER 2016