Food Energy: Energy Usage in The Human Body
Food Energy: Energy Usage in The Human Body
Food energy is the amount of energy obtained from food that is available through cellular respiration.
Like other forms of energy, food energy is expressed in calories or joules. Some countries use the food calorie,
which is equal to 1 kilocalorie (kcal), or 1,000 calories. In the context of nutrition, and especially food labeling,
the calories are large calories approximately equal to 4.1868 kilojoules (kJ). The kilojoule is the unit officially
recommended by the World Health Organization and other international organizations. In some countries only
the kilojoule is normally used on food packaging, while in others the calorie is the most common unit.
Fiber, fats, proteins, organic acids, polyols, and ethanol all release energy during respiration - this is often
called, unhelpfully, 'food energy'. When the food (providing fuel) reacts with oxygen in the cells of living things
energy is released. A small amount of energy is available through anaerobic respiration. All foods are made up
of a combination of these six caloric nutrients and non-caloric nutrients.Non-caloric food includes (but not
limited to) water, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, caffeine, spices and natural flavors. Tea and coffee also
cannot be respired to release calories without sugar or milk added. Nutritionists usually talk about the number of
calories in a gram of a nutrient, but this implies that the food actually 'contains' energy. It's better to say that
each gram of food (fuel) is associated with a particular amount of energy (released when the food is respired).
Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of food energy per gram, 9 and 7 kcal/g (38 and 30 kJ/g),
respectively. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 4 kcal/g (17 kJ/g). Carbohydrates that are not easily
absorbed, such as fiber or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols
(including sugar alcohols) and organic acids have fewer than 4 kcal/g.
Each food item has a specific metabolizable energy intake (MEI). Normally this value is obtained by
multiplying the total amount of energy associated with a food item by 85%, which is the typical amount of
energy actually obtained by a human after respiration has been completed.
The "calorie" has become a common household term because dietitians recommend in cases of obesity to
reduce body weight by increasing exercise (energy expenditure) and reducing energy (i.e. fuel) intake. Many
governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control
their energy intake. In the European Union, manufacturers of prepackaged food must label the nutritional
energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In the United States, the equivalent
mandatory labels display only "Calories", often as a substitute for the name of the quantity being measured,
food energy; an additional kilojoules figure is optional and is rarely used. The energy content of food is usually
given on labels for 100 g and/or for what the manufacturer claims is a typical serving size.
The amount of food energy associated with a particular food could be measured by completely burning the
dried food in a bomb calorimeter, a method known as direct calorimetry. However, the values given on food
labels are not determined this way, because it overestimates the amount of fuel that actually enters the blood
through digestion because it also burns the indigestible dietary fiber so that not all food eaten is actually
absorbed by the body (fecal losses). Instead, standardized chemical tests or an analysis of the recipe using
reference tables for common ingredientsare used to estimate the product's digestible constituents (protein,
carbohydrate, fat, etc.). These results are then converted into an equivalent energy value based on a standardized
table of energy densities.
The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into physical power depends on the type of food and on
the type of physical energy usage (e.g. which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or
anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26 percent of the energy available
from respiration is converted into mechanical energy. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency
of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the
muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and
the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one
watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, a manufacturer of rowing equipment
shows calories released from 'burning' food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour,
which amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of
little physical output (e.g. walking) to "burn off" 500 calories (i.e. fuel) more than a body would otherwise have.
The differing energy density of foods (fat, alcohols, carbohydrates and proteins) lies in their varying proportions
of oxidizable carbon atoms. Release of energy from food follows transfer of electrons from carbon and
hydrogen to carbon dioxide and water. Swings in body temperature – either hotter or cooler – increase the
metabolic rate, thus burning more energy. Prolonged exposure to extremely warm or very cold environments
increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR). People who live in these types of settings often have BMRs that are
5–20% higher than those in other climates. Physical activity also significantly increases body temperature,
which in turn uses more energy from respiration.
The general term for all the chemical processes carried out by the cells of the body is "metabolism". Chief
among these processes is the oxidation (combustion, or burning) of food which produces energy. This process is
analogous to a car engine burning petrol to produce the energy that makes it run. In most forms of combustion,
be it in the car or in the human, heat is produced as well as energy.
Classical physics taught that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. Although this law of nature is not
completely correct (as the conversion of matter to energy in a nuclear reactor shows), it is still true in most
instances. All three macronutrients in food - carbohydrate, protein and fat provide energy. Energy for the body
comes mainly from food, and in the absence of food it can be produced only by the breakdown of body tissues.
All forms of energy can be converted into heat energy. It is possible to measure the heat produced by burning a
litre of petrol, for example. Food energy can also be and is expressed as heat energy. The unit of measurement
used has been the large calorie (Cal) or kilocalorie (kcal) (which is 1 000 times the small calorie used in
physics), but this measure is increasingly being replaced by the joule (J) or kilojoule (kJ). The kilocalorie is
defined as the heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 litre of water from 14.5° to 15.5°C. Whereas the
kilocalorie is a unit of heat, the joule is truly a unit of energy. The joule is defined as the amount of energy used
when 1 kg is moved 1 m by 1 newton (N) of force. In nutrition the kilojoule (1000 J) is used. The equivalent of
1 kcal is 4.184 kJ. These are units of measurement in the same way that litres and pints are measures of
quantity, and metres and feet are measures of length. In many scientific journals the joule is being introduced in
place of the kilocalorie (see conversion tables, Annex 5), but the general public and most health workers still
prefer to express food energy in kilocalories rather than joules. Kilocalories are therefore used in this book.
The human body requires energy for all bodily functions, including work, the maintenance of body temperature
and the continuous action of the heart and lungs In children energy is essential for growth Energy is also needed
for breakdown, repair and building of tissues. These arc metabolic processes. The rate at which these functions
are carried out while the body is at rest is the Basal metabolic rate (BMR).
BMR for an individual person is usually defined as the amount of energy [expressed in kilocalories or
megajoules (MJ, per day] expended when the person is al complete rest, both physical (i.e. lying down) and
psychological. It can also be expressed as kilocalories per hour or per kilogram of weight. BMR provides the
energy required by the body for maintenance of body temperature; for the work of body organs such as the
beating heart and the muscles working for normal, at rest, breathing; and for the functioning of other organs
such as the liver, kidneys and brain.
BMR varies from individual to individual. Important general factors influencing BMR are the person's weight,
gender, age and state of health. BMR is also influenced by the person's body composition, for example the
amounts of muscle and adipose tissue and therefore the amounts of protein and fat in the body. In broad terms,
bigger people with more muscle and larger body organs have higher BMR than smaller people. Elderly people
tend to have lower BMR than they had when they were young, and females tend to have lower BMR than males
even on a per kilogram body weight basis. There are exceptions, however, to all these generalizations.
BMR is important as a component of energy requirements. Table 10 shows BMR of adult men and women
according to height and weight, both per kilogram body weight and as total energy per day. The table shows, for
example, that in females aged 30 to 60 years BMR ranges from 1 190 to 1 420 kcal per day. This is the amount
of energy required by a woman at complete rest for 24 hours. Of course many adult females in developing
countries are smaller than 1.4 m in height and 41 kg in weight; their BMR might then be a little lower than 1
190 kcal per day.
TABLE 10
Basal metabolic rate in adult men and women in relation to height and median acceptable
Energy requirements
The mean daily energy requirements of adult men and women doing work classified as light, moderate and
heavy are given in Table 11, expressed as multiples of BMR. The table shows, for example, that a woman doing
heavy work requires energy equal to 1.32 times her BMR. If the woman is aged 25 years, is 1.4 m tall and
weighs 41 kg, according to Table 10 her BMR would be 1100 kcal per day. Thus her daily requirements are: 1
100 kcal x 1.32 = 2 002 kcal.
It is often useful to estimate energy needs for various activities that a person may do for particular lengths of
time. The energy expenditure is usually calculated by multiplying an activity factor or metabolic constant,
which varies according to the activity, by the individual's BMR. Table 12 gives the activity factors for
calculating gross energy expenditure of various activities for adult males and females.
The average human burns energy at his or her BMR only when at complete rest. All ordinary movements
require additional energy, and physical work, of course, requires more still. For a healthy male with BMR of 1
kcal/min, an average day may involve the energy expenditure shown in Table 13.
TABLE 11
Average daily energy requirements of adults by category of occupational work expressed as a multiple of
BMR
TABLE 12
Note: These values apply only as approximate mean values for the time actually spent on the activity. They do
not allow for rests. In heavy work individuals usually take frequent pauses or rests.
If the person in this example did instead of eight hours of light work - five hours of herding and three hours of
heavy work, hoeing hard ground at 8 kcal/min, then his output of energy would be as shown in Table 14.
If the individual undertaking the activities in the first example gets exactly 2 640 kcal in his food, his weight
will be steady, and he will be functioning normally. However, if he then undertakes the activities in the second
example and eats no extra food, his weight will gradually drop, because he will have to burn up his fuel reserve,
which forms part of his own body. He would fairly soon, however, begin to limit his activities in order to stop
this process. He would therefore probably work much less hard at hoeing, so that instead of burning 8 kcal/min
he might use only, say, 3.2 kcal/min; he would also tend to be tired at the end of the day, and might well
increase his period of complete rest (at 1 kcal/min) by reducing the period of minor activities. He would
therefore have reduced his energy requirements to 2 646 kcal, as shown in Table 15.
This is just an example. In most in stances, when people increase their output of energy, including work, they
feel more hungry and increase their consumption of their staple food, be it rice, millet, maize wheat, cassava or
anything else.
The energy requirements of a human being are affected by several factors. The important ones are:
· Body size. A small person needs less energy than a large person.
· Basal metabolic rate. BMR varies and can be affected by factors such as disease of the thyroid gland.
· Activity. The more physical work or recreation performed, the more energy is required.
· Pregnancy. A woman requires extra energy to develop the foetus and to carry its additional weight.
· Lactation. The lactating mother needs additional energy to produce energy-containing milk for the
suckling baby. The relatively long duration of breastfeeding among most Asians and Africans results in
a large proportion of women requiring extra energy.
· Age. Infants and children need more energy, for growth and activity, than adults. In older persons, the
need for energy is sometimes reduced because there is a decline in activity and because their BMR is
usually lower.
· Climate. In warm climates, i.e. in most of the tropics and subtropics, less energy is necessary to keep
the body at its normal temperature than in cold climates.
TABLE 13
TABLE 14
Energy expenditure when the person in Table 13 performs three hours of hard work
Sleep 8 1 480
Light work: herding 5 2.5 750
Hard work: hoeing 3 8 1440
Other: sitting and minor activities 8 2 960
Total 3 630
TABLE 15
Energy expenditure when the person in Table 14 adjusts his work to a less adequate diet
Sleep 10 1 600
Light work 5 2.5 750
Less hard work: hoeing 3 3.2 576
Other: sitting and minor activities 6 2 720
Total 2 646
ENERGY-GIVING NUTRIENTS
CHO, CHON and fats are energy nutrients that fact that they yield calories when
metabolized in the body.
Minerals, vitamins and water do not provide energy.
Alcohol is not a nutrient but it provides energy.
The energy content of food is measured in kilocalories (kcal) or kilojoules (kj) .
ONE CALORIE - it is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water to 1 degree centigrade.
When completely broken down in the body, a gram of CHO yields about 4 kcal of
energy; a gram of CHON also yields 4 kcal; and a gram of FAT yields 9 kcal.
Alcohol contributes 29 kcal that can be used for energy.
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Fat, therefore, has a greater energy density than either CHO or protein.
CALORIE - a measure of the energy a food provides relative to the amount of food
(kcalories per gram).
Sample problem:
Calculate the total energy available from the given food and the percentage of kcalories each of
the energy nutrients contributes to the total.
A. A sandwich having 23 g CHO, 5 g CHON and 5 gram of fat per serving.
B. One slice of bread with one tablespoon of peanut butter on it contains 16 grams CHO, 7 grams
protein, and 9 grams fat.
Factors Affecting an Individual’s Calorie Need
1. Age and growth
2. Gender
3. Climate
4. Sleep
5. Activity
6. Fever
7. Illness
NON-NUTRIENT COMPONENTS OF FOOD
1. Alcohol
2. Pigments
3. Additives – preservatives, flavors and colors
4. Phytochemicals – non-nutrient compounds found in plant-derived foods that have biological
activity in the body.
Ex: lycopene in tomatoes, allylic sulfites in garlic, and lignans in wheat.
NEW FORMS OF FOOD
1. Pharmafoods - food or nutrient that claims medical or health benefits related to prevention and
treatment of disease.
2. Functional foods - are foods or ingredients that have been modified to provide a health
benefiting beyond their nutrient contributions.
3. Designer foods - are processed foods that are supplemented with food ingredients naturally
rich in disease-preventing substances. This may involve genetic engineering of food.
4. Nutraceutical - are products that may be considered a food or part of a food and provides
medical or health benefits.
5. Organic foods - are products that are grown without manufactured fertilizers or pesticides.
DAILY FOOD SELECTION
DIET – the food and drink that a person regularly consumed
2 Forms of Diet:
1. Special diet - a selection of food based on health conditions or disease management goals.
Examples: low calorie diet for weight control, low salt diet for control of blood pressure.
2. Balance diet- provides the correct amount of essential nutrients.
Factors Influencing Food Habits and Selection of Food Stuffs
1. Habit and preference- The selection of food is tied to a person’s routine and practices. Taste, texture,
and appearance also mainly dictate an individual’s food options.
2. Cost, availability, and convenience- People select foods which they can afford to buy, which are
readily available, and do not require much time to prepare or cook. In today’s modern lifestyle, foods
that are fast and delicious are frequently chosen.
3. Culture and tradition- Each area of the world and every region of a country had own typical foods and
ways of combining them into meals. Religious rules about foods can further dictate the composition of
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diet. Many Muslims refrain from eating pork and beef of unknown origin. Some Jewish people do not
eat pork or serve milk products and meat at the same meal.
4. Social pressure- Social pressure operates in all circles and across all cultural lines. Close friends share
similar food choices. Special occasions are associated with the serving of specific foods and it is often
impolite to refuse food or drink offered by a host.
5. Advertising- Commercial ads and packaging of the food industry are quite successful in enticing the
public to choose certain foods.
6. Medical conditions and health beliefs- There are medical conditions and their treatments limit the
foods a person can select. A client with hypertension might need to adopt a low salt diet. The
chemotherapy needed to treat cancer can interfere with the persons appetite.
7. Body Image- People may opt for food that they link with ideals of body image.
8. Emotional State- Some individuals eat in response to emotional stimuli such as boredom, anxiety, and
depression.
Principles of Planning a Healthy Diet: Carefully planned meals deliver sufficient amount of all
vital nutrients.
Elements of Nutritious Diet
1. Adequacy- The foods chosen provide enough of each important nutrients, fiber, and energy.
2. Proportionality- The choices do not overemphasized one nutrient or food type at the expense of
another.
3. Calorie control- The foods provide the amount of calories a person needs to sustain appropriate
weight.
4. Moderation- The foods do not provide extra fat, salt, sugar, or other unwanted constituents.
5. Variety
6. Nutrient-density- Select foods that deliver the most nutrients for the least amount of food
energy.
Tools in Designing a Healthy Diet
A nutritionally satisfactory diet is based on a wise selection of a variety of foods in
recommended amount.
1. U.S. Food Guided
This is a food group plan that assigns food to major groups. It suggests the proper combination
of foods in a meal and serving sizes.
Ex: the U.S. Food Guide
a. 6-11 servings of breads, cereals, and other grain products per day
b. 3-5 servings of vegetables per day
c. 2-4 servings of fruits per day
d. 2-3 servings of meat, poultry, fish and alternatives per day
e. 2 servings of milk, cheese and yogurt per day
f. Fats, Sweets, and Alcoholic beverages: use sparingly
2. Your Guide to Good Nutrition
Is a practical guide in planning meals/diets for Filipinos; foods are classified into groups on the
basis of similarity in nutrient content.
a. Energy-giving foods – are high in CHO and fats such as rice & rice products, breads, corn, root
crops, sugar and sweets, past and noodles; butter, margarine, mayonnaise, cooking oil, etc.
b. Body-building foods - are rich in CHON and minerals such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs and
dried beans.
c. Body-regulating foods - are rich in vitamins, minerals, fiber and water like fruits & vegetables
3. Food Guide Pyramid
A pictorial form of the daily food guide; it teaches the principle of eating a variety of
foods everyday, the need for moderation in some food groups while emphasizing the
importance of other food items.
The broad base at the bottom conveys the message that the food group should form the
foundation of a healthy diet and foods that belong in this level must be taken abundantly
compared to other food groups. The apex indicates that foods belonging to this group should be
eaten sparingly.
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Ex: U.S. Food Guide Pyramid and Food Guide Pyramid for Filipinos
4. The Nutrition Guideline
These are most important recommendations to promote good health through proper food intake;
they are short, simple statements that give advice on the consumption of foods and food
components for which there are public concerns.
The guidelines aim to foster an adequate, balanced diet and desirable food and nutrition
practices and healthy habits suitable for the general population.
The latest NUTRIONAL GUIDELINES FOR FILIPINOS given by the Food and Nutrition
Research Institute – DOST are:
1. Eat a wide variety of foods everyday.
2. Breast-feed infants from birth to 4-6 months, and then give appropriate foods while continuing
breast-feeding.
3. Maintain children’s normal growth through proper diet and monitor their growth regularly.
4. Consume fish, lean meat, poultry, or dried beans.
5. Eat more fruits, vegetables, and root crops.
6. Eat foods prepared with edible cooking oil daily.
7. Consume milk, milk products, or other calcium-rich foods such as small fish and dark, green
leafy vegetables every day.
8. Use iodized salt, but avoid excessive intake of salty foods.
9. Eat clean and safe foods.
10. Exercise regularly, do not smoke, and avoid drinking alcoholic beverages.
5. Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
Is the average daily amount of a nutrient considered enough to meet the known nutrient
needs of practically all healthy people.
These are set at levels higher than the requirements of most individuals.
In the Philippines (2002), it is now called the Recommended Energy and Nutrient
Intakes (RENI).
UNDERSTANDING FOOD LABELS
Food labels give information about the product’s contents, ingredients, and nutritional value.
They provide the consumers information so that they can make healthier food choices.
Information in the food label helps the consumers see how a food fits into their overall daily
diet.
The Bureau of Food and Drugs of DOH - is the government’s major implementor of nutrition
labeling in the Philippines.
Food and Drug Administration - in the USA.
INFORMATION ON FOOD LABEL
A. Mandatory Information on Food Labels; Every food label must prominently display and
express in ordinary words.
1. Name of product- This tells the consumers what they are buying and must not give a false
impression, ex. Strawberry yoghurt must contain strawberries where as “flavored” yoghurt
don’t have.
2. Name & address of manufacturer, packer or distributor- This is shown for comments/
complaint/ or questions the consumer may wish to ask.
3. Place of origin- Some products may appear misleading if their place of origin is not stated.
4. Preparation Instructions- This should be shown especially on high-risk foods so all of bacteria
are killed during cooking.
5. Weight or quantity- This data will help consumers compare products fairly.
6. Storage Instructions- The storage instructions should be given so that the date mark is valid.
B. Open-date Markings: All foods should be date marked apart from very long life products.
1. Consume before or use before or expiration date - signifies the end of the estimated shelf life of
a product beyond which certain quality attributes become significantly impaired.
2. Best use by - indicates the end of a period after which certain qualities of the product must be
expected to deteriorate. After such date, the product may still be satisfactory for human
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consumption and may remain marketable, but the makers presumably no longer guarantee its
best quality.
C. The Ingredient List – should be listed in descending order of predominance by weight and
state on the label that they have done so. If water makes up more than 5% then it must be listed.
Example : An orange powder that contains “sugar, citric acid, orange flavor”…. Versus a
juice that contains “water, tomato concentrate, concentrated juice of carrots, celery…
D. Serving Size - it reflects the amount that people customarily consume.
E. Serving per container - this suggests the number of servings in the food package.
F. Nutrition Facts panel - it provides information on certain nutrients.
1. The Percentage Daily Value (%) - this part of the panel tells whether the nutrients in a
serving of food contribute a lot or a little to your total daily diet. Thus, the lower percentages
indicate that the food provides less of the nutrient and higher percentages indicate that it gives
more of the nutrient. They are based on recommendations for a 2000-calorie diet.
2. Daily Values (DV) - are reference values set by the government for food labeling purposes.
They are based on Daily Reference Values (DRVs) and Reference Daily Intake (RDIs).
G. Health Claims - claims about the relationship between a nutrient/food and the risk of a disease
or health-related condition may also show up on the front of the package. It was authorized by
Food and Drugs Administration.
Example:
1-calcium and osteoporosis- must contain 20% (200mg) or more of the RDI for calcium per
serving.
2- Sodium and Hypertension- Must meet low sodium descriptor requirements and must not exceed
disqualifying level for fat, saturated fat and cholesterol.
RELATION OF NUTRITION TO HEALTH
1. Growth and Development – good nutrition is essential for the attainment of normal growth and
development.
2. Specific Deficiency – good nourishment is essential for the prevention of diseases and
promotion of good health.
3. Resistance to Infection – malnutrition influences the course & outcome of many clinical
disorders.
4. Mortality and Morbidity – malnutrition contributes to high general death rate, high IMR, high
sickness rate & lower expectation of life. Over nutrition, in turn, is responsible for obesity,
diabetes, HPN, CVD, renal diseases, liver and gallbladder disorders.
NUTRITION- NURSE’S RESPONSIBILITIES
Be aware of patients who are at risk for malnutrition & provide preventive care.
Watch out for S/SX of malnutrition.
Know the patient’s medical history.
Know the patient’s social, economic & environmental limitations related to nutrition.
Verify, communicate and record findings.
Be familiar with different types of diets.
Encourage patient’s participation in feeding.
Be aware of the psychological impact of feeding assistance on the patient.
Promote factors that improve patient’s appetite such as pleasant & comfortable
surroundings.