Control (management)

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Control is one of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing and directing. It is an important

function because it helps to check the errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standards
are minimized and stated goals of the organization are achieved in desired manner.
According to modern concepts, control is a foreseeing action whereas earlier concept of control was used only
when errors were detected. Control in management means setting standards, measuring actual performance
and taking corrective action. Thus, control comprises these three main activities.

[edit]Definitions

According to Henri Fayol,

Control of an undertaking consists of seeing that everything is being carried out in accordance with the plan
which has been adopted, the orders which have been given, and the principles which have been laid down. Its
object is to point out mistakes in order that they may be rectified and prevented from recurring.

According to EFL Breach,

Control is checking current performance against pre-determined standards contained in the plans, with a view
to ensure adequate progress and satisfactory performance.

According to Harold Koontz,

Controlling is the measurement and correction of performance in order to make sure that enterprise objectives
and the plans devised to attain them are accomplished.

According to Stafford Beer,

Management is the profession of control.

In 1916, Henri Fayol formulated one of the first definitions of control as it pertains to management:

Control consists of verifying whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions
issued, and principles established. It ['s] object [is] to point out weaknesses and errors in order to rectify [them]
and prevent recurrence.[1]

Robert J. Mockler presented a more comprehensive definition of managerial control:

Management control can be defined as a systematic effort by business management to compare performance
to predetermined standards, plans, or objectives in order to determine whether performance is in line with
these standards and presumably in order to take any remedial action required to see that human and other
corporate resources are being used in the most effective and efficient way possible in achieving corporate
objectives.[2]

Also control can be defined as "that function of the system that adjusts operations as needed to achieve the
plan, or to maintain variations from system objectives within allowable limits". The control subsystem functions
in close harmony with the operating system. The degree to which they interact depends on the nature of the
operating system and its objectives. Stability concerns a system's ability to maintain a pattern of output without
wide fluctuations. Rapidity of response pertains to the speed with which a system can correct variations and
return to expected output. [3]

A political election can illustrate the concept of control and the importance of feedback. Each party organizes a
campaign to get its candidate selected and outlines a plan to inform the public about both the candidate's
credentials and the party's platform. As the election nears, opinion polls furnish feedback about the
effectiveness of the campaign and about each candidate's chances to win. Depending on the nature of this
feedback, certain adjustments in strategy and/or tactics can be made in an attempt to achieve the desired
result.

From these definitions it can be stated that there is close link between planning and controlling. Planning is a
process by which an organisation's objectives and the methods to achieve the objectives are established, and
controlling is a process which measures and directs the actual performance against the planned objectives of
the organisation. Thus, planning and control are often referred to assiamese twins of management.

[edit]Characteristics of Control

 Control is a continuous process

 Control is a management process

 Control is embedded in each level of organizational hierarchy

 Control is forward looking

 Control is closely linked with planning

 Control is a tool for achieving organizational activities

[edit]The elements of control

The four basic elements in a control system — (1) the characteristic or condition to be controlled, (2) the
sensor, (3) the comparator , and (4) the activator — occur in the same sequence and maintain a consistent
relationship to each other in every system. [3]

The first element is the characteristic or condition of the operating system which is to be measured. We select a
specific characteristic because a correlation exists between it and how the system is performing. The
characteristic may be the output of the system during any stage of processing or it may be a condition that has
resulted from the output of the system. For example, it may be the heat energy produced by the furnace or the
temperature in the room which has changed because of the heat generated by the furnace. In an elementary
school system, the hours a teacher works or the gain in knowledge demonstrated by the students on a national
examination are examples of characteristics that may be selected for measurement, or control. The second
element of control, thesensor, is a means for measuring the characteristic or condition. The control subsystem
must be designed to include a sensory device or method of measurement. In a home heating system this
device would be the thermostat, and in a quality-control system this measurement might be performed by a
visual inspection of the product.

The third element of control, the comparator, determines the need for correction by comparing what is
occurring with what has been planned. Some deviation from plan is usual and expected, but when variations
are beyond those considered acceptable, corrective action is required. It is often possible to identify trends in
performance and to take action before an unacceptable variation from the norm occurs. This sort of
preventative action indicates that good control is being achieved.

The fourth element of control, the activator, is the corrective action taken to return the system to expected
output. The actual person, device, or method used to direct corrective inputs into the operating system may
take a variety of forms. It may be a hydraulic controller positioned by a solenoid or electric motor in response to
an electronic error signal, an employee directed to rework the parts that failed to pass quality inspection, or a
school principal who decides to buy additional books to provide for an increased number of students. As long
as a plan is performed within allowable limits, corrective action is not necessary; this seldom occurs in practice,
however.

Information is the medium of control, because the flow of sensory data and later the flow of corrective
information allow a characteristic or condition of the system to be controlled. To illustrate how information flow
facilitates control, let us review the elements of control in the context of information. [4]

[edit]Relationship between the elements of control and information

Controlled Characteristic or. Condition The primary requirement of a control system is that it maintain the
level and kind of output necessary to achieve the system's objectives. [5] It is usually impractical to control every
feature and condition associated with the system's output. Therefore, the choice of the controlled item (and
appropriate information about it) is extremely important. There should be a direct correlation between the
controlled item and the system's operation. In other words, control of the selected characteristic should have a
direct relationship to the goal or objective of the system.

Sensor

After the characteristic is sensed, or measured, information pertinent to control is fed back. Exactly what
information needs to be transmitted and also the language that will best facilitate the communication process
and reduce the possibility of distortion in transmission must be carefully considered. Information that is to be
compared with the standard, or plan, should be expressed in the same terms or language as in the original plan
to facilitate decision making. Using machine methods (computers) may require extensive translation of the
information. Since optimal languages for computation and for human review are not always the same, the
relative ease of translation may be a significant factor in selecting the units of measurement or the language
unit in the sensing element.

In many instances, the measurement may be sampled rather than providing a complete and continuous
feedback of information about the operation. A sampling procedure suggests measuring some segment or
portion of the operation that will represent the total. [2]

Comparison with Standard

In a social system, the norms of acceptable behavior become the standard against which so-called deviant
behavior may be judged. Regulations and laws provide a more formal collection of information for society.
Social norms change, but very slowly. In contrast, the standards outlined by a formal law can be changed from
one day to the next through revision, discontinuation, or replacement by another. Information about deviant
behavior becomes the basis for controlling social activity. Output information is compared with the standard or
norm and significant deviations are noted. In an industrial example, frequency distribution (a tabulation of the
number of times a given characteristic occurs within the sample of products being checked) may be used to
show the average quality, the spread, and the comparison of output with a standard.

If there is a significant and uncorrectable difference between output and plan, the system is "out of control."
This means that the objectives of the system are not feasible in relation to the capabilities of the present
design. Either the objectives must be reevaluated or the system redesigned to add new capacity or capability.
For example, the traffic in drugs has been increasing in some cities at an alarming rate. The citizens must
decide whether to revise the police system so as to regain control, or whether to modify the law to reflect a
different norm of acceptable behavior.

Implimentor

The activator unit responds to the information received from the comparator and initiates corrective action. If
the system is a machine-to-machine system, the corrective inputs (decision rules) are designed into the
network. When the control relates to a man-to-machine or man-to-man system, however, the individual(s) in
charge must evaluate (1) the accuracy of the feedback information, (2) the significance of the variation, and (3)
what corrective inputs will restore the system to a reasonable degree of stability. Once the decision has been
made to direct new inputs into the system, the actual process may be relatively easy. A small amount of energy
can change the operation of jet airplanes, automatic steel mills, and hydroelectric power plants. The pilot
presses a button, and the landing gear of the airplane goes up or down; the operator of a steel mill pushes a
lever, and a ribbon of white-hot steel races through the plant; a worker at a control board directs the flow of
electrical energy throughout a regional network of stations and substations. It takes but a small amount of
control energy to release or stop large quantities of input. [4]

The comparator may be located far from the operating system, although at least some of the elements must be
in close proximity to operations. For example, the measurement (the sensory element) is usually at the point of
operations. The measurement information can be transmitted to a distant point for comparison with the
standard (comparator), and when deviations occur, the correcting input can be released from the distant point.
However, the input (activator) will be located at the operating system. This ability to control from afar means
that aircraft can be flown by remote control, dangerous manufacturing processes can be operated from a safe
distance, and national organizations can be directed from centralized headquarters.

[edit]Process of Controlling

 Setting performance standards.

 Measurement of actual performance.

 Comparing actual performance with standards.

 Analysing deviations.

 Correcting deviations.
[edit]Kinds of control

Control may be grouped according to three general classifications: (1) the nature of the information flow
designed into the system (that is, open- or closed-loop control), (2) the kind of components included in the
design (that is man or machine control systems), and (3) the relationship of control to the decision process (that
is, organizational or operational control). [3]

[edit]Open- and Closed-Loop Control

A street-lighting system controlled by a timing device is an example of an open-loop system. At a certain time
each evening, a mechanical device closes the circuit and energy flows through the electric lines to light the
lamps. Note, however, that the timing mechanism is an independent unit and is not measuring the objective
function of the lighting system. If the lights should be needed on a dark, stormy day the timing device would not
recognize this need and therefore would not activate energy inputs. Corrective properties may sometimes be
built into the controller (for example, to modify the time the lights are turned on as the days grow shorter or
longer), but this would not close the loop. In another instance, the sensing, comparison, or adjustment may be
made through action taken by an individual who is not part of the system. For example, the lights may be
turned on by someone who happens to pass by and recognizes the need for additional light.

If control is exercised as a result of the operation rather than because of outside or predetermined
arrangements, it is a closed-loop system. The home thermostat is the classic example of a control device in a
closed-loop system. When the room temperature drops below the desired point, the control mechanism closes
the circuit to start the furnace and the temperature rises. The furnace-activating circuit is turned off as the
temperature reaches the preselected level. The significant difference between this type of system and an open-
loop system is that the control device is an element of the system it serves and measures the performance of
the system. In other words, all four control elements are integral to the specific system.

An essential part of a closed-loop system is feedback; that is, the output of the system is measured continually
through the item controlled, and the input is modified to reduce any difference or error toward zero. Many of the
patterns of information flow in organizations are found to have the nature of closed loops, which use feedback.
The reason for such a condition is apparent when one recognizes that any system, if it is to achieve a
predetermined goal, must have available to it at all times an indication of its degree of attainment. In general,
every goal-seeking system employs feedback. [3]' ==

[edit]Man and Machine Control

The elements of control are easy to identify in machine systems. For example, the characteristic to be
controlled might be some variable like speed or temperature, and the sensing device could be a speedometer
or a thermometer. An expectation of precision exists because the characteristic is quantifiable and the standard
and the normal variation to be expected can be described in exact terms. In automatic machine systems, inputs
of information are used in a process of continual adjustment to achieve output specifications. When even a
small variation from the standard occurs, the correction process begins. The automatic system is highly
structured, designed to accept certain kinds of input and produce specific output, and programmed to regulate
the transformation of inputs within a narrow range of variation. [6]

For an illustration of mechanical control, as the load on a steam engine increases and the engine starts to slow
down, the regulator reacts by opening a valve that releases additional inputs of steam energy. This new input
returns the engine to the desired number of revolutions per minute. This type of mechanical control is crude in
comparison to the more sophisticated electronic control systems in everyday use. Consider the complex
missile-guidance systems that measure the actual course according to predetermined mathematical
calculations and make almost instantaneous corrections to direct the missile to its target.

Machine systems can be complex because of the sophisticated technology, whereas control of people is
complex because the elements of control are difficult to determine. In human control systems, the relationship
between objectives and associated characteristics is often vague; the measurement of the characteristic may
be extremely subjective; the expected standard is difficult to define; and the amount of new inputs required is
impossible to quantify. To illustrate, let us refer once more to a formalized social system in which deviant
behavior is controlled through a process of observed violation of the existing law (sensing), court hearings and
trials (comparison with standard), incarceration when the accused is found guilty (correction), and release from
custody after rehabilitation of the prisoner has occurred. [6]
The speed limit established for freeway driving is one standard of performance that is quantifiable, but even in
this instance, the degree of permissible variation and the amount of the actual variation are often a subject of
disagreement between the patrolman and the suspected violator. The complexity of our society is reflected in
many of our laws and regulations, which establish the general standards for economic, political, and social
operations. A citizen may not know or understand the law and consequently would not know whether or not he
was guilty of a violation.

Most organized systems are some combination of man and machine; some elements of control may be
performed by machine whereas others are accomplished by man. In addition, some standards may be
precisely structured whereas others may be little more than general guidelines with wide variations expected in
output. Man must act as the controller when measurement is subjective and judgment is required. Machines
such as computers are incapable of making exceptions from the specified control criteria regardless of how
much a particular case might warrant special consideration. A pilot acts in conjunction with computers and
automatic pilots to fly large jets. In the event of unexpected weather changes, or possible collision with another
plane, he must intercede and assume direct control. [4]

[edit]Organizational and Operational Control

The concept of organizational control is implicit in the bureaucratic theory of Max Weber. Associated with this
theory are such concepts as "span of control", "closeness of supervision", and "hierarchical authority". Weber's
view tends to include all levels or types of organizational control as being the same. More recently, writers have
tended to differentiate the control process between that which emphasizes the nature of the organizational or
systems design and that which deals with daily operations. To illustrate the difference, we "evaluate" the
performance of a system to see how effective and efficient the design proved to be or to discover why it failed.
In contrast, we operate and "control" the system with respect to the daily inputs of material, information,
and energy. In both instances, the elements of feedback are present, but organizational control tends to review
and evaluate the nature and arrangement of components in the system, whereas operational control tends to
adjust the daily inputs.

The direction for organizational control comes from the goals and strategic plans of the organization. General
plans are translated into specific performance measures such as share of the market, earnings, return on
investment, and budgets. The process of organizational control is to review and evaluate the performance of
the system against these established norms. Rewards for meeting or exceeding standards may range from
special recognition to salary increases or promotions. On the other hand, a failure to meet expectations may
signal the need to reorganize or redesign. [7]

In organizational control, the approach used in the program of review and evaluation depends on the reason
for the evaluation — that is, is it because the system is not effective (accomplishing its objectives)? Is the
system failing to achieve an expected standard of efficiency? Is the evaluation being conducted because of a
breakdown or failure in operations? Is it merely a periodic audit-and-review process?

When a system has failed or is in great difficulty, special diagnostic techniques may be required to isolate the
trouble areas and to identify the causes of the difficulty. It is appropriate to investigate areas that have been
troublesome before or areas where some measure of performance can be quickly identified. For example, if an
organization's output backlog builds rapidly, it is logical to check first to see if the problem is due to such readily
obtainable measures as increased demand or to a drop in available man hours. When a more detailed analysis
is necessary, a systematic procedure should be followed. [7]

In contrast to organizational control, operational control serves to regulate the day-to-day output relative

to schedules, specifications, and costs. Is the output of product or service the proper quality and is it available
as scheduled? Are inventories of raw materials, goods-in-process, and finished products being purchased and
produced in the desired quantities? Are the costs associated with the transformation process in line with cost
estimates? Is the information needed in the transformation process available in the right form and at the right
time? Is the energy resource being utilized efficiently?

The most difficult task of management concerns monitoring the behavior of individuals, comparing performance
to some standard, and providing rewards or punishment as indicated. Sometimes this control over people
relates entirely to their output. For example, amanager might not be concerned with the behavior of a salesman
as long as sales were as high as expected. In other instances, close supervision of the salesman might be
appropriate if achieving customer satisfaction were one of the sales organization's mainobjectives.

The larger the unit, the more likely that the control characteristic will be related to some output goal. It also
follows that if it is difficult or impossible to identify the actual output of individuals, it is better to measure the
performance of the entire group. This means that individuals' levels of motivation and the measurement of their
performance become subjective judgments made by the supervisor. Controlling output also suggests the
difficulty of controlling individuals' performance and relating this to the total system's objectives. [7]

[edit]Problems of control

The perfect plan could be outlined if every possible variation of input could be anticipated and if the system
would operate as predicted. This kind of planning is neither realistic, economical, nor feasible for most business
systems. If it were feasible, planning requirements would be so complex that the system would be out of date
before it could be operated. Therefore, we design control into systems. This requires more thought in the
systems design but allows more flexibility of operations and makes it possible to operate a system using
unpredictable components and undetermined input. Still, the design and effective operation of control are not
without problems.
The objective of the system is to perform some specified function. The purpose of organizational control is to
see that the specified function is achieved; the objective of operational control is to ensure that variations in
daily output are maintained within prescribed limits. It is one thing to design a system that contains all of the
elements of control, and quite another to make it operate true to the best objectives of design. Operating "in
control" or "with plan" does not guarantee optimum performance. For example, the plan may not make the best
use of the inputs of materials, energy, or information — in other words, the system may not be designed to
operate efficiently. Some of the more typical problems relating to control include the difficulty of measurement,
the problem of timing information flow, and the setting of proper standards. [7]