Main project 17’ Vibration analysis

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The use of machinery vibration and technology advances that have been
developed over the year makes it possible not only to detect when a machine is
developing a problem, but to identify its specific nature of problem for the scheduled
correction. When a machine fails or breakdown, the consequences can range from
annoyance to financial distortion or personal injury and possibly loss of life. Thus
Vibration analysis is of great importance and it not only minimizes the need of
extensive experience, but also makes it possible to detect the developing problems
which are outside the range of human senses to touch and hearing. Here the
introduction of Vibration analysis and outline a simple, logical and systematic
approach that has been proved successful in pinpointing the vast majority of most
common day to day machine problems is done.

The vibration analysis we have done is a part of conditional monitoring

techniques and it’s mainly used for the improved performance of equipments. Using
this we can predict the condition of the internal parts of the equipments. Thus this is a
type of predictive maintenance techniques. We are mainly dealing with the vibration
analysis on rotary equipments. It includes typical causes of vibration like
misalignment of shafts, looseness, bearing faults, unbalance, oil fracture etc.

This project explains the vibration analysis, methodology, readings, and case
studies of attack scrubber fan.

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Main project 17’ Vibration analysis

CHAPTER 2

MAINTENANCE

2.1 DEFINITION

It is defined as the set of activities on all plants and machineries to maintain

the same at prime condition in economic ways, for smooth running of plants for the
achievement of organizational objectives. Prime condition refers to that the plant and
machinery shall be in good condition for efficient and effective utilization of the same
for the functions for which it is designated and installed for.

2.2 OBJECTIVE

To ensure the maximum availability and reliability of the plant and machinery
at an optimum cost for an interrupted operation of all units of for the achievement of
organizational goals with respect to target and to meet standard of environment safety
and ISO's standards and conditions.

2.3 AVAILABILITY

It actually means that the equipment should be functionally available for the
production when that equipment is put in to operation, we should function in such a
manner it is designed for, without any problems.

2.4 RELIABILITY

It denotes that the equipment shall be relied upon for the services it is designed
for any point of time. Latest operating personnel should be able to rely upon the
function of the equipment when they need that equipment to be put into operation.

2.5 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is classified mainly on the basis of nature of activities performed.

1. Preventive maintenance

It is the set of activities performed on equipments periodically by improving

the operational atmosphere to prevent any possible failures. The activities
performed are checking of all fasteners and bolts, checking of lube oil conditions,

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Main project 17’ Vibration analysis

checking of other ancillary facilities like cooling water, seal cooling system,
Sequencing system, operating parameters like suction pressures, temperature,
discharge pressure, any abnormal noise, condition of sales of packing's etc. The
abnormalities are corrected without disturbing the functioning of the plant.
Primitive maintenance check depends upon the criticality of the equipment. More
critical the equipment, the more will be the frequency of checking.

For predictive maintenance plan equipments are divided into three categories.

 Critical equipment :- these are the running equipments having standby but
whose failure will affect the production of the plant directly. For these equipments
predictive maintenance is done once in 15 days.

 Semi critical equipment:- we are having standby and are used in production line.
Corrective maintenance check is done on in 30 days.

 Non critical equipment:- These are not in production line and are used in
standby. They are checked once in 3 months.

PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE CHECK SCHEDULE

EQUIPMENT FREQUENCY
PUMPS : critical Fortnightly

PUMPS : Semi critical Monthly

PUMPS : Non critical Once in 3 months

Turbines, Compressors, Engines, Tank, Once in 3 months

Mixer suit blowers, ID & FD Fans,
Cooling tower fans, Fin fans, ETP, Slide
valves

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2. Predictive maintenance of condition monitoring

The main step is to monitor the condition of the equipment and operation. This
includes observation and data collection of equipment which are on line. The
collected data will be analyses and possible abnormalities are derived and corrective
measures are prescribed.

All machines vibrate in operation. If any problem occurs there will be an

increase in vibration. The unique characteristic of increased operations can be
analysed and the problem developed in the equipment can be determined by the
nature of the vibration. To cover all equipment of plant and condition monitoring is
equipment is grouped based on its criticality/plant and a schedule is drawn to cover all
equipment and condition monitoring is performed on these equipments as per
schedule

The set of activities carried out are:

Physical observation of the machine in operation, the engineering parameters like

RPM, Bearings, no. Of blades or vanes, belt, coupling type, lubrication type, process
fluid, mounting conditions are checked and note down. Sega boxes number of teeth
and rpm and for electric motors, kW rating, Volt and current, rpm are noted. The
history of machine is also studied. After this the vibration data collection is done on
the machine and following four stages of condition monitoring is done on the machine
are as follows:

 Detection

 Analysis

 Correction

 Verification

3. Corrective Maintenance

It is the overhauling of equipment’s, checking alignment etc. Overhauling of

equipment is done by removal of equipment, dismantling/disassembling, inspection of
parts, replacement of parts as found necessary, reassembling and reinstallation. After

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Main project 17’ Vibration analysis

reinstallation of equipment alignment of the driver and driven equipment is carried

out and then coupled. Corrective maintenance is of two types Flamed and unplanned.

a) Planned corrective maintenance:

Planned corrective maintenance is adopted when trend (vibration,

performance etc.) shows deterioration in health of the equipment. During annual
turnaround the critical equipment’s like centrifugal compressor, turbine, critical
centrifugal pumps, reciprocating compressor; slide valve etc. are inspected and
necessary corrective actions are taken.

Periodic condition monitoring indicates health. If trend indicates that there is constant
increase in Vibration level, noise level etc or the flow has gradually reduced, the
problem is analyzed. Analysis reveals a problem increase in misalignment or increase
in deterioration of bearing etc. The loss of flow may be due to suction strainer
blockage, increase in internal clearance etc. Appropriate corrective actions are
adopted. If needed a total overhaul is carried out.

b) Unplanned corrective Maintenance:-

Unplanned corrective maintenance is adopted when failure of equipment’s

occurs. Overhauling is carried out depending on nature of failure. Overhauling refers
to dismantling of parts, inspection, and replacement of worn out parts and
reassembling of parts. During ‘reassembling, the important points are taken care like
the replacement of worn out parts, restoration of internal clearances and centering of
the rotating element with respect to Stationary element both in radial and axial
direction.

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CHAPTER 3

CONDITION MONITORING AND VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Condition monitoring is the activity of maintenance for monitoring the condition of

the internals of any running equipment without disrupting the operation. The monitoring
is done by collection of data of various parameters like rpm, operating temperature,
lubrication condition, nature, noise and vibration level, power consumption level etc.
Condition monitoring makes use of advanced technologies in order to determine
equipment condition and potentially predict failure. It includes, but is not limited to
technologies such as,
1. Vibration measurement and analysis
2. Infrared thermograph
3. Oil analysis
4. Ultrasonic
5. Motor current analysis
Condition monitoring is most frequently used as a predictive or condition – based
technique. However, there are other predictive maintenance techniques that can also be
used including the use of the human senses (look, listen, feel, smell etc.), machine
performance monitoring and statically process control techniques.The need that
dominates the industrial maintenance senses is asset effectiveness- the need to extract
maximum profits from the minimum investment in the plant and equipment. We achieve
this through the use of condition monitoring technologies in the following ways:

a. By improving equipment reliability through the effective prediction (and then

avoidance) of equipment failures.
b. By minimizing downtime through the integrated planning and scheduling of
repairs indicated by other techniques.
c. By maximizing component life by avoiding the conditions that reduce equipment
life.
d. By utilizing condition monitoring techniques to maximize equipment perform
and throughput.
e. By minimizing condition monitoring costs

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3.1 IMPORTANCE OF CONDITION MONITORING:

Condition monitoring will be considered more or less as a “black art” requiring

specialist’s in order to perform routine data collection and analysis although specialists
will still be required to perform more complex or unusual analysis although specialists
will still be required to perform more complex or unusual analysis. Production operators
will increasingly use condition monitoring techniques to highlight potential equipment
problem – either using hand – held equipment or permanently installed monitors which
are integrated with process control systems. Mechanical trade’s people will increasingly
use this technique to check the quality of their own workmanship. There will be reduced
focus on this technique to predict equipment failure, but an increased focus on using this
technique to improve equipment and component life thereby performance also.

3.2 ADVANTAGES OF CONDITION MONITORING:

1. Increased plant reliability and availability

2. Increased plant and personal safety
3. Increased life of machines
4. Reduced maintenances cost

3.3 VIBRATION MONITORING:

Since the mid 1950’s the measurement and analyses of vibration has become an
increasing technique for monitoring machinery condition. All machines will have some
vibration because of minor defects or result manufacturing tolerances. Therefore all
machines have tolerance of vibration, which may be regarded as normal or inherent.
When machinery vibration increases or become excessive, some mechanical trouble is
usually the reason, the cause be unbalance worn gears or bearing looseness. Etc., each
mechanical defect generates vibration is in its unique way. This makes it possible to
identify a mechanical problem by simply. A good vibration analysis program makes it
possible to detect an impending problem, analyze it cause and take appropriate corrective
action before the failure occurs.

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3.4 BENEFITS OF VIBRATION MONITORING:

Benefits of vibration monitoring are:

1. Prolongs machinery life

2. Minimize unscheduled downtime
3. Eliminate stand by equipment
4. Provides more efficient operation
5. Increases machinery safety
6. Improves quality performances
7. Improves customer satisfaction

3.5 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS:

All mechanical equipment’s in motion generates a vibration profile, or signature,

that reflects its operating condition. This is true regardless of speed or whether the mode
of operation is rotation, reciprocation, or linear motion. Vibration analysis is applicable
to all mechanical equipment, although a common – yet invalid – assumption is that it is
limited to simple rotating machinery with running speeds above 600 revolution per
minute (rpm). Vibration profile analysis is a useful tool for predictive maintenance,
diagnostics, and many other uses. Several predictive maintenance techniques are used to
monitor and analyze critical machines, equipments, and systems in a typical plant. These
include

1) Vibration analysis
2) Ultrasonic
3) Thermograph
4) Tribology
5) Process monitoring
6) Visual inspection
7) Other non destructive analysis techniques.

Of these techniques, vibration analysis is the dominant predictive maintenance technique

used with maintenance management programs. Predictive maintenance has become
synonymous with monitoring vibration characteristics of rotating machinery to detect

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budding problems and to head off catastrophic failure. However, vibration analysis does
not provide the data required to analyze the electrical equipment, areas of heat loss, the
condition of lubricating oil, or other parameters typically evaluated in a maintenance
management program. Therefore, a total plant predictive maintenance program must
include several techniques, each designed to provide specific information on plant
equipment. The use of vibration analysis is not restricted to predictive maintenance. This
technique is useful for diagnostic tools for most mechanical systems that are used to
manufacture products. When used properly, vibration data will provide the optimum
operating conditions and efficiency of critical plant systems. Vibration analysis can be
used to evaluate fluid flow through pipes or vessels, to detect leaks, and to perform a
verity of nondestructive testing functions that improve the reliability and performance of
critical plant system

3.6 APPLICATIONS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS:

I. Predictive maintenance

The fact that vibration profiles can be obtained for all machinery that has rotating or
moving elements allows vibration-based analysis techniques to be used for predictive
maintenance. Vibration analysis is one of several predictive maintenance techniques used
to monitor and analyze critical machines, equipments, and systems in a typical plant.
However, as indicated before the use of vibration analysis to monitor rotating machinery
to detect budding problems and to head off catastrophic failure is the dominant predictive
maintenance technique used with maintenance management programs

II. Acceptance testing

Vibration analysis is proven means of verifying the actual performance versus design
parameters of new mechanical, process and manufacturing equipment. Reacceptance
tests performed at the factory and immediately following installation can be used to
ensure that new equipment performs at optimum efficiency and expected lifecycle cost.
Design problems as well as possible damage during shipment or installation can be
corrected before long-term damage or unexpected costs occur.

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III. Quality control

Production-line vibration checks are effective method of ensuring product quality
where machine tools are involved. Such checks can provide advanced warning that the
surface finish on parts in nearing the rejection level. On continuous process lines such as
paper machines, steel-finishing lines, or rolling mills, vibration analysis can prevent
abnormal oscillation of components that result in loss of product quality.
IV. Loose or foreign parts detection

Vibration analysis is useful as a diagnostic tool for locating loose or foreign

objects in process lines or vessels. This technique has been used with great success by
the nuclear power industry and it offers the same benefits to non-nuclear industries.

V. Noise control

Federal, state and local regulations require serious attention be paid to noise
levels within the plant. Vibration analysis can be used to isolate the source of noise
generated by plant equipment as well as background noises such as those generated by
fluorescent light and other less obvious sources. The ability to isolate the source of
abnormal noises permits cost-effective corrective action.

VI. Leak detection

Leaks in process vessels and devices such as valves are a serious problem in
many industries. A variation monitoring and analysis can be used to detect leakage and
isolate its source. Leakage-detection systems use an accelerometer attached to the
exterior of a process pipe. This allows the vibration profile to be monitored in order to
detect the unique frequencies generated by flow or leakage.

VII. Aircraft engine analyzers

Adaptations of vibration analysis techniques have been used for a verity of

specialty instruments, in particular, portable and continuous aircraft engine analyzers.
Vibration monitoring and analysis techniques are the basis of these analyzers, which are
used for detecting excessive vibration in turboprop and jet engines. These instruments
incorporate logic modules that use existing vibration data to evaluate the condition of the

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engine. Portable units have diagnostic capabilities, that allows a machine to determine
the source of the problem while continuous sensors alert the pilot to any deviation from
optimum operating condition.

VIII. Machine design and engineering

Vibration data have become a critical part of the design and engineering of new
machines and process systems. Data derived from similar or existing machinery can be
extrapolated to form the basis of a preliminary design. Prototype testing of new
machinery and systems allows these preliminary designs to be finalized, and the
vibration data from the testing adds to the design database.

3.7 NEED OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS:

Reason for performing a vibration analysis:

 Established base data for feature analysis needs

 Identify the cause of excessive vibration
 Identify the cause of a significant vibration increases
 Identify the cause of frequent component failure
 Identify the cause of structural failures
 Identify the source of noise problem
 Identify why a machine tool fails to produce a quality part
 Identify why a machine tool fails to meet an established performance
 Identify why a machine tool fails to meet an established performance standard

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CHAPTER 4

THEORY OF VIBRATION

Vibration deals with oscillatory motion of dynamic system, a dynamic system

is a combination of matter which possesses mass and through application of excitation
of the system. Hence the excitation is called whose parts are capable of relative
motion. All bodies possessing mass and elasticity are capable of vibration.The
elements of vibration air mass, spring, damper and other excitation elements. Energy
is stored in mass and spring and dissipated in damper in form of heat. These elements
are called passive elements. Energy enters the physical system active element and its
magnitude varies with time. So the excitation is called active element.

Mass is a rigid body and gain or lose kinetic energy in accordance with
velocity change in body. A spring force exists if there is relative displacement
between its ends. A damping element has neither mass nor elasticity. Damping force
exists only if there is a relative motion between two ends of damper.

Vibration motion can be free or forced vibrations depending on the absence

and presence of excitation forces respectively. Vibrations can be typed or undamped
on the presence and absence of damping elements respectively.

4.1 HARMONIC MOTION:

A harmonic function is the simplest type of periodic motion and is shown in

the figure, which is the harmonic function for the small oscillation of a simple
pendulum. Such a relationship can be expressed by the equation

X = 𝑋0 Sin (ωt)

Where,

X= vibration displacement (thousands of an inch , or mils)

X 0 = maximum displacement or amplitude (mils)

ω = circular frequency in radian per second

t = time in seconds

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4.2 NON-HARMONIC MOTION:

In most machinery, there are numerous sources of vibrations, therefore, most

time domain vibration profiles are non harmonic. While all harmonic motions are
periodic, not every periodic motion is harmonic.

Fig 3.1: Non-harmonic motion

4.3 TYPES OF VIBRATION:

 Free vibration-Undamped

X = X 0 Cos(ωt)

Where,

X = displacement at time t

X 0 = initial displacement of the mass

ω = frequency of the oscillation

t = Time

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𝑘
ω = √𝑚

 Free vibration-Damped

A slight increase in system complexity result when adding element is added to the
spring mass system. This type of damping is referred to as viscous damping. A
damper is used to continuously decrease the velocity and resulting energy of a mass
undergoing oscillatory motion. The system is still comprised of the inertia forces due
to the mass and spring forces, but a new force is introduced. This force Is referred to
as the damping force and is proportional to the damping constant, or the coefficient of
viscous damping, c. The damping force is also proportional to the velocity of the body
and, as it is applied, it opposes the motion at each instant.

If c/m = 2u, the equation of motion can be represented as,

X = 𝑒 −𝑢𝑡 (𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡)

Where, 𝜔𝑑 = √𝜔 2 − 𝑢2

 Forced vibration- Undamped

General differential equation of force is given by,

𝑑 2
M ( 𝑑𝑥2 ) + KX = 𝐹0 sin (ωt)
𝑡

And solution is given by,

𝐹⁄
x = 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + (1− 𝑘𝑟 2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡

𝜔
Where, r = 𝜔
𝑛

The last term is the steady state response and r Is the frequency ratio

 Forced vibration-Damped

With damped forced vibration, the only difference in its equation and the equation for
damped free vibration is that it is equal to 𝐹0 sin ωt as shown below instead of being
equal to zero.

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𝑑 2 𝑑
M ( 𝑑𝑥2 ) + c ( 𝑑𝑥 ) + KX = 𝐹0 sin (ωt)
𝑡 𝑡

And the equation is given by,

X = 𝑋0 sin (ωt - a)

Where,

𝐹
𝑋0 =
√(𝑘− 𝑚𝜔 2 )2

4.4 ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION:

 Stiffness

Stiffness is a spring like property that describes the level of assisting force that
results when a body undergoes a change in length. Units of stiffness are often given as
𝑁
.Machines will have more than one stiffness property that must be considered in
𝑚𝑚

vibration analysis they are shaft stiffness, vertical stiffness and horizontal stiffness.

I. Shaft Stiffness:

Most machines used in industry have flexible shaft and relativity long span
between the bearing support points. As a result, the shaft tends to flex in normal
operation. Three factors determine the amount of flux and mode shape that these
shafts have a normal operation are shaft diameter, shafts material properties and span
length. A small diameter Shirt with a long span will obviously flex more than one
with a larger diameter or short span.

II. Vertical stiffness:

The Rotor bearing support structure of a machine typically has more stiffness in
the vertical plane than in the horizontal plane. Generally, the structural rigidity of a
bearing support structure is much greater in the vertical plane. The full weight of and
the dynamic forces generated by the rotating element are fully supported by a pedestal
cross-section that provides maximum stiffness. In typical rotating machinery, the
vibration profit generated by a normal machine contains lower amplitude in the

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vertical plane. In most cases, the lower profile can be directly attributed to the
difference in stiffness of the vertical plane when compared to the horizontal plane.

III. Horizontal stiffness:

Most bearing pedestals have More freedom in the horizontal direction that in the
vertical. In most applications, the vertical height of the pedestal is much greater than
the horizontal cross section. As a result, the entire pedestal can flex in the horizontal
plane as the machine rotates. This lower stiffness generally result in higher vibration
levels in the horizontal plane. This is especially true when the machine is subjected to
abnormal modes of operation or when the machine is unbalanced or misaligned.

 Damping:

Damping is a means of reducing velocity through resistance to motion, in

particular by forcing and object through a liquid or gas, or along another body. The
Boundary conditions established by the machine design determine the freedom of
movement permitted within the machine. A basic understanding of this concept is
essential for vibration analysis. Free vibration refers to the vibration of damped (as
well as Undamped) system of masses with motion in daily influenced by their
Potential energy. Forced vibration occurs when motion is sustained or driven by an
applied periodic force in either damped or and undamped systems.

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CHAPTER 5

VIBRATION ANALYSIS

5.1 MEASUREMENT UNITS

 PEAK TO PEAK
A number of units are used to describe vibration measurements. Peak
to peak values describes the maximum excursion between upper limit and
lower limit of travel. Peak measurements are peak to peak value for sinusoidal
waveforms or SHM

 RMS
The RMS is used where vibrations are random or consist of a number
of sinusoidal vibrations of different frequencies. The RMS value is the
measure of the effective energy used to produce the vibration of a machine.
For a sinusoidal motion the RMS value of 0.07×peak.

 AVERAGE
The average value of the sinusoidal wave form is 0.637. The peak table
summarizes the main characteristics of vibration and includes more common
units of measurement.
Table 1: vibration characteristics and common units of measurement

VIBRATION CHARACTERSTICS COMMON UNITS OF

MEASUREMENT
 FREQUENCY CPM
 DISPLACEMENT MLS PEAK TO PRAK
 VELOCITY IN/SEC RMS or IN/SEC PEAK

 ACCELERATION G PEAK

 PHASE DEGREES

 SPIKE ENERGY GSE

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5.2 MEASURABLE PARAMETERS

 Frequency

Frequency is defined as the number of repetitions of a specific forcing function all

vibration component over a specific unit of time. Frequency is commonly expressed
in cycle per minutes (CPM) or in Hertz (CPS). Some of the most common terms
describing vibration frequencies are below:

Dominant frequency - It is frequency of vibration having the highest amplitude.

Synchronous frequency - It is the vibration frequency of earring at 1x rpm

Fundamental frequency - It is the lowest or first frequency normally associated with a

news particle problem or cause

Harmonic frequency - It is the frequency that is excise exact whole number multiple
of a fundamental frequency

 Amplitude

Amplitude refers to maximum value of motion or vibration. This value can be

represented in terms of displacement (mm), velocity (inches per second), or
acceleration (inches per sec2). Amplitude can be measured as the sum of all the forces
causing vibration with a piece of machinery (broadband), discrete measurement for
the individual forces or for individual forces (component), or for individual user-
selected forces, (narrow band).

 Displacement

Displacement is actual change in distance or position of an object relativity

reference point and is usually expressed in units of miles, 0.001 inch. For example,
displacement is the actual radial or HCL moment of the shaft in relation to the normal
Central Line usually using the machine housing is the stationary reference. Vibration
data, such as shaft displacement measurements acquired using a proximity probe or
displacement transducer should always be expressed in terms of mm, peak -to – peak

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 Velocity

Velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement, and is usually

expressed as millimeters per second. Velocity is a description of how fast a vibration
component is moving rather than how far, which is described by displacement. Used
in conjunction with zero-to-peak (PK) terms, velocity is the best representation of the
energy generated by a machine when relative or bearing cap data are used. (Note:
most vibration monitoring programs relay on data acquired from machine housing or
bearing caps).

 Acceleration

Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity and is expressed in

units of millimeters per second squared. Vibration frequencies are above 1000Hz
should always be expressed as acceleration. Acceleration is commonly expressed in
terms of the gravitational constant g which is 32.17 ft/sec2. In vibration analysis
applications, acceleration is typically expressed in terms of g-RMS or g-PK. Test
message of a force generated by a machine, a group of components, one of its
components. The primary reasons for vibration profile variations are the dynamic of
the machine, which are affected by mass, stiffness, damping and degrees of freedom.
However care must be taken because the vibration profile and energy levels generated
by a machine also may vary depending on the location and orientation of
measurement.

 Spike energy:

Spike energy is the measurement parameter designed to detect low amplitude

transient impacts generated within the ultrasonic frequency range by microscopic
surface flaws in rolling elements bearings and gears. The acceleration signal is
processed via a high pass filter and a peak detection circuit to produce a numerical
value which is the product of the number and amplitude (intensity) of the impact in a
unit of time. Other sources of ultrasonic frequencies include,

i. Cavitations
ii. High pressure steam and air flow
iii. Turbulence in liquid and air
iv. Impact excitation

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v. Rubbing

5.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VIBRATION PARAMETERS

Assuming that vibration is simple harmonic motion, then

Displacement X = A sin(ωt)

Velocity V = A 𝜔2 cos(ωt)

Acceleration a = -2𝜔2 A sin(ωt)

Where,

ω = 2πf rad/sec

f = frequency of vibration in Hz

Note:

The frequencies are the same in each case, although there is a phase shift. The
amplitude of the above parameters are ,

Displacement amplitude = A

Velocity amplitude =A ω

Acceleration amplitude= A 𝜔2

5.4 WHEN TO USE DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION:

The magnitude or amplitude of machine vibration can be expressed in units of

displacement, velocity or acceleration. In addition the vast majority of machine
failures were the result of fatigue, that vibration velocity was a direct measure of the
fatigue aspect of vibration and that most machine vibration acceptance standards
were, in fact based on vibration velocity measurements. Vibration velocity is a direct
indicator of fatigue since it takes into consideration both displacement and frequency.
It is not necessary to know the frequency of vibration to evaluate severity as
frequency is already a part of velocity.

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A measure of vibration velocity is an indicator of overall condition of a

machine. For the above reasons, vibration is to become industry standard for
evaluating machinery condition.

 Velocity readings

The energy generated by vibration is displaced inside machinery as heat and

impact between components causing internal wear and failure. The energy is
proportional to the square at the mean velocity with which some of these components
are chattering back and forth. Therefore, measuring velocity on the bearing of
operating machinery will give a measure of how much wear we may expect,
regardless of what component it is that causes the measured velocities. For
maintenance purpose, therefore this appears to be most valuable type of reading to
obtain.

Class AA – The oil film will be destroyed; therefore metal to contact and bearing
seizure or breakage of teeth can occur at any moment.

Class A – The oil film breaks if oil viscosity or temperature is not controlled.
Rapid wear is expected.

Class B – Gradual wear over a period of time is expected.

Class C – Little or no appreciable wear is expected.

Class D – Normal trouble free installation component, should last for several
years.

 Displacement reading

An unbalance in rotating machinery is one of the most common source of

vibration. Since the amplitude of vibration is proportional to the amount of unbalance,
measuring of this quality will aid chiefly in balancing when its timing is checked
simultaneously with a stroboscope. A mean velocity readings are frequently not
proportional to the unbalance anyway and they can be influenced by other
components in the machine. Velocity can also be affected by the harmonic response
of the material of construction. For balancing, therefore, amplitude readings are
essential.

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 Acceleration readings

The dynamic force produced by machinery vibration is proportional to the mean

acceleration of vibration. This force can be very high if not controlled can cause
support or structural failures and other major catastrophic. Acceleration measurement
is essential to equipment designers and for these specialists who troubleshoot
environmental problems in the field to solve design errors or omissions. Acceleration
readings can vary greatly with the environmental conditions, and the highest values
measured are usually associated with higher frequency harmonics. As measure at
expected wear, the velocity can be calculated from acceleration frequency reading
assuming that corresponding frequency is known.

 Frequency reading

For complete vibration analysis, the source of vibration in rotating equipment’s

must be known. These sources are associated with shaft speeds and other component
speeds. Therefore, frequencies must be measured. It can happen that different
machine pulsates with one another and produce a new so called beat vibration.
Support structures may oscillate at their natural frequencies sometimes caused by the
primary exciting forces and sometimes by beat vibrations. Tensional vibration or oil
whirls may occur inside machines, etc.

5.5 USEFULNESS OF VARIOUS VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS

Most of today’s maintenance records of machine vibration are displacement

values rather than velocity. However, as an aid to maintenance, simple measurement
of overall vibration velocity at bearing housing will tell quickly how smoothly a
machine is running, regardless of its operating speed, type of construction, type of
bearing or its environmental conditions. For quick field measurements and continuous
vibration monitoring, the overall velocity measurement is rapidly proving to be a most
valuable tool in assessing machinery condition.

In summary the above readings are important in the following ways:

Velocity – when one is concerned with wear and internal machine failure, velocity
measurement is important.

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Displacement – amplitude when one is concerned with studying unbalance and

deflection, measure amplitude.

Acceleration – when one is concerned with designing for adequate strength,

acceleration is important.

Frequency – when one is concerned with analyzing the source of vibration and the
study of environmental problems, measure the vibration frequency.

5.6 VIBRATION SEVERITY

Vibration severity indicates the maximum possible vibration which a machine

can withstand. Here the vibration amplitude is the measure of the severity of the
trouble in the machine. The severity check in the vibration analysis aim to get a fair
warning of impending trouble, not to determine how much vibration can withstand
before it fails.

There is no realistic figure as for selecting a vibrating limit which if exceed,

results in immediate machine failure, or we must have some general indication of
machine condition that can be evaluated on basis of vibration amplitude. This can be
possible by use of severity charts developed by experience of many years.

5.7 VIBRATION SEVERITY CHARTS

Vibration severity chart is a general guide to machine condition. On this chart, the
horizontal axis is scaled as terms of vibration frequency and the vertical axis in terms
of displacement. The area between the diagonal lines represents the levels of vibration
severity, from extremely smooth to very rough.

The chart clearly shows that the severity of the machine’s vibration depends
on both amount of displacement and the frequency of vibration. As the frequency of
vibration increases, the amount of displacement decreases for a given condition. We
can refer to the diagonal lines, those representing velocity to determine the condition
solely on basis of vibration velocity.

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 GENERAL MACHINARY VIBRATION SEVERITY CHART

For use as a guide in judging vibration as a warning of impending trouble

Fig 4.1: This chart can be used to cross-reference displacement with frequency to determine
vibration severity.

5.8 MAXIMUM LIMITS OF VIBRATION

There are number of ways to assess the severity of machine vibration. One
simple means of arriving at vibration tolerance is by comparing the vibration level
from a number of similar machines. Having established a normal level then tolerance
is set 2 or 3 times that of figure.

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Machine manufactures generally provide guidance in setting vibration

tolerances for their machinery. Suppliers of vibration analysis equipment and service
also provide guidance in this area. They provide the information as part of
documentation supplied with their system or include it in transferring that they offer
to their users. There are also international standards, commonly used are ISO 2372 &
ISO 10816.

5.9 VIBRATION MONITORING PROGRAM:

There are several steps to follow as guidelines to help achieve a successful vibration
monitoring program. The following is general list of these steps:

 Collect Useful Information – Look, listen and feel the machinery to check
for resonance, identify what measurements are needed (point and point type).
Conduct additional testing if further data is required.
 Analyze Spectrum Data – Evaluate the overall values and specific
frequencies corresponding to machinery anomalies. Compare overall values in
different directions and current measurement with historical data.
 Multi-Parameter Monitoring – Use additional techniques to conclude the
fault type. (Analysis tool such as phase measurements, current analysis,
acceleration enveloping, oil analysis and thermograph can be used.)
 Perform Root Cause Analysis (RCA) – In order to identify the real cause of
the problem and to prevent it from occurring again.
 Reporting and Planning Actions – Use a Computer Maintenance
Management System (CMMS) to rectify problems and take action to achieve
plan.

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CHAPTER 6

VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

Vibration can be desired by product of machine performance or it can be of

manufacturing equipment is an important step in meeting OHSA mandates,
maintaining product quality and enhancing productivity. Vibration measurement is
also an essential part of assuring compliance with industry, state and national
standards. Most companies employ vibration measuring systems that both monitor
and analyze vibration and noise.

6.1 STANDARD VIBRATION MEASUREMENT METHODS :

 Overall vibration/trending

 Phase

 Enveloping or demodulation

 High frequency detection (HFD)

6.2 OVERALL VIBRATION/ TRENDING :

It shows the overall value at which the machine is vibrating. Overall vibration
is total vibration energy measured within a specified frequency range.

Fig 5.1 components of vibration

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Two major components of the vibration system are

 Frequency range
 Scale factors (peak, peak to peak, average RMS)

Peak = 1.0

RMS = .707 × peak

Average = .0637 × peak

Peak to peak = 2 × peak

Vibration is measured in three directions:

1. Horizontal

It shows most vibration, as the machine is more flexrble in the horizontal plane.
(Imbalance radial vibration: Part vertical & horizontal Excessive horizontal Vibration:
a good indicator of imbalance.)

2. Vertical

It shows low vibration when compared to the horizontal directly in general as the
stiffness is caused mounting and gravity.

3. Axial

Under ideal conditions there should be very little Vibration as most forces are
generated perpendicular to the shaft. However issues with misalignment and bent
shafts do create vibration in the axial plane.

6.3 VIBRATION MEASURING DEVICES

6.3.1 VIBRATION TRANSDUCERS

 The Stroboscope Method :

The fixed pointer or stud, shown in Figure 2, is attached to the vibrating surface
and is used to give an indication of the displacement only. By using the light of a
stroboscope to “freeze” or “slowly move” the stud, quite high frequency small

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amplitude Vibrations may be measured. The typical upper range of frequency is

quoted at 500 Hz for direct measurement.

Figure 5.2 : The Stroboscope

 The Reed Vibrometer :

The variable length reed vibrometer shown in Figure 3 is used to measure the
main frequency component of the vibration. In practice the length l is adjusted until
the maximum reed vibration occurs, when its resonant frequency is the same as the
frequency of the vibrating mechanism or structure. The length l is calibrated directly
in Hz A small mass may be added to the cantilever if the vibrometer is to be used for
very low frequency investigation, but the scale readings would then need to be
corrected for the additional mass. The range of measurement is quoted as 5 Hz to l0
kHz.

Figure 5.3: The Reed Vibrometer

 The Seismic-Mass Transducer :

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In instrumentation, seismic pickups are used to measure the motion of the

surfaces to which they are fixed. They are sensitive to motion along one axis only, so
if the motion is three dimensional, three seismic pickups are needed to determine the
components of the motion along three mutually perpendicular axes. The principal
features of a seismic pickup are shown diagrammatically in Figure4. The essential
component is the seismic mass. This is a body of metal, suspended from a resilient
support. This is a support whose deflection is proportional to the force applied to it.
The inertia of the seismic mass causes it to lag behind the motion of the casing when
the casing is accelerated, causing a deflection in the support. This deflection forms the
input to a transducer, which produces a proportional output signal. In Figure 4 the
transducer is represented by a potentiometer, but any suitable type of transducer may
be used.

The damping shown in Figure 4 may consist only of the hysteresis of the
support material, or it may be increased by filling the casing with a silicone fluid of
suitable viscosity. By choosing suitable values for the mass, the stiffness of the
support and the damping, and by using an appropriate transducer, the same basic
arrangement of seismic pickup can be designed as a displacement pickup, a velocity
pickup or an acceleration pickup (accelerometer).The seismic pickup is essentially a
damped spring-mass system.

Figure 5.4: Seismic Mass Transducer

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 DISPLACEMENT PICKUPS :

This type of pickup is used to measure the displacement of a Vibrating body

when there is no fixed reference point available. We want the seismic mass to behave
(as far as possible) as though it was fixed in space. This can be arranged by using a
relatively large seismic mass and a relatively 'floppy' resilient support. Critical
damping is the value of damping which, if the mass is displaced from its equilibrium
position and released, allows it to return in the shortest possible time without
overshooting. If the actual damping is greater than critical the mass returns more
slowly, again without overshooting. If the actual damping is less than critical the mass
returns more quickly, but overshoots and oscillates about the equilibrium position
with a decaying oscillation.

 VELOCITY PICKUPS :

A signal proportional to velocity may be obtained from a Vibration by:

1. Differentiating the signal from a displacement pickup by passing it through a

differentiating circuit

2. Integrating the signal from an accelerometer by passing it through an integrating

circuit

3. Using a seismic velocity pickup. This is similar in principle to Figure 4 but with a
velocity transducer in place of the displacement transducer.

The transducer is usually a coil of wire carried by the seismic mass. The coil is
suspended in a radial magnetic field so that a voltage proportional to velocity is
generated in the coil when it is vibrated axially.

 SIESMIC VELOCITY PICKUP (MOVING COIL TYPE) :

The system consists of a coil of fine wire supported by soft springs. A permanent
magnet, firmly attached to the case of the transducer, provides a string magnet field
around the coil, whenever this transducer is fixed or held tightly against a vibrating
object. The permanent magnet vibrates, while the spring suspended coil of the wire
remains stationary in space which a coil wire cuts magnetic lines of force, a voltage is
generated in that wire. The voltage is proportional to the velocity of the motion, the

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strength of the magnetic field and the number of turns of the wire in the end. The
voltage generated is transmitted by a cable to a Vibration meter monitor or analyzer.

 SIESMIC PIEZO ELECTRIC (VELOCITYPICKUP)

Stress due to vibration forces applied to the pickup causes a crystal or special
ceramic material to produce an electric charge from the piezo-electric is so small that
must be amplified before it be measured.

 ACCELERATION PICKUPS (ACCELEROMETERS)

A piezoelectric crystal is usually employed as the connection between the seismic

mass and the casing, because it has a very high modulus of elasticity and so a very
high spring stiffness. However it has the disadvantage that very low frequencies of
vibration give time for the charge on the crystal to start to leak away, so there is a low
frequency limit (usually about 5 Hz) below which the output of a piezoelectric
accelerometer is unreliable. For even lower frequencies, and for the measurement of
slowly varying or steady accelerations, some other form of spring and transducer must
be used.

 ACCELEROMETERS:

An accelerometer is a self-generating device with a voltage or charge-output

proportional to the vibration acceleration defined as the acceleration produced by the
force of gravity at the surface of earth. The value of g internationally agreed is
980.665 cm/s 2 .

 SIESMIC (PIEZO-ELECTRIC WITH BUILT IN AMPLIFIER)

When the pickup is fixed to held against a piece of Vibrating machinery, the
mechanical vibrations are passed through the frame to a piezo-electric material has the
ability to generate as electric voltage or charge in response to a mechanical force
applied to it. By using accelerometers, we can measure acceleration velocity and
displacement.

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 NON CONTACT (PROXM ITY) TRASDUCERS

In the case of high speed machines which consist of relatively light weight
rotors, mounted to the massive cases and rigid bearings. Because of the weight and
stiffness of massive machine case and bearings, the externally mounted Vibrations
and acceleration pickup often show little outward evidence of rotor of shaft vibration.
In such instance, it is necessary to measure the actual shaft vibration in order to know
when the seal and bearing clearances are in danger. The non-contact transducer can be
used in such cases.

6.4 INSTRUMENTS USED :

Now a day’s many companies have introduced different types of vibration

measuring instruments. Most of these recent ones are precise more accurate and
software controlled. The instruments we used were vibration meter 810 Is of IRD
misanalysis, UK.

 ADASH-VA4 PRO 4 CHANNEL VIBRATION ANALYZER:

The Adash-VA4 Pro is a unique instrument for machinery vibration diagnostics

that has modules for analyzing, collecting data, and recording vibration signals. The
latest version now has a module for acoustic measurement. The Adash VA4 Pro is
enhanced for measurements of run up and cost down, dynamic balancing, checking
and control of lubrication, and listening to vibration signals by using the stethoscope
feature. This instrument can automatically detect machinery defects. It is ideal for
engineers and technicians that deal with machinery, and dynamic balancing of
rotating machinery.

The VA4 Pro includes modules for analyzing, data collecting and the recording of
vibration signals. The instrument is enhanced by modules for
• dynamic balancing,
• measurement of run up and coast down,
• acoustic measurement mode
• monitoring and control of lubrication process
• listening to vibration signals by the stethoscope feature

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The instrument is equipped with an expert system developed by Adash, that

automatically detects machinery faults.
The VA4 Pro is designed for engineers, technicians and researchers dealing with
machinery and structural diagnostics as well as dynamic balancing of rotating
machinery.
The A4400 – VA4 Pro includes:
• Analyzer
• Data collector – route measurements
• Run up / coast down measurements
• Balancer
• Signal recorder
• Stethoscope
• FASIT – expert system
• Octave analysis
• Bump test

Fig 5.5 Adash-VA4 Pro vibration analyzer

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CHAPTER 7

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE

7.1 DATA ACQUISTION

It is important for productive maintenance programs using vibration analysis

to have a accurate, repeatable data. In addition to the type and quality of the
transducer, freaky parameters affect the data quality. The point of measurement,
orientation and transducer counting techniques. For example, considering a
centrifugal pump, the vibrations are measured usually at four points in a pump and its
drive (in case of motor drive)

Fig 6.1 Data aquistion

PNDE: pump non drive end

PDE : pump drive end

MADE: pump drive end

MNDE: motor non drive end

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If there is coupling reading is taken there too. A teacher. Reading is taken in

three mutually perpendicular directions, namely horizontal, vertical and axial.
Specifically, three basic types of vibration transducers can be used for monitoring the
mechanical condition of plant machinery, displacement probes, velocity transducers
hand accelerometers. it has limitations and specific applications for which its use is
appropriate . the transducers used to were already discussed in chapter

7.2 VIBRATION DATA TYPES AND FORMATS

There are several options regarding the type of vibration data that can be
gathered for machines and assistance and the format in which it can be collected
.However, selection of type and format depends on the specific application . that to
measure datatype classifications or time domain and frequency domain .

 DATA TYPES

Vibration profiles can be acquired and displayed in one of two data types,
which is time domain and frequency domain

 Time domain data

The most of the early vibration analysis was carried out using analog
equipments, which necessitated the use of time domain data. The reason for this
is that it was difficult to convert time domain data to frequency domain data.
Frequency domain capability first not available until microprocessor based
analyzer Incorporated a straight forward method (that is fast fourier transform)for
transforming the time domain spectrum into its frequency components. Actual
time domain vibration signatures are commonly referred to as time traces or time
plots. Theoretical vibration data are generally referred to as waveforms. Time
domain data presented with amplitude as the vertical axis and elapsed Time as the
horizontal axis. Time domain profiles are some of all vibration components (i.e,
frequencies, impacts, and other transients) that are present in the machine train
and it's installed system. Time crisis include all frequency components, but the
individual components are more difficult to isolate that with the frequency
domain data.

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 Frequency domain data

Master writing machine fearless result at or near A frequency component

isolated with the running speed. Therefore, the ability to display and analyze the
vibration spectrum as components of frequency is extremely important. The
frequency domain format eliminates and manual effort required to isolate the
components that make up a time traces. Frequency domain techniques convert
time domain data into discrete frequency components using a fast fourier
transform (FFT).Simply stated, FFT mathematically convert time based trace into
series of discrete frequency components. In a frequency Domain plot the x-axis is
frequency and the y-axis is the amplitude of displacement, velocity or
acceleration. The real advantage of frequency domain analysis is the ability to
normalize each vibration components so that a complex machine train spectrum
can be divided into discrete components. This ability simplifies isolation and
analysis of mechanical degradation within the machine train. In addition, note that
frequency domain analysis can be used to determine the face relationship for
harmonic vibration components in a typical machine train spectrum. The
frequency domain normalizes any or all running speeds, whereas Time domain
analysis is limited to true running speed.

Fig 6.2: Comparison of frequency and time domain

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7.3 VIBRATION PROFILE AND SIGNATURE:

Vibration can be displaced Graphically as plots, which are referred to as

vibration Profiles or signatures. These plots are based on measurable parameter that is
frequency and amplitude. Note that that profile and signature are sometimes used
interchangeably by Industry. However, profile is used to refer either to time domain
(Also maybe called time trace or waveform) or frequency domain plots. The term
signature refers to a frequency domain plot.

7.4 VIBRATION FREQUENCY ANALYZERS:

Whenever a machine exhibits excessive vibration of significant increase in

vibration has been dictated through periodic checks, the next step is to perform a
complete analysis of the vibration to determine the cause. All the vibration analyzers
currently available can be categorized as either

1. Analog or "swept-filter" frequency analyzers

2. Digital or "FFT" frequency analyzers

1. Analog (swept-filter) frequency analyzers:

Analog swept-filter frequency was the very earliest instruments available for
performing Vibration analysis. A swept filter analyzers, the instrument includes a
filter tire that can be manually tuned like a radio over a wide range of vibrational
frequencies to identify the amplitude and frequency of machinery vibration. Selector
switches are provided for selecting the desired Parameter of vibration amplitude
(displacement, velocity acceleration or spike energy) full scale amplitude range and
filter "bandwidth" characteristics, meters are included to display the amplitude and
frequency information. A stroboscope (strobe) light is also included for phase 4
analysis, dynamic balancing, frequency conformation and slow motion studies. This
particular instrument also incorporates a built-in printer for generating hard copy data.
Analog or swept-filter vibration analyzers are generally considered out of date by
today's technological standards. However, a few analog instruments are still being
manufactured even today.

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2. Digital(FFT)frequency analyzers

Many missionary vibration problems have gone undetected or were diagnosed

incorrectly simply because the vibration technician didn't understand the basics of the
FFT process.

o FFT

The term FFT Stands for Fast fourier transform Nearly 200 Years ago, French
mathematician, Baron Jean Joseph Fourier established that any periodic function
(Which includes machinery vibration signals) can be represented mathematically as
series of sine’s and cosine's. In other words, It is possible to take vibration time
waveform, whether simple or complex, and mathematically calculate the vibration
frequencies present along with their amplitudes. The process is called a "Fourier
Transform" . Although a Fourier transform can be done manually, the process is
extremely time consuming. However, with the introduction of digital technology, be
process can be carried out very fast. Hence the term FFT digital vibration analyzers
and data collectors actually include a computer chip programmed to perform the FFT
function.

7.5 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS:

It consists of four main steps :

I. Detection
II. Analysis
III. Correction
IV. Verification

I. Detection:

It involves measuring vibration levels of market locations on each machine

included in the program on a regularly scheduled basis. Typically machines are
checked on monthly basis, critical machines more frequently with online monitoring.
Regular vibration readings taken with this manual monitoring can be logged on to a
data sheet. This feat includes drawing of a machine to help the vibration technician
identify measurement locations and potions. For programs that include only small

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number of machines, a manually operated system is adequate. However for programs

that include hundreds of machines, a computerized data collection system is generally
needed not only to minimize time but also to minimize data evaluation as well. Most
systems not only provide data for trending overall levels of machinery vibration but
detailed analysis data need to identify specific machinery fault.

II. Analysis:

Analysis points to the source of vibration. The most common day-to-day problems
encountered are:

Unbalance, bent shaft, misalignment, looseness, eccentricity problems, resonance,

defective rolling element bearings, sleeve or plain bearing problems,
aerodynamic/hydraulic problems, electric (induction) motor problem, gear problem,
belt problem, oil whirl, coupling defects. All the above source of vibration are briefly
described in the next chapter.

III. Correction:

Once problems have been dictated and Identified correction can be scheduled for a
convenient time. Of course in the mean time any special requirements for repair
personnel, replacement parts and tools can be arranged in advance to ensure that
machine downtime is kept to absolute value. if vibration problems are diagnosed as
unbalance, in many cases the same instrument used to detect and analyze the problem
can be used to perform impulse balancing.

IV. Verification:

After correction, new readings are obtained to ensure that all defects are
eliminated and new baseline characteristics are established.

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CHAPTER 8

DATA INTERPRETATIONS

8.1 CAUSES OF VIBRATION:

1. Unbalance
2. Bent shafts
3. Misalignment
4. Looseness
5. Eccentricity problems
6. Resonance
7. Sleeve or plain bearing problems
8. Defective rolling element bearings
9. Aerodynamics/Hydraulic problems
10. Electric (induction) motor problems
11. Gear problem
12. Belt drive problems
13. Oil whirl

1. Unbalance:

The term balance means that all forces generated by, or acting on, the
rotating element of a machine-train are in a state of equilibrium. Any change in this
state of equilibrium creates an imbalance. In the global sense, imbalance is one of the
most common abnormal vibration profiles exhibited by all process machinery.

 Single-Plane Mechanical Imbalance

Single-plane mechanical imbalance excites the fundamental (1x) frequency

component, which is typically the dominant amplitude in a signature. Because there is
only one point of imbalance, only one high spot occurs as the rotor completes each
revolution. The vibration signature also may contain lower level frequencies
reflecting bearing defects and passing frequencies

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 Multi-plane Mechanical Imbalance

Multi-plane mechanical imbalance generates multiple harmonics of running

speed. The actual number of harmonics depends on the number of imbalance points,
the severity of imbalance, and the phase angle between imbalance points.

 Lift/Gravity Differential Imbalance

Lift, which is designed in to a machine – train’s rotating elements to

compensate for the effects of gravity acting on the rotor, is another source of
imbalance. Because lift does not always equal gravity, there is always some
imbalance in machine trains. The vibration component due to the lift/gravity
differential effect appears at the fundamental or 1x frequency. The exciting force in
unbalance is created when the centre of mass of the rotating body is offset from the
centre of rotation. Causes of unbalance can be i) material build up ii) wear iii) broken
or missing parts and iv) improper assembly. Unbalance has some unique
characteristics like high radial peaks at IX R.P.M, low axial vibration at IX R.P.M,
low harmonics of shaft frequency and also unbalance can be a cause for other defects
like looseness.
2. Bent Shaft:

Bent shafts are a common problem encountered in machinery and are

often a result of manufacturing errors or mishandling and damage during
transportation or machine installation. A rotor many bow as result of thermal
distortion at elevated temperatures. Bend shafts will usually generate a predominant
vibration at IX R.P.M. Radial vibration caused by bent shafts will be fairly uniform.
A thumb rule of vibration is that,
Axial Vibration >=.5 times maximum of radial vibration.

Bent shaft problem can normally be verified using phase analysis of axial vibration.

Bent shafts are of two types:

i) A simple bow

ii) A kink but only at one bearing.

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Identifying a kink close to a bearing:- The bearing will tend to vibrate axially in a
twisting motion. This twisting motion can be easily recognized by taking
comparative axial phase measurements at multiple axial positions. Four axial phase
readings at each bearing are recommended. The four readings are uniform.

Identifying a simple shaft bow:- the supporting bearings vibrate axially in a planner
fashion. Simple bow, the supporting bearings of rotor will reveal a substantial 180°
out of phase condition.
3. Misalignment:

Fig 8.1 Misalignment

Misalignment means deviation from common centre line during operation.

Misalignment is of three types.
i) Offset
ii) Angular
iii) combination of both.
Although machines may be well aligned initially, several factors can affect alignment
including:

i) Operating temperature:

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Machines aligned when cold may “grow” out of alignment due to vibrations in
thermal conditions.
ii) Settings of the base or foundation.
iii) Deterioration or shrinkage of grouting.

Characteristics of misalignment are

i) High axial levels.

ii) High axial at 1, 2, and 3X shaft RPM.
iii) High radial at 1,2 and 3X shaft RPM.
iv) Repeatable periodic wave form with one or two clear peaks per
revolution.
v) Phase readings show a 180° shift across the coupling.

Offset misalignment may not always show high amplitudes of axial vibration. The
problem of misalignment is easy to recognize since vibration is shared between driver
and driven units. Secondly radial vibration is highly directional. Offset misalignment
occurs normally at twice the R.P.M. If a bearing is truly misaligned, rapid wear of
the bearing will most likely occur, even though the amplitude of vibration might be
improved by balancing.

Fig 8.2 Types of misalignment

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4. Looseness

Fig 8.2 : Looseness

Looseness is not an exciting force. Looseness is simply a loss or reduction

in the normal stiffness of the machine or systems, perhaps due to loose mounting bolts
cracks in the base or foundation, deterioration in grouting, cracked welds, loose legs
or anchors or rotors loose on the shaft.
Two general types of looseness are:

i) Looseness associated with rotating system, including rotors loose on the

shafts, bearings loose on the shaft or in the machine housing excessive sleeve bearing
clearance.
ii) Looseness of the support system of a machine such as loose mounting bolts,
grout deterioration or cracks in the structure.

Rotor looses on shaft will usually result in rattling condition or a series of

impacts between various machine components such as rotor rattling on shaft.
Structural looseness conditions are fairly easy to verify and identify by using simple
probing studies. Unlike looseness associated with rotating system looseness of
machine support system may not reveal multiple, harmonically related vibration
frequencies. Because of looseness, radial vibration will typically be highly directional
and show unusually high vertical amplitude. Normally for rigidly mounted machines,
vertical amplitude that is equal or greater than the horizontal amplitude is a good

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indication of structural looseness. Most looseness conditions can be pin-pointed by

simply noting any significant amplitude difference.

5. Eccentricity

No motor or shaft is perfectly round. Some eccentricity is out of roundness will

be present nearly every rotating assembly. In certain situations eccentricity can result
in reaction forces that cannot be compensated by balancing a rotor. Eccentricity is a
common cause of unbalance and, for common machines such as fans, blowers,
pumps, etc. and normal balancing procedures can be carried out to minimize the
effects of eccentricity. The most common examples are eccentric belt pulleys an
chain sprockets, eccentric gears and eccentric motor armatures.

6. Resonance:

A problem of excessive vibration can result if a machine component has natural

frequency that just happens to be the same as or close to some exciting force
frequency inherent to the machine. When this problem happens it is called
“Resonance”, from a vibration standpoint, resonance act as a mechanical amplifier.
Resonance is a very common cause of excessive vibration on machines because:
i) Machines consist of many individual elements or components such as
suction and discharge, piping, bearing pedestals, base and accessory
items such as exciters and tube oil pumps, etc. Of course each
component has its own mass and stiffness characteristics and hence its
own unique natural frequency.
ii) The stiffness of each component is different in different directions. As
a result each machine component will likely have several natural
frequencies.
7. Bearing failure:

Bearing engineers generally use fatigue as the normal failure mode, on the
assumption that the bearings are properly installed, operated and maintained. Many
bearings fail prematurely in service because of contamination, poor lubrication,
misalignment, temperature extremes, poor fitting, unbalance and misalignment. All
these factors lead to an increase in bearing vibration and so condition monitoring has

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been used for many years to detect degrading bearing before they catastrophically fail,
resulting in associated downtime costs or significant damage to other parts of the
machine.
Bearing vibration is important from both an environmental consideration and
because it is synonymous with quality. In most situations, bearing vibration cannot be
measured directly and so the bearing vibration signature is modified by the machine
structure. This situation is further complicated by vibration from other equipment on
the machine such as electric motors, gears, belts, hydraulics, structural resonance, and
so on. This often makes the interpretation of vibration data difficult other than by a
trained specialist and can in some situations lead to a miss-diagnosis, resulting in
unnecessary machine downtime and costs.
 Sources:

Rolling contact bearings represent a complex vibration system whose

components (i.e. Rolling elements, inner raceway, outer raceway and cage) interact to
generate complex vibration signatures. Although rolling bearings are manufactured
using high precision machine tools and strict quality controls, they inevitably will
have degrees of imperfection and generate vibration as the surfaces interact, through a
combination of rolling and sliding. Although the amplitudes of surface imperfections
are now in the order of nanometers, significant vibrations can still be produced in the
entire audible frequency range (20Hz-20 KHz). The level of the vibration is
measured and the construction of bearing.

 Variable Compliance:

Under radial and misaligning loads, bearing vibration is an inherent feature

of rolling bearings, even if the bearing is geometrically perfect and is not therefore
indicative of poor quality. This type of vibration is often referred to as ‘variable
compliance’ and occurs because the external load is supported by a discrete number
of rolling elements whose position with respect to the line of action of the load
continually changes with time. Variable compliance vibration is heavily dependent on
the number of rolling elements supporting the externally applied load; the greater the
number of loaded rolling elements, the less the vibration. For radially loaded or
misaligned bearing ‘running clearance’ determines the extent of the load regions, and
hence, in general, variable compliance increases with clearance.

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 Geometrical Imperfections:

For axially loaded ball bearings operating under moderate speeds, the form
and surface finish of the critical rolling surface are generally the largest source of
noise and vibration.
Controlling component ‘waviness’ and surface finish during the manufacturing
process is therefore critical, since it may not only have a significant effect on
vibration but also may affect bearing life.

 Surface Roughness:

Surface roughness is a significant source of vibration when its level is high

compared with the lubricant film thickness generated between the rolling element-
raceway contacts. Surface asperities can break through the lubricant film and interact
with the opposing surface, resulting in metal-to-metal contact. The resulting vibration
consists of a random sequence of small impulse, which excite all the natural modes of
the bearing and supporting structure.

 Discrete Defects:
Whereas surface roughness and waviness result directly from the bearing
component Manufacturing processes, discrete defects refer to damage of the rolling
surface due to assembly, contamination, operation, mounting, poor maintenance, etc.
These defects can be extremely small and difficult to detect and yet can have a
significant impact on vibration-critical equipment or can result in reduced bearing life.
This type of defect can take a variety of forms: indentions; scratches along and across
the rolling surfaces; pots; debris; and particles in the lubricant.

 Bearing characteristic frequencies

Although the fundamental frequencies generated by rolling bearings are

related to relatively simple formulae, they cover a wide frequency range and can
interact to give very structural or electromechanical vibration on the equipment. The
bearing equations assume that there is no sliding and that the rolling elements roll on
the raceway surfaces.

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 Raceway Defect:
A discrete defect on their inner raceway will generate a series of high energy
pulses at a rate equal to the ball pass frequency relative to the inner raceway. Because
the inner ring is rotating, the defect will enter the load zone causing a variation in the
rolling element-raceway contact force, hence deflections. While in the load zone the
amplitude of the pulses will be highest but then reduce as the defect leaves load zone
resulting in a signal, which is amplitude-modulated at inner ring rotational frequency.
A discrete fault on the outer raceway will generate a series of high energy pulses at a
rate equal to the ball pass frequency relative to the outer ring. Because the outer ring
is stationary the amplitude of the pulse will remain theoretically the same hence will
appear as a single discrete peak within the frequency domain.

8. Rolling Element Defect:

Defects on the rolling elements can generate a frequency at twice ball spin
frequency and harmonics and the fundamental train frequency. Twice the rolling
element spin frequency can be generated when the defect strikes both raceways, but
sometimes the frequency may not be this high because the ball is not always in the
load zone when the defects strikes and energy is lost as the signal passes through
other structural interfaces as it strikes the inner raceway. Also, when a defect on a ball
is oriented in the axial direction it will not always contact the inner and outer raceway
and therefore may be difficult to detect.

 Cage Defect:
The bearing cage tends to rotate at typically 0.4 times inner ring speed, has a
low mass and therefore, unless there is a defect from the manufacturing process, is
generally not visible.
Unlike raceway defects, cage failures do not usually excite specific ringing
frequencies and this limits the effectiveness of the envelope spectrum. In the case of
cage failure, the signature is likely to have random bursts of vibration as the balls
slide and the cage starts to wear or deform and a wide band of frequencies is likely to
occur.

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9. Vibration due to aerodynamic/hydraulic problems:

Vibration problems caused by aerodynamic and hydraulic forces in fans, blowers,
and pump
Are easy to recognize because the resultant vibration will occur at frequency which is
product of a fan blades or impeller vanes times RPM. It is impossible to build up a
machine where no hydraulic or aerodynamic forces are present whenever excessive or
a significant increase has been detected in the vibration amplitude at the blade or vane
passing frequency, the following possibilities should be considered.
o Resonance
o Manufacturing errors, piping and duct configuration, design capacity.

 Rubbing:
Seal rub: Seal rub can be due to eccentricity in mounting of seals and due to improper
adjustments and wear. Phase of vibration will be unsteady and erratic.
Rotor Rub: This includes all types of rubbing of a rotating part with casing of stator.
If the rubbing is in radial direction, high vibration shall be produced in radial
direction.

10. Vibration due to induction motor problems

Induction motors can have significant vibration due to electrical problems. The
causes are actually mechanical in nature and result in unbalance magnetic forces
between the motor armature and field or stator. Asynchronous A.C motor running
speed is given by R.P.M=120*f/p where p is the no: of poles and f is the line
frequency. If no: of poles is 2, it will have a synchronous speed of 3000rpm. All
electrical machines vibrate at w times the line frequency. The reason for this is
expanding and collapsing magnetic fields. The faults than can be detected using
vibration analysis include Rotor thermal bow, Air gap eccentricity, Loose rotor,
Eccentric rotor.
Often high levels at 2X & 3X rotor bar pass frequency and only low level at IX rotor
bar pass frequency.
11. Vibration due to gear problems:
The identification of possible gear problems is fairly early since the most common
vibration frequencies will be equal to or harmonics of the “gear meshing” frequency
which is the product of gear times the RPM. In many cases gear problems will cause a

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more significant increase at a multiple or harmonic of fundamental gear meshing

frequency such as 2x or 3x the fundamental gear frequency. The common problems
are:
 Tooth wear
 Gear eccentricity and backlash
 Gear misalignment
 Cracked or broken tooth
Spur gear produce vibration in radial direction and helical gear produce in radial and
axial directions. Sideband spacing reveals the defective gear or pinion. All analysis
should be done at maximum load.
A. Tooth wear:
In tooth wear GMF may not change but there are high amplitudes of side bands
and presence of natural frequency of gear (fn)
B. Gear eccentricity and backlash :
It excites GMF, fn & their side bands with high amplitude of side bands. Sideband
spacing
reveals the defective gear or pinion.
C. Gear misalignment:
It excites harmonics of GMF with side bands and amplitude 2GMF or 3GMF are
higher than 1GMF.
D. Cracked tooth:
There is high amplitudes of 1XRPM of gear or pinion. It excites gear natural
frequency and time waveform indicates spikes at 1/RPM of broken or cracked tooth.
Amplitudes of impact spikes in time waveform will be higher than that of 1xRPM in
FFT.
E. Vibration due to drive belt problems:
Vibration caused by some common problems with belt drive systems such as
eccentricity and misalignment of pulleys.

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12. Vibration due to oil whirl:

Oil whirl is a condition peculiar to journal bearing. It manifests itself as a
vibration of less than one-half of rotational speed. It is caused by a lightly loaded
bearing riding up on its high pressure wedge and going “up over the top and around”.
The journal is actually revolving inside its bearing in the opposite direction of rotation
at about 45 percent of the rotating speed, comes from the average fluid velocity with
some slippage.When oil whirl become severe, there is a potential for the shaft to rub
inside the journal. This cause friction and subsequent localized heating. A rub is a
symptom and can caused by other factors, most notably by heavy imbalance or severe
misalignment. The rub is a metal to metal contact and as such, shows best in the time
domain. In frequency domain it is no clear. The most notable effect of rubbing is a
localized temperature rise followed by metal particles in the oil. Both of these should
be used as a supporting evidence to confirm a suspected rub. The analysis of rubbing
based on vibration spectral data is not defined well enough to analyze this condition
with confidence. The best indicator, in terms of vibrations, is an increase in the
overall vibration level followed by observing the time domain view for evidence of
metal to metal contact.
8.2 VIBRATION IDENTIFICATION CHART
Table 7.1: Vibration identification chart
CAUSE AMPLITUDE FREQUENCY PHASE REMARKS
1. Unbalance Proportional to 1 x RPM Single Most common
unbalance reference cause of
largest in radial mark stable vibration
direction repeatable
2. misalignment Large in axial 1 x RPM usual Single, Best found in
couplings or direction, 50% 2 & 3xRPM double or appearance of
bearing & bent more of radial sometimes triple large axial
shaft direction direction. Use
dial indicators
or other
methods for
positive
diagnosis

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3. bad bearing s Unsteady use Very high, Erratic Bearing

anti-friction type velocity, several times multiple responsible
acceleration & RPM marks most likely the
spike energy one nearest
measurement point of largest
high frequency
vibration
4.eccentric Usually not 1 x RPM Single mark If on gears the
journals large largest
vibration in
line with the
greater centres
5. Bad gears or Low-use Very high gear Erratic Velocity,
gear noise velocity, teeth times multiple acceleration
acceleration & RPM marks &spike energy
spike energy measurements
measurements. recommended
6. Mechanical Sometimes 2 x RPM Two Usually
looseness erratic reference accompanied
marks, by unbalance
slightly and/or
erratic misalignment
7.bad drive belt Erratic or 1, 2, 3 & 4 x 1 or 2 Strobe light
pulsing RPM of belts depending best tool to
on freeze the
frequency, faulty belt
usually
unsteady

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8.Electrical Disappears 1 x RPM or 1 Single or If vibration

when power is or 2 x rotating amplitude
turned off synchronous double mark drops of
frequency instantly when
power is
turned off
cause is
electrical
9. Aerodynamic Can be large in 1 x RPM or Multiple Rare as a cause
or hydraulic in axial number of mark of trouble
axial forces blades of fans except in case
or impellor x of resonance
RPM
10.Reciprocating Higher in line 1, 2 &higher Multiple Inherent in
forces with motion multiple orders mark reciprocating
x RPM machines, can
reduced only
by design
changes or
isolation

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CHAPTER 9

PHOSPHORIC ACID PLANT COCHIN DIVISION

Phosphoric Acid Plant is designed to produce 360 MT of 𝑃2 𝑂5 per day, as

weak acid having strength up to 30% 𝑃2 𝑂5 of gravity 1.30 through Di-hydrate
process. The plant is designed by FEDO in collaboration with M/s Societe de Prayon
of Belgium employs the Prayon convertible process. A Concentration section also is
provided to concentrate the weak acid produced to strong acid having a strength upto
45 % 𝑃2 𝑂5 . However, according to the present production pattern, concentrated acid
is not required to be produced and hence the section is kept idle. Phosphoric Acid
Plant is normally working at 60 % - 100 % plant load as per the raw material
availability, producing weak acid having a strength of 18-20% 𝑃2 𝑂5 , of strength 1.16
to 1.23 to supply to NP Plant.

𝑪𝒂𝟑 (𝑷𝑶𝟒 )𝟐 + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 = 𝟐𝑯𝟑 𝑷𝑶𝟒 + 𝟑𝑪𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 . 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶

Imported Rock Phosphate stored in rock godown is drawn to the grinding

section of Phosphoric Acid Plant through two underground conveyors in series and it
is elevated by a belt type bucket elevator and stored in a raw rock feed bin. It is then
fed into a ball mill (80MT/H), where it is ground and the product rock powder (major
portion 70 to 90% passing through a 100 mesh Taylor sieve) and it is stored in the
product bins. This ground rock is fed at regulated rate through a gravimetric weigh
feeder (Libra Weigher) into a multi-compartment attack tank where a large quantity of
slurry is maintained in circulation. At next compartment of the attack tank sulphuric
acid is fed, mixing along with the weak Phosphoric acid (recycle acid) getting from
filtration section. Rock Phosphate reacts with Sulphuric acid forming slurry
containing Phosphoric acid and gypsum. Large volume of the slurry from the attack
tank is circulated through a flash Cooler to remove excess water and heat to maintain
attack tank slurry temperature within a range of 72 degree centigrade to a maximum
of 80 degree centigrade. Prolonged temperature of above 80 degree centigrade leads
1
to partial formation of 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 .2 𝐻2 𝑂. A portion of the slurry overflow from attack

tank into three digestion vessels in series to allow rhombohedral type crystal growth.
The degree of saturation wrth free 𝑆𝑂3 should be kept a rather narrow range between

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20 gpl and 35 gpl. Normally a solid percentage between 37 and 40 is maintained.

Slurry is then pumped to a rotating tilting pan type prayon filter for filtration to
separate acid. In this prayon filter slurry is filtered under vacuum with operating
pressure 110 mm to 660 mm of 𝐻𝑔 to get tire product acid. In the filter, after draining
of product acid, the gypsum cake is washed successively with medium acid liquor,
weak acid liquor/recycled cloth wash water and finally with process condensate water
forming the corresponding wash liquors viz. recycle acid, medium acid liquor mid
weak acid liquor respectively. The recycle acid is continuously lied into attack tank
along with sulphuric acid the filter cake (Gypsum) alter complete drying is then
dumped on belt conveyor and it' is disposed dry system through a series of belt
conveyors. The product acid collected in the lst compartment of Filter Seal Tank is
pumped to Weak Acid Settler from where clear acid overflows and goes to storage
tanks for pumping to NP Plant The fluorine content is partially liberated in the attack
section during reaction with sulphuric acid. The Fluorine laden gas and firms evolved
in the attack tank is removed by a fan and scrubbed using recirculated water and
ammoniacal effluent to remove/dissolve Fluorine before being let out into the
atmosphere. The Fluorine-laden gases evolved in the filter section and other section
are also drawn by a fan and scrubbed for removal of fluorine before being let out into
the atmosphere.

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CHAPTER 10

CASE STUDY 1

9.1 DETAIL OF STUDY:

 Area under study : PAP Plant FACT-CD

 Machine selected : Attack scrubber fan
 Type : Rotary
 Instrument used :VIBRATION ANALYSER ADASH 4400
 Pick up used : Accelerometer
 Software used : Digital Diagnostic System (DDS)

9.2 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS:

 MOTOR POWER RATING : 125 HP ⸗ 91.93 kW

 SPEED : 1500 RPM
 BELT SPECIFICATION : V-BELT SPB 4000
 NO. OF BELT : 6 No
 DIAMETER OF PULLY USED : i) MOTOR SIDE = 360mm
ii) FAN SIDE = 507mm
 BEARING SPECIFICTION : 23224 CKJ + H 2324
 CENTER TO CENTER DISTANCE :1350mm

Fig 8.1: Attack scrubber fan

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BITMAP COPY

Date : 15/12/2017

Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN A Horizontal / VELOCITY SPECTRUM

12/15/2017

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BITMAP COPY

Date : 15/12/2017

Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN A Vertical/ VELOCITY SPECTRUM

12/15/2017

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BITMAP COPY

Date : 15/12/2017

Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN A Axial/ VELOCITY SPECTRUM

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BITMAP COPY

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Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN B Horizontal / VELOCITY SPECTRUM

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BITMAP COPY

Date : 15/12/2017

Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN B Vertical/ VELOCITY SPECTRUM

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BITMAP COPY

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BITMAP COPY

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Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN C Horizontal / VELOCITY SPECTRUM

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BITMAP COPY

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BITMAP COPY

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BITMAP COPY

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Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN D Horizontal / VELOCITY SPECTRUM

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BITMAP COPY

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Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN D Vertical/ VELOCITY SPECTRUM

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BITMAP COPY

Date : 15/12/2017

Data cell : ATTACK SCRUBBER FAN D Axial/ VELOCITY SPECTRUM

12/15/2017

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