

The ampere (A)

The ampere is the SI base unit of electrical current.
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
The candela (cd)
The candela is the SI base unit of luminous intensity.
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
The kelvin (K)
The kelvin is the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature.
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
The kilogram (kg)
The kilogram is the SI base unit of mass.
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
The metre (m)
The metre is the SI base unit of length.
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
The mole (mol)
The mole is the SI base unit of amount of substance.
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
The second (s)
The second is the SI base unit of time.

The ampere is the unit for electrical current in the International System of Units (SI).
The formal definition of the ampere is that it is the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce
between those conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newtons per metre of length.
However, the ampere is difficult to realise in practise with sufficient accuracy, so it is realised via the watt (the SI unit for
power). The electrical power generated in a controlled experiment is compared to mechanical power, and using an
accurate measurement of resistance the ampere can be calculated via:
Power = (Current)2 x Resistance.
At the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), the volt is realised from the AC Josephson effect. Due to this effect, the
potential difference between two superconductors separated by a narrow gap and exposed to electromagnetic radiation,
takes discrete values dependent on the Josephson constant (483597.9 gigahertz per volt) and the frequency of radiation.
This gives the volt to an accuracy of 1 hundred millionth of a volt (0.000 000 01 volts).
Future standards of current may be based on counting the single electrons flowing in a sophisticated semiconductor circuit.
In a device under investigation at NPL, electrons are pushed through a narrow channel using tiny oscillating barriers. The
current is easily compared with theory as it is simply the charge on an electron times the number of electrons transported
per cycle of the barrier (frequency).
Last Updated: 18 Apr 2016

The efficiency and ease with which we see things depends on the level of light present. It is therefore important
to develop a scientific system to measure light levels. The candela is the base unit within the International
System of Units (SI) that is used for such measurements of light.
The power of optical radiation is measured in watts. However the eye cannot see all colours, or wavelengths of
light, equally well and thus another unit is needed to assess the visual effect of optical radiation - the candela.
The eye is most sensitive to light in the yellow-green region of the spectrum, close to the wavelength which
corresponds to the peak output of sunlight reaching the earth's surface. It is less sensitive to red and blue light.
A special function, known as the V(λ) function, describes the way in which the eye responds to different
wavelengths of light.
The shape of the V(λ) function affects how we perceive different types of light source. For example, a 60 watt
tungsten lamp, of the type found in many households, consumes four times the electrical power of a 15 watt
compact fluorescent lamp but they are both perceived as producing approximately equal amounts of light, i.e.
producing roughly the same number of candelas.
The realisation of the candela at the National Physical Laboratory is based on the use of a cryogenic
radiometer which, by equating the heating effect of optical radiation with that of electric power, can provide
measurements of optical radiant power at specific wavelengths with an uncertainty of better than 0.01%.
A solid-state photometer has been developed to evaluate light of other wavelengths according to
the V(λ) function, enabling the candela to be realised with an uncertainty of 0.2%.
The current definition of the candela was made in 1979, in terms of the watt at only one wavelength of light. It is
defined as:
The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x
1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watts per steradian (a unit of solid angle).

The accurate measurement of temperature is vital across a broad spectrum of human activities, including
materials processing (e.g. making steel), manufacturing (e.g. parts only fit perfectly at a certain temperature),
food (preparation, transport and storage), health, and of course scientific discovery. In fact, in almost every
sector, temperature is one of the key parameters to be measured.
One difference between temperature and other physical properties, such as mass or length, is that it
is intensive. If we consider two objects with the same mass and temperature, then their combined mass is the
sum of the masses of the individual objects, however their combined temperature will be unchanged. So
although it is fairly easy to imagine ways in which we can determine how much heavier one object is than a
standard mass, it is not at all obvious how to determine how much hotter one thing is than a 'standard
temperature'.
The 'standard temperature' we use is the temperature of the triple point of water, which is the unique
temperature at which the three phases of water (solid, liquid and vapour) co-exist in equilibrium. We define this
temperature to be 273.16 K exactly and hence determine the size of the unit of temperature to be:
The fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
From this single temperature, it is possible to work out the temperatures of other highly reproducible 'fixed
points' such as melting temperature of pure gallium metal (302.9146 K) or the freezing temperature of gold
(1337.33 K). Such experiments are not easy and are rarely done, but once the temperatures of the fixed points
have been established they are incorporated into the International Temperature Scale of 1990 so that all types of
thermometers can be conveniently calibrated with excellent reproducibility.
The degree Celsius (°C) has the same size as the kelvin, but is offset from kelvin scale by 273.15 K to make it
conveniently similar to the historical unit, the degree centigrade, which is no longer used.
Temperature affects a wide variety of physical processes because all substances are composed of atoms, and
fundamentally temperature is a measure of the average energy of the motion of the atoms within an object. The
international temperature community is working towards a redefinition of the kelvin in terms of this microscopic
motion, and a new definition will be based on a fundamental constant known as the Boltzmann constant that
measures how much energy of motion corresponds to one kelvin.
One advantage of this definition is that any fixed point could be used as a standard temperature, and any
appropriate method for temperature measurement could be used. This allows for the possibility of improved
uncertainty of temperature measurement at extremely high and extremely low temperatures.

The kilogram is the International System of Units (SI) unit for mass. It is the only remaining base unit to be
defined by a physical object. All standards of mass must ultimately be traceable to this one object, a cylinder of
platinum-iridium alloy kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in France.
As science and industry's requirement for a more accurate way to measure extreme weights increases,
the search is on for a definition of the kilogram in terms of a fundamental constant to improve its long-term
stability and to eliminate the necessity for traceability to a single physical artefact.
Today two key approaches are being pursued: building an electrical kilogram and counting atoms.
The quantum electrical standards for voltage and resistance, which are based upon the Planck constant and
the elementary charge, are more stable than the present kilogram. The kilogram can be accurately compared
with these standards using a moving-coil watt balance. Here, the weight of a 1 kg mass is balanced against the
electromagnetic force generated by a current-carrying coil hung in a magnetic field. The ratio of the force
generated by the coil to the the current passing through it is calibrated in a second phase of the experiment,
which measures the voltage generated by the coil as it it moved at a measured velocity through the magnetic
field. As the voltage and the current are measured using quantum electrical standards, the kilogram can be
defined in terms of a fixed value of the Planck constant plus the existing definitions of the metre and the
second.
The second approach relates the kilogram to an atomic mass, so that it can be defined as the mass of a fixed
number of atoms. The number of atoms in a perfect silicon crystal can be counted by measuring its volume and
dividing this by the volume a single atom occupies. This volume is measured by combined X-ray and optical
interference techniques. This process amounts to a very accurate measurement of the Avogadro constant (NA).
(NA) is defined as the number of atoms in 0.012 kg of the isotope carbon 12 and thus is the number of entities in
a mole of substance.
You can find out more about redefining the kilogram on our Educate & Explore page.
These methods can only be used to measure the base unit if they can measure exactly one kilogram on
demand. The first step is getting the resolution. This has almost been achieved for the electrical method. The
next step is to get repeatable results and the final step is to ensure that the individial electrical and atomic mass
experiments are in agreement. Both the electrical kilogram researchers and the atom counters are pursuing the
ultimate target of measuring a kilogram with an accuracy of a millionth of one percent, every time.

Since 1983, the metre has been internationally defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/ 299 792 458 of a second. This definition can be realised simply and accurately using
modern techniques and the speed of light is regarded to be a universal constant, making it ideal as the basis
for a length standard.
The definition of the metre can be practically realised in two different ways:
Time of flight - a pulse of light is sent over the length to be measured. The time it takes for the light to travel this
distance, in seconds, multiplied by the speed of light (299 792 458 metres per second), gives the length in
metres. As the speed of light is very fast, this method is easier to apply over long distances. However, care has
to be taken to account for gravitational field effects when measuring astronomical distances.
Interferometry - the technique of interferometry allows a length to be measured in terms of the wavelength of
light. By using a light source of known and stable wavelength, lengths up to 100 metres can be directly
measured, with accuracies upto 1 part in a few million under the right conditions.
Accurate length measurement and precise definition are needed throughout the modern world. From the tiniest
features on a microchip, through standard threads on nuts and bolts, to large, complex sub-assemblies of
modern airliners, interchangeability and reproducibility are essential in a global economy where items are
sourced from different countries, yet have to fit perfectly, first time
Lasers currently used to realise the metre provide very stable optical frequencies (or vacuum wavelengths) by
servo-controlling the light to particular reference absorptions in gases such as iodine, held within small gas
cells. However, their accuracies are limited by the motion of the gas molecules in the laser beam at room
temperature. By replacing the iodine molecules with atoms or ions such as eg ytterbium or strontium that are
held within electromagnetic or optical traps, it is possible to laser cool the atoms close to absolute zero (thereby
reducing their motion). In this arrangement the optical reference frequencies can be several orders of
magnitude more accurate, but other limitations, such as atmospheric conditions or material stability, generally
prevent their use in direct length measurement at these improved levels.

The mole is a base unit of the International System of Units (SI).

A mole is the amount of substance containing as many elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kilogram (or
12 grams) of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground state.
The mole is used to describe a practical quantity of material and is the link between the microscopic and macroscopic
worlds, used to scale phenomena from the atomic up to 'relevant' sizes. As a result of the definition, the mole contains a
defined number of entities, usually atoms or molecules. This number is the Avogadro constant (NA).
The current value for NA is:
6.022 141 79(30)x1023 mol-1
This number is a dauntingly large figure.

 This number of sand grains would cover the United Kingdom to a depth of about 40 centimetres.
 There are about this number of human cells on Earth.
 It would take you twenty thousand million million years to count this number of coins (counting about one coin per
second).
The mole is not realised as a unique physical artefact like the prototype kilogram. However, it can be realised by certain
reproducible experimental methods known as 'primary methods'. One example is by weighing a sample of material of
known composition.
In common with several other SI units, the definition of the mole is presently being reconsidered. Since it is related to the
kilogram, there is a pressure to reconsider its definition and relate it more directly to a specified number of entities. This
would lead to a fixed value for the Avogadro constant.
Last Updated: 8 Dec 2015

For thousands of years the Earth's rotation was our most stable timekeeper. However, the quartz and atomic
clocks invented during the 1930s and 1950s are even better timekeepers, and show that the Earth does not
rotate steadily but wobbles. Since 1967 the definition of the second has been related to the movement of
electrons in a caesium atom:
The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
 The atom can be pictured as a mini solar system, with the heavy nucleus at the centre surrounded by electrons
in a variety of different orbits. The orbits correspond to energy levels, and electrons can only move between
levels when they absorb or release just the right amount of energy.
This energy is absorbed or released in the form of electromagnetic radiation, the frequency of which depends
on the difference in energy between the two levels. By measuring the frequency of the electromagnetic
radiation, like counting the number of pendulum swings, we can measure the passage of time.
Time measurement has become a basic part of everyday life and accuracies of the nearest minute or a few
seconds are usually good enough for most human activities, but highly accurate timing plays a vital role in
many other aspects of the modern world. The Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites broadcast timing
signals from onboard atomic clocks, which enable land vehicles, shipping and aircraft to know their location
within a few metres.
Clocks for the 21st century based on single cold trapped ions or collections of atoms are being developed. Ions
are charged atoms which can be trapped almost indefinitely by electromagnetic fields, and cooled by laser
beam close to absolute zero. In this way, certain optical absorptions in the ion can exhibit a very pure
frequency. This can also be achieved for atoms trapped by intersecting light beams.
At the National Physical Laboratory, optical clocks are being developed which may have accuracies of around
100 times higher than the best current microwave atomic clocks. That is equivalent to losing no more than one
second in the age of the universe.
http://www.npl.co.uk/reference/measurement-units/si-base-units/

In 1960, during the eleventh Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), the International System of
Units, the SI, was developed. It now includes two classes of units :

 The seven base unites ;

 The derived units.
We must not believe, however, that once set up, this system is fixed. Progress made in science and
technology and the new requirements from society and therefore the needs in terms of increased accuracy,
will led the LNE and all national metrology institutes to continuously improve the practical realisation of all
SI units. And this concern involves the references as well as the means for transfer to the users, to allow
matching at best these new needs. Definitions of units sometimes need to be changed and new definitions
added.

The base units and their definitions

To date, the International System of Units, the SI, is made up of seven base units (between brackets the
sole/single symbol representing it) :

 The metre (m)

 The kilogram (kg)
 The second (s)
 The ampere (A)
 The kelvin (K)
 The candela (cd)
 The mole (mol)

metre (m)
The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
 interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

The kilogram is the mass of the platinum-iridium prototype which was approved by
kilogram (kg) the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, held in Paris in 1889, and kept by the
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures.

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding
second (s) to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium
133 atom.

The ampere is the intensity of a constant current which, if maintained in two

straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
ampere (A)
and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors
a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre of length.

The kelvin is the fraction 1/273,16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
kelvin (K)
point of water.

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
candela (cd) monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian

The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many

mole (mol)
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0,012 kilogram of carbon 12.

The derived units (including the dimensionless units)

There are numerous derived units that are complementary to the base units. They may have special names
(e.g. hertz, pascal, becquerel, etc.) but can always be expressed in terms of the base units. There are
also dimensionless derived units.
It should be noted that these units are linked together to form a consistent system.

These units are linked together to form a coherent system.

Lastly, each quantity may need to cover a vast range of values. To avoid the need for multiplying factors or
values with a large number of zeros, prefixes are used. The prefixes cover a range extending from 1024 to
10-24 times the units.
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Current intensity : The ampere (A)

potential difference, U : volt (V = W/A)

electrical capacitance, C : farad (F = C/V)

electrical resistance, R : ohm (Ω = V/A)

inductance, L : henri (H = Wb/A)

 quantity of electricity, Q : coulomb (C = A.s)

power, P : watt (W = J/s)

energy, W : joule (J = N.m)

magnetic induction, B : tesla (T = Wb/m2)

electric field, E : volt per metre (V/m)

magnetic field strength, H : ampère per metre (A/m)

electric conductance, G : siemens (S = A/V)

attenuation, η : decibel (dB)

 MASS AND RELATED QUANTITIES

The mass : the kilogram (kg)

density : ρ kg.m-3

volume : V m3

force : F newton (N)

torque : M N.m

pressure : p pascal (Pa)

dynamic viscosity : η Pa.s

kinematic viscosity : υ m2.s-1

acoustic pressure : p pascal (Pa)

dynamic volume : v m3

mass flow-rate : qm kg.s-1

volume flow-rate : qv m3.s-1

 air flow-rate : V m.s-1

 LENGTH AND DIMENSIONAL QUANTITIES

Length : the metre (m)

wavelength : λ metre (m)

length of material standards : L metre (m)

lplane angle : α radian (rad)

form measurement : metre (m)

 RADIOMETRY – PHOTOMETRY
Photometry

Luminous intensity : the candela (cd) (m)

luminous flux : Φ lumen (lm)

illuminance : E lux (lx)

luminance : L cd.m-2

Radiometry of detectors

spectral responsivity : S(λ) A.W-1

Radiometry of sources

energy flow : Φe watt (W)

radiance : Le W.m-2.sr-1

irradiance : Ee W.m-2

laser source power : P watt (W)

laser source energy : Q joule (J)

Radiometry of materials

regular spectral transmittance : t(Φ) flux ratio

 diffuse spectral reflectance : R(λ) flux ratio

Fibre optics

energy flow : P watt (W)

wavelength : λ metre (m)

propagation time : t second (s)

fibre length metre (m)

linear attenuation factor : dB.m-1

reflectance dB

detector (or fibre) passband hertz (Hz) (ou Hz.m-1)

 TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL QUANTITIES

Thermometry and radiation thermometry

temperature in the ITS-90 or in the PLTS-2000 : T kelvin (K)

or t degree Celsius (°C)

Metrology of thermal quantities

thermal conductivity : λ = α.ρ.Cp (ρ = density) W.m-1.K-1

thermal diffusivity : α =λ/ρ.Cp (ρ = density) m2.s-1

specific heat capacity : Cp = (∂H/∂T)p (H = enthalpy) J.kg-1.K-1

spectral directional emissivity : ελ dimensionless ratio

normal spectral emissivity : ελ dimensionless ratio

total hemispherical emissivity : ελ dimensionless ratio

Hygrometry

temperature
dew point : Td degree Celsius (°C)
 frost point : Tf degree Celsius (°C)

with respect to water : Uw percentage (%)

l’humidité relative
with respect to ice : Ui percentage (%)

 AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE - CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

The two main SI units used in amount of substance are the mole and the kilogram. From the definition of
the mole (amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
in 0,012 kilogram of carbon 12) there is a ratio between them; consequently, they are both used. More
precisely, the measurement of an amount of substance is expressed either in mole or in kilogram, or as
concentrations (ratio of two quantities: mass / mass, mole / mole, mole /mass, etc.).

 IONIZING RADIATION
Radioactivity

activity : A Bq

activity per mass unit : Am Bq.kg-1

activity per volume unit : Av Bq.m-3

emission rate : s-1

emission rate per solid angle unit : s-1.sr-1

neutron fluence rate : m-2.s-1

with Bq : becquerel

Dosimetry : (photons, electrons, protons)

air kerma normal : n Gy.m2

air kerma rate : air Gy.s-1

absorbed dose rate to water : water Gy.s-1

absorbed dose rate to graphite : g Gy.s-1

absorbed dose rate to tissure : tissus Gy.s-1

directional dose equivalent rate : '(0,07 ; α) Sv.s-1

 ambient dose equivalent rate : *
(10) Sv.s-1

with : Gy = gray, Sv = sievert

Neutron Dosimetry

neutron fluence rate : m2.s-1

kerma rate to tissue : tissus Gy.s-1

ambient dose equivalent rate : *

(10) Sv.s-1

individual dose equivalent rate : p (d) Sv.s-1

 TIME AND FREQUENCY

Time : the second (s)

frequency : υ hertz (Hz)

time interval : second (s)

phase fluctuation spectral density : (dBc/Hz)

rotation speed (tr/min)

 DIMENSIONLESS DERIVED UNITS

Plane angle radian (rad) = m.m-1

Solid steradian angle stéradian (sr) = m2.m-2

The SI prefixe

Factor Prefixe Symbol

1024 yotta Y

1021 zetta Z

1018 exa E
1015 péta P

1012 téra T

109 giga G

106 mega M

103 kilo k

102 hecto h

101 déca da

10-1 déci d

10-2 centi c

10-3 milli m

10-6 micro µ

10-9 nano n

10-12 pico p

10-15 femto f

10-18 atto a

10-21 zepto z

10-24 yocto y

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