DATA COMMUNICATION AND INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

NETWORKING - carries the encoded signals from the transmitter to the

receiver.
DATA - generally known as the information stored into a EX:
digital form. • Radio transmission
• Terrestrial microwave
INFORMATION • Satellite Radio
- Is defined as knowledge or intelligence. Information that • Cellular Telephone
has been processed, organized, and stored is called data. • Physical facilities such as optical and metallic fiber
cable
DATA COMMUNICATION
- is the process of transferring digital information (usually in RECEIVER
binary form) between two or more points - act as an interface between transmission medium and the
destination equipment
Original source of information can be: - converts the encoded signals received from the
1. Analog Form transmission medium back to their original form or
2. Digital Form whatever form used in the destination equipment.

NETWORK DESTINATION
- is a set of devices (sometimes called nodes or stations) - Digital information destination
interconnected by media links.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS

- are systems or interrelated computers and computer
equipment and can be as simple as a personal computer
connected through the public telephone network.

NETWORKING
- the process of sharing resources between data
communication network.
Simple Block Diagram of a two-station date communication
DATA COMMUNICATION CIRCUIT circuit
- provide a transmission path between locations and to
transfer digital information form one station to another DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORK
using electronic circuits.
A station is simply an endpoint where subscribers gain Any group of computers connected together can called a
access to the circuit. A station is sometimes called a node. data communication network, and the process of sharing
resources between computers over a data communications
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF THE CIRCUIT network is called networking. In its simplest form,
1. Source (Digital Information Source) networking is two or more computers connected together
2. Transmitter through a common transmission medium for the purpose of
3. Transmission Medium sharing data.
4. Receiver
5. Destination Network Components, Functions, and Features
All computer networks include some combination of the
SOURCE following: end points, applications, and network that will
- generates date support the data traffic between the end stations.
- where data originate
Computer networks all share common devices, functions,
TRANSMITTER and features, including servers, clients, transmission media,
- act as an interface between the source equipment and the shared data, shared printers and other peripherals
transmission medium. hardware and software resources, network interface card
- encodes the source information and converts it to a (NIC), local operating system (LOS), and the network
different form, allowing it to be more efficiently propagated operating system (NOS).
through the transmission medium.

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Servers. Servers are computers that hold shared files,
programs, and the network operating system. Servers Local operating system. A local operating system (LOS)
provide access to network resources to all the users of the allows personal computers to access files, print to a local
network. (EX: file servers, print serves, mail servers, printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives
communications servers, database servers, that are located on the computer. (EX: MS-DOS, Unix,
directory/security servers, fax servers, and Web servers) Macintosh, Windows 3.11, Windows 95, Windows 98,
Windows 2000 and Linux.
Client. Clients are computer that access and use the
network and shared network resources. Client computers Network operating system. The network operating
are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they system (NOS) is a program that runs on computers and
request and receive services from the servers. servers that allows the computers to communicate over a
network. The NOS provides services to client such as log-in
Transmission media. Transmission media are the features, password authentication, printer access, network
facilities used to interconnect computers in a network, such administration functions, and data file sharing. Some of the
as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. more popular network operating systems are: Unix, Novell
Transmission media are sometimes called channels, links, NetWare, AppleShare, Macintosh System 7, IBM LAN
or lines. Server, Microsoft Windows NT, Microsoft Windows 2000
Server and Microsoft Windows 2003 Server. Characteristics
Shared data. Shared data are data that file servers of NOS include the following:
provide to clients, such as data files, printer access
programs, and e-mail. 1. A NOS allows users of a network to interface with
network transparently.
Shared printers and other peripherals. Shared printers 2. A NOS commonly offers the following services: file
and peripherals are hardware resources provided to the service, print service, mail service, communications
users of the network by servers. Resources provided service, database service, and directory and
include data files, printers, software, or any other items security services.
used by client son the network. 3. The NOS determines whether data are intended for
the user’s computer or whether the data need to
Network interface card. Each computer in a network has be redirected out onto the network.
a special expansion card called a network interface card 4. The NOS implements client software for the user,
(NIC). The NIC prepares (formats) and send data, receives which allows them to access servers on the
data, and controls data flow between the computer and the network.
network.

Characteristics of NIC NETWORK MODELS

1. The NIC constructs, transmits, receives, and
processes data to and from a PC and the Computer networks can be represented with two basic
connected network. network models: peer-to-peer client/server and dedicated
2. Each device connected to a network must have a client/server. The client/server method specifies the way
NIC installed. in which two computers can communicate with software
3. A NIC is generally installed in a computer as a over a network. Although clients and servers are generally
daughtherboard, although some computer shown as separate units, they are often active in single
manufacturers incorporate the NIC into the computer but not at the same time. With the client/server
motherboard during manufacturing. concept, a computer acting as a client initiates a software
4. Each NIC has a unique six-byte media access request from another computer acting as a server. The
control (MAC) address, which is typically server computer responds and attempts to satisfy the
permanently burned into the NIC when it is request from the client. The server computer might then
manufactures. The MAC address is sometimes act as a client and request services from another computer.
called the physical, hardware, node, Ethernet, or
LAN address.
5. The NIC must be compatible with the network to
operate properly.
6. NICs manufactured by different vendors vary in C l ie n t / S e r v e r 1 HUB
speed, complexity, manageability, and cost.
7. The NIC requires drivers to operate on the
network.

C l ie n t / S e r v e r 2
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 The dedicated client/server model is preferable to the peer-
to-peer client/server model for general-purpose data
networks. The peer-to-peer model client/server model is
Peer-to-peer client/server network. A peer-to-peer usually preferable for special purposes, such as small group
client/server network is one in which all computer share of users sharing resources.
their resources, such as hard drives, printers, and so on,
with all the other computers on the network. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network topology describes the layout or appearance of a

network – that is, how the computers, cables, and other
components within a data communications network are
interconnected, both physically and logically.
C l ie n t / S e r v e r 1
C l ie n t / S e r v e r 2 Physical Topology – describes how the network is
HUB actually laid out.
Logical topology – describes how data actually flow
through the network.

Basic Topologies
Point to point topology – used in data communications
C l ie n t / S e r v e r 3 C l ie n t / S e r v e r 4
networks that transfer high-speed digital information
The illustration above shows a peer-to-peer client/server between only two stations.
network with four clients/servers (users) connected Multipoint topology – connects three or more station
together through a hub. All computers are equal, hence the through a single transmission medium.
name peer. Each computer holds the network operating a. Bus Topology - Commonly called a linear bus, a bus
system or shared files. topology connects all the devices using a single cable.
This cable proceeds from one computer to the next like
Dedicated client/server network. In a dedicated a bus line going through a city.
client/server network, one computer is designated the b. Star and Extended-Star Topologies – The star
server, and the rest of the computers are clients. As the topology is the most commonly used physical topology
network grows, additional computers can be designated in Ethernet LANs. When installed, the star topology
servers. Generally, the designated servers function only as resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel. The star topology
servers and are not used as a client or workstation. is made up of a central connection point that is a
device such as a hub, switch, or router, where all the
The illustration below shows a dedicated client/server- cabling segments meet. Each host in the network is
based network with three servers and three clients (users). connected to the central device with its own cable.
Each client can access the resources on any of the servers c. Ring Topology – The logical ring topology is another
and also the resources on other client computers. important topology in LAN connectivity. As the name
implies, hosts are connected in the form of a ring or
circle. Unlike the physical bus topology, the ring
topology has no beginning or end that needs to be
terminated.

d. Hierarchical Topology - A hierarchical topology is

C lie n t / S e r v e r 1 C li e n t / S e r v e r 2 C li e n t / S e r v e r 3 created similar to an extended-star topology. The
primary difference is that it does not use a central
HUB node. Instead, it uses a trunk node from which it
branches to other nodes. Two types of tree topologies
exist: the binary tree (each node splits into two links)
and the backbone tree (a backbone trunk has branch
nodes with links hanging from it).
D e d ic a t e d
P r in t S e r v e r
D e d ic a t e d D e d ic a t e d
F ile S e r v e r M a il S e r v e r
P r in t e r

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 communication lines or optical services. A MAN also can be
created using wireless bridge technology by beaming
signals across public areas. The higher optical bandwidths
that are currently available make MANs a more functional
and economically feasible option than in the past.

The following features differentiate MANs from LANs and

WANs:
 MANs interconnect users in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by a LAN but smaller
than the area covered by a WAN.
 MANs connect networks in a city into a single larger
network (which can then also offer efficient connection
e. Mesh Topology – The full-mesh topology connects all to a WAN).
devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault  MANs also are used to interconnect several LANs by
tolerance bridging them with backbone lines.

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide access to
Networks are generally classified by size, which includes computers or file servers in other locations. Because WANs
geographic area, distance between stations, number of connect user networks over a large geographic area, they
computers, transmission speed (bps), transmission media, make it possible for businesses to communicate across
and the network’s physical architectures. great distances

Local Area Networks (LANs) WANs are designed to do the following:

Local area networks (LANs) are typically privately owned  Operate over large, geographically separated areas
data communications networks in which 10 to 100  Allow users to engage in real-time communication with
computer users typically share data resources with one or other users
more file servers. LANs use a network operating system to  Provide full-time remote resources connected to local
provide two-way communications at bit rates typically in services
the range of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and higher between a  Provide e-mail, World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-
large variety of data communications equipment within a commerce services
relative small geographical area, such as in the same room,
building, or building complex. Here are some common WAN technologies:
 Modems
LANs are designed to do the following:  Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
 Operate within a limited geographic area  Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Allow many users to access high-bandwidth media  Frame Relay
 Provide full-time connectivity to local services  T (U.S.) and E (Europe) carrier series—T1, E1, T3, E3,
 Connect physically adjacent devices and so on
 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)—Synchronous
Some common LAN technologies are Transport Signal level 1
 Ethernet (STS-1) (Optical Carrier [OC]-1), STS-3 (OC-3
 Token Ring
 FDDI
BANDWIDTH

LANs and WANs have always had one thing in common: the
Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs) use of the term bandwidth to describe their capabilities.
A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area, such as This term is essential to understanding networks, but it can
a city or a suburban area. MANs are networks that connect be confusing at first.
LANs separated by distance and that are located within a
common geographic area. For example, a bank with
multiple branches might use a MAN. Typically, a service
provider connects two or more LAN sites using private

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Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that THROUGHPUT
can flow through a network connection in a given period of
time. This definition might seem simple, but you must Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth at a
understand the concept of bandwidth when studying specific time of day, using specific Internet routes, and
networking. Why is it so important to understand while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network.
bandwidth? Unfortunately, for many reasons, throughput is often far
less that the maximum possible digital bandwidth of the
 Bandwidth is finite medium that is being used. The following are some of the
 Bandwidth is not free factors that determine throughput:
 Bandwidth is a key factor in analyzing network
performance, designing new networks, and  Internetworking devices
understanding the Internet.  Type of data being transferred
 The demand for bandwidth is ever-increasing  Network topology
 Number of users on the network
Measurement  User’s computer
In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per  Server computer
second (bps). Bandwidth is the measure of how much  Power condition
information, or bits, can flow from one place to another in a  Congestion
given amount of time, or seconds.
File Transfer Time Calculation
Best Download T S Typical Download T S
Units of Bandwidth = BW = P
Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalent Maximum theoretical
bandwidth of the “slowest
1 bps = fundamental link” between the source
Bits per second bps BW =
unit of bandwidth host and the destination
1 kbps = 1000 bps = host (measured in bits per
Kilobits per second kbps second)
103 bps
Megabits per 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 Actual throughput at the
Mbps moment of transfer
second bps = 106 bps P=
1 Gbps = (measured in bits per
Gigabits per second)
Gbps 1,000,000,000 bps =
second Time for file transfer to
109 bps
T= occur (measured in
Limitations seconds)
Bandwidth varies depending on the type of medium as well S= File size in bits
as the LAN and WAN technologies used. The physics of the
medium account for some of the difference. Physical ETHERNET TECHNOLOGY
differences in the ways signals travel through twisted-pair
copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and even air result Ethernet, in its various forms, is the most widely used Local
in fundamental limitations on the information-carrying Area Network (LAN) technology. Ethernet was designed to
capacity of a given medium. However, a network’s actual fill the middle ground b/w long-distance, low speed
bandwidth is determined by a combination of the physical networks and specialized, computer-room networks
medium and the technologies chosen for signaling and carrying data at high speeds for very limited distance.
detecting network signals.
The original version of Ethernet was the first LAN of the
For example, current understanding of the physics of world. It was designed more than 30 years ago by Robert
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) copper bandwidth is Metcalfe and his co-workers at Xerox. The first Ethernet
determined by the use of a particular technology, such as standard was published by a consortium of DIX in 1980.
10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, or 1000BASE-TX Ethernet. Ethernet products transmitted at 10 Mbps over thick coaxial
cable up to distance of 2 Km.

Bandwidth is also determined by other varying factors: Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. The combination of
 number of user in the network the twisted pair versions of Ethernet for connecting end
 the equipment being used systems to the network, along with the fiber optic versions
 applications, the amount of broadcast, etc.

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for site backbones, is the most widespread wired LAN Malleability – pure copper is highly malleable when
technology. hammered, stamped, forged, or spun into unusual shaped.
Copper can be worked (shaped) when it is hot or cold.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) – is a
professional organization that defines network standard. Strength – cold-rolled copper has a tensile strength 3500
to 4900 kilograms per square centimeter. Copper keeps its
 1995 – IEEE announced a standard for 100-Mbps strength and toughness up to about 40 degree Fahrenheit
Ethernet. (204 degree Celsius).
 1998 and 1999 – Gigabit Ethernet
 June 2002 – IEEE approved the standard for 10 Gb Two types of copper cable used for networks:
Ethernet
 Twisted-pair – twisted-pair cables are composed of
Supplement Standard or more pairs of copper wires. Most data and voice
 10BASE2 (IEEE 802.3a) networks use twisted-pair cabling.
 10 BASE5 (IEEE 802.3)  Coaxial – coaxial cable has one center conductor of
 100BASET (IEEE 802.3i) either solid or stranded copper wire. Coaxial cable,
 1000BASE-TX (IEEE 802.3X) once the choice for local-area network (LAN) cabling, is
now used primarily for video connections, high-speed
The abbreviated description consists of these parts: connections such as T1/T3 or E1/E3 lines, and cable
 A number indicating the number of megabits per television.
second transmitted.
 The word BASE, indicating that baseband signaling is
used
 Numbers (the 2 and 5) that refer to the coaxial cable
segment length (the 185 m. length has been rounded
up to
 One or more letters of the alphabet indicating the type
of medium used (F=fiber optic cable, T=copper
unshielded twisted pair)

Baseband Signaling – is the simplest method of

signaling. In baseband signaling the whole bandwidth of
the transmission medium is used for the signal. The data Thicknet
signal is transmitted directly over the transmission medium. The largest diameter (1 cm) was once specified for use as
Ethernet backbone cable because it had a greater
COPPER MEDIA transmission length and better noise rejection
characteristics that other types of cable.
Copper is the most common medium for signal wiring.
Copper wires carry the signals from source computer to the
destination computer.

Copper has several important properties that make it well Thinnet (Cheapernet)
suited for electronic cabling. Coaxial cable with a diameter of 0.35 cm, sometimes
referred to as thinnet, was also frequently used in Ethernet
Conductivity – best known for its ability to conduct networks at one time.
electric current.
The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:
Corrosion resistance – copper does not rust ad is fairly  Speed and throughput – 10 to 100 Mbps
resistant to corrosion.  Average cost per node – Inexpensive
 Media and connector size – Medium
Ductility – copper possesses great ductility, which is the  Maximum cable length – 500 m (medium)
ability to be drawn into thin wires without breaking. For
example, a copper rod that is 1 centimeter (cm) in diameter STP Cable
can be heated, rolled, and drawn into a wire that is thinner Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable contain four pairs of
that a human hair. this, copper wires covered in color-coded plastic insulation

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that are twisted together. Each pair is wrapped in metallic
foil, and then the four pairs are collectively wrapped in
another layer of metallic braid or foil. This layer is wrapped
with a plastic outer jacket.

The following summarizes the features of UTP cable:

 Speed and throughput – 10 to 100 Mbps
 Average cost per node – Least expensive
 Media and connector size – Small
Screened twisted-pair (ScTP), also known as foil  Maximum cable length – 100 m (short)
twisted-pair (FTP), is a variation of STP. ScTP is essentially
STP with just one layer of foil shielding around the set of all Commonly used types of UTP cabling are as follows:
four-wire pairs. The shielding in both STP and ScTP reduces  Category 1 (CAT 1) – use for telephone
unwanted electrical noise. This noise reduction provides a communication. Not suitable for transmitting data.
major advantage of STP over unshielded cable.  Category 2 (CAT 2) – capable of transmitting data at
speeds up to 4 Mbps.
 Category 3 (CAT 3) – use I 10BASET Ethernet
networks. Can transmit data at speed up to 10 Mbps.
 Category 4 (CAT 4) – used in Token Ring networks.
Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.
 Category 5 (CAT 5) – can transmit data at speeds up
to 100 Mbps. Used in Fast Ethernet networks.
 Category 5e (CAT 5e) – used in networks running at
speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps)/ used in Gigabit
Ethernet (GigE) networks.
 Category 6 (CAT 6) – the specification for CAT 6 is
new, was release on February 3, 2003, and is currently
The following summarized the features of STP cable: available for installation and use. Used in Gigabit
 Speed and throughput – 10 to 100 Mbps Ethernet (GigE) networks.
 Average cost per node – Moderate expensive
 Media and connector size – Medium to large CAT 5 and higher network cable consists of four pairs of 24
 Maximum cable length – 100 m (short) AWG (American Wire Gauge) multistrand copper wires.
Older cabling installations run a minimum of CAT 5e for
UTP Cable voice and data. Although CAT 5e costs a little more, it is
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is a common worth it in the long run.
networking media. It consists of four pairs of thin, copper
wires covered in color-coded plastic insulation that are When comparing UTP and STP, keep the following points in
twisted together. The wire pairs are then covered with a mind:
plastic outer jacket. The connector used o a UTP cable is  The speed of both types of cable is usually satisfactory
called a registered jack 45 (RJ-45) connector. UTP is for local-area distances.
considered the fastest copper-based medium today.  These are the least-expensive media for data
communication. UTP is less expensive that STP.
 Because most buildings are already wire with UTP,
many transmission standards are adapted to use it to
avoid costly rewiring with an alternative cable type.
You must take care to ensure that the category level of
the cable is adequate to handle to bandwidth desired.
As an example, a building wired with CAT 3 cable

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 cannot support Fast Ethernet, which requires at least Network Interface Card
CAT 5. - NIC are considered Layer 2 devices because each
NIC throughout the world carries unique code, called
NETWORK DEVICES Media Access Control (MAC) Address.
- MAC Address controls data communication for the
Equipments that connects directly to a network host on the LAN
segment is called device. These devices are broken into two - NIC controls the access of the host to the medium
classifications:
Bridges
 End-user devices – includes computers, printers, - A bridge is a Layer 2 device designed to create two
scanners, and other devices that provide services or more LAN segments, each which is a separate
directly to the user. collision domain.
 Network devices – includes all devices that connect - The purpose of bridge is to filter traffic on a LAN to
the end-user devices to allow them to keep local traffic local yet allow connectivity to other
communicate. parts (segment) of the LAN.
Network devices provide transport for the data that needs - Bridges learn about devices by examining the source
to be transferred between end-user devices. MAC Address and filter network traffic by looking
 Extend cable connections only at the destination MAC Address.
 Concentrate connections
 Convert data formats Important properties of bridges
 Manage data transfer  Bridges are more “intelligent” than hubs. Bridges
Examples: repeaters, hub, bridge, switches and routers. operate at Layer 2 only, that is, they can analyze
incoming frames and forward them, based
Repeaters addressing information.
- Are networking devices that exist at layer 1  Bridges collect and pass packets between 2 or more
- The purpose of a repeater is to regenerate and LAN segments.
retime network signal, at the bit level, allowing them  Bridges create more collision domains, allowing more
to travel a longer distance on the medium than one device to transmit simultaneously without
causing a collision.
Hubs  Bridges maintain MAC Address tables known as
- When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the bridge tables.
other ports so that all the LAN segments can see all
the packets. Switches
 Hubs amplify signals - Like bridges, switches connect LAN segments, use a
 Hubs propagate signals through the network table of MAC Addresses to determine all segments on
 Hubs do not require filtering which a frame needs to be transmitted, and reduce
 Hubs do not require path determination or traffic. Switches operate at much higher speeds than
switching bridges.
 Hubs are used as network-concentration points - Switches are data link layer devices that like bridges
let multiple physical LAN segments be interconnected
- Signals that are sent out across the common medium into single larger network.
are received by all devices:
Media Access Control (MAC)
A collision is a situation that can occur when 2 bits Media Access Control (MAC) refers to protocols
propagate at the same time on the same network. The that determine which computer on a shared medium
area within the network from where the data packets environment (collision domain) is allowed to transmit the
originate and collide is called a collision domain. data. MAC, with LLC, comprises the IEEE version of Layer
2. MAC and LLC are both sublayers of Layer 2. Two broad
A broadcast is a data packet that is sent to all nodes categories of MAC exist:
on a network.  Deterministic (taking turns)
 Nondeterministic (first come, first served)
A broadcast domain consists of all devices connected
to a network that receive the data packet broadcast by a Deterministic MAC Protocols
node to all other nodes on the same network. In a Token Ring network, individual hosts are
arranged in a ring. A special data token circulates around
the ring. Then a host wants to transmit, it seized the token,

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transmit the data for a limited time, and then places the computer is 192.168.1.2. Another computer might have the
token back in the ring, where it can be passed along, or address 128.10.2.1. This way of writing the address is
seize, by another host. called dotted-decimal format. In this notation, each IP
address I written as four parts separated by period, or dots.
Nondeterministic MAC Protocols Each part of the address is called an octet.
Nondeterministic MAC protocols use a first-come,
first-served (FCFS) approach. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Detect) is an example of a
nondeterministic MAC protocol.
To use this shared-medium technology, Ethernet
allows the networking devices to arbitrate for the right to
transmit. Stations on a CSMA/CD network listen for quiet,
at which time it’s okay to transmit. However, if two stations
transmit at the same time, a collision occurs and neither
Figure 1.1
station’s transmission succeeds. All other stations on the
IPv4 Addressing
network also hear the collision and wait for silence. The
transmitting stations, in turn, each wait a random period of
IP Address Classes
time (a backoff period) before retransmitting, thus
Address No. of No. of Hosts Per
minimizing the probability of second collision.
Class Networks Network
Ethernet is a shared-media broadcast technology. The
A 126* 16,777,216
access method CSMA/CD used in Ethernet performs three
functions: B 16,384 65,535
 Transmitting and receiving data packets C 2,097,152 254
 Decoding data packets and checking them for valid D
addresses before passing them to the upper layers (multicast)
of the OSI models
 Detecting errors within data packets or on the Class A, B, C, D, and E IP Addresses
network
Identifying Address Classes
In the CSMA/CD access method, networking devices with Address High- First Octet No. of Bits in
data to transmit over the networking media work in a Class Order Address the Network
listen-before-transmit mode (CS=carrier sense). Bits Range Address

Networking devices are capable of detecting when a A 0 0 to 127* 8

collision has occurred because the amplitude of the signal B 10 128 to191 16
on the networking media increases (CD=collision detect). C 110 192 to 223 24
When a collision occurs, each device that is transmitting D 1110 224 to 239 28
continues to transmit data for a short time, to ensure that (multicast)
all devices see the collision. When all devices on the
network have seen that a collision has occurred, each Class A Addresses
transmitting device invokes an algorithm, known as a The 127.0.0.0 network is reserved for loopback
backoff algorithm. testing (routers or local machines can use this address to
send packets to themselves.) therefore, it cannot be
INTERNET ADDRESSES assigned to a network.
The network layer is responsible for navigating The Class A address was designed to support
data through a network. The function of the network layer extremely large networks. A Class A IP address uses only
is to find the best path through a network. Devices use the the first octet to indicate the network address. The
network layer addressing scheme to determine the remaining three octets are used for host addresses.
destination of data as it moves through the network. The first bit of a Class A address is always 0. With
the first bit a 0, the lowest number that can be represented
IP Address is 00000000 (decimal 0), and the highest number that can
Inside a computer, an IP address is stored as a 32- be represented is 01111111 (decimal 127). However, these
bit sequence of 1s and 0s. To make the IP address easier tow number, 0 and 127, are reserved and cannot be used
to use, it is usually written as four decimal numbers as a network address. Any address that has a value
separated by periods. For instance, an IP address of one between 1 and 126 in the first octet is a Class A address.

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 address 176.10.0.0 is network address, as shown in Figure
Class A: Network Host Host Host 1.2

Class B Address In Class B network address, the first two octets,

The Class B address was designed to support the written as dotted-decimal numbers, are assigned by
needs of moderate to large-sized networks. A Class B IP default. The last two octets contain 0s because those 16
address uses two of the four octets to indicate the network bits are for host umbers and identify devices that are
address. The other two octets specify host addresses attached to the network. This is called a unicast address
(uni means one). A unicast address points to just one host
Class B: Network Network Host Host on the network. The IP address in the example
(176.10.0.0) is reserved for the network address and is
Class C Address never used as an address for any device that is attached to
The Class C address is the most commonly used it. An example of an IP address for a device on the
of the original address classes. This address space was 176.10.0.0 network is 176.10.16.1. In this example, 176.10
intended to support a lot of small networks. is the network address portion, and 16.1 is the host
address portion.
Class C: Network Network Network Host

Class D Address Broadcast Address – is used to broadcast packets to all

The Class D address was created to enable the devices on a network.
multicasting in an IP address. A multicast address is a
unique network address that directs packets that have that
destination address to predefined groups of IP address.
Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a
single stream of data to multiple recipients.

Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined. However,
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) reserves these
addresses for its own research. Therefore, no Class E
addresses have been released for use in the Internet. The Figure 1.3
first 4 bits of a Class E address are always set to 1.
Therefore, the first octet range for Class E addresses is To send data to all the devices on a network, a
11110000 to 11111111, or 240 to 255. broadcast address is needed. A broadcast occurs when a
source send data to all devices on a network, as shown in
Reserved IP Addressed Figure 1.3. This Class B address is the broadcast address
for this network. When packets are received with this
Network Address – are use to identify the network itself. destination address, the data is processed by every
computer. To endure that all the other devices on the
network process the broadcast, the sender must use a
destination IP address that they can recognize and process.
Broadcast IP address end with binary 1s in the entire host
part of the address (the Host field).

Subnet Mask
Figure 1.2 Network Address (Host For the computer to know how the 32-bit IP
Bits = All Zeros) address has been split, a second 32-bit number called a
subnetwork mask is used. This mask is guide that
An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit indicates how the IP address should be interpreted by
positions is reserved for the network address, as shown in identifying how many of the bits identify the computer’s
Figure 1.2. This Class B address has all its host bits set to network. The network mask is always all 1s until the
0. That is why it is identified as the network address. network address is identified. Then it is all 0s from there to
Therefore, as a Class A network example, 113.0.0.0 is the the rightmost bit of the mask. The bits in the IP address
IP address of the network containing the host 113.1.2.3. A that are 0 identify the computer (host) on that network.
router uses the network IP address when it forwards data
on the Internet. As a Class B network example, the IP

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 The RJ-45 plug is the male component, crimped
Some examples of subnet masks follow. at the end of the cable. As you look at the male
Example 1: connector from the front, with the clip facing down, the
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 = 255.0.0.0 pin locations are numbered from 8 on the left down to 1
Example 2:
on the right, as shown in Figure 4-23. The jack, shown in
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 = 255.255.0.0
Figure 4-24, is the female
In the first example, the first 8 bits from the left are the component in a network
network address, and the last 24 bits are the host address. device, wall or cubicle
I the second example, the first 16 bits are the network partition outlet, or patch
address, and the last 16 bits are the host address. panel. As you look at the
device port, the
Dot-decimal corresponding female pin
Binary
Address locations are 1 on the left
11000000.10101000.00000101. up to 8 on the right.
IP address 192.168.5.10
00001010
Subnet 11111111.11111111.11111111. For electricity to run between the connector
255.255.255.0
Mask 00000000 and the jack, the order of the wires must follow EIA/TIA-
Network 11000000.10101000.00000101. 568-A and EIA/TIA-568-B standards.
192.168.5.0
Portion 00000000
Host 00000000.00000000.00000000.
0.0.0.10 In addition to identifying the correct EIA/TIA
Portion 00001010
category of cable to use for a connecting device (which
depends on what standard is being used by the jack on
the network device), you need to determine which of
UTP IMPLEMENTATION
the following to use:
If you look at the RJ-45 transparent end
■ A straight-through cable—A cable that maintains the
connector, you can see eight colored wires. These wires
pin connection all the way through the cable. Thus, the
are twisted into four pairs. Four of the wires (two pairs)
wire connected to pin 1 is the same on both ends of the
carry the positive, or true, voltage and are considered
cable.
“tip” (T1 through T4); the other four wires carry the
inverse, or false, voltage grounded and are called “ring”
■ A crossover cable—A cable that crosses the critical
(R1 through R4). Tip and ring are terms that originated
pair to properly align, transmit, and receive signals on
in the early days of the telephone. Today, these terms
the device with line connections.
refer to the positive and the negative wire in a pair. The
wires in the first pair in a cable or a connector are
If the two RJ-45 ends of a cable are held side by
designated as T1 and R1, the second pair is T2 and R2,
side in the same orientation, the colored wires (or strips
and so on.
or pins) are seen at each connector end. If the order of
the colored wires is the same at each end, the cable is
straight-through. Figure 4-25 illustrates that the RJ-45
connectors on both ends show all the wires in the same
order.

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 Specified for Ethernet, in a CAT 5 UTP cable, ■ Switch to switch ■ Router to router
only wires 1, 2, 3, and 6 are used for transmit (TD) and ■ Switch to hub ■ PC to PC
receive (RD) signals. The other four wires are not used. ■ Hub to hub ■ Router to PC
As shown on the left of Figure 4-25, in a straight-through
cable, the RJ-45 pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 at one end are
connected to pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 at the other end of the
connection. Gigabit Ethernet, however, uses all eight T568-A and T568-B cabling pinout standard
wires.
T568-A
Pin # Color
You can use a straight-through cable to connect
devices such as PCs or routers to other devices used as 1 White Green
hubs or switches. As Figure 4-26 shows, you should use 2 Green
straight-through when only one port is designated with 3 White Orange
an x. 4 Blue
5 White Blue
6 Orange
7 White Brown
8 Brown

T568-B
With crossover cable, the RJ-45 connectors on Pin # Color
both ends show that some of the wires on one side of 1 White Orange
the cable are crossed to a different pin on the other side 2 Orange
of the cable. Specifically for Ethernet, pin 1 at one RJ-45 3 White Green
end should connect to pin 3 at the other end. Pin 2 at 4 Blue
one end should connect to pin 6 at the other end.. 5 White Blue
6 Green
You can use a crossover cable to connect similar
devices, switch to switch or switch to hub. Figure 4-28 7 White Brown
shows that you use a crossover cable when both ports 8 Brown
are designated with an x or when neither port is
designated with an x.

The following are the guidelines for the type of

cable to use when interconnecting networking devices.

Use straight-through cables for the following cabling: References:

■ Switch to router  CCNA 1 and 2 Companion Guide Revised Third
Edition by Cisco Systems, Inc.
■ Switch to PC or server
 Data Communication and Networking by Wayne
■ Hub to PC or server Tomasi
 World Wide Web

Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

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