Opto-isolator

Schematic diagram of an opto-isolator showing source

of light (LED) on the left, dielectric barrier in the center,
and sensor (phototransistor) on the right.[note 1]

In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called

an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical
isolator, is a component that transfers
electrical signals between two isolated
circuits by using light.[1] Opto-isolators
prevent high voltages from affecting the
system receiving the signal.[2]
Commercially available opto-isolators
withstand input-to-output voltages up to
10 kV[3] and voltage transients with
speeds up to 25 kV/μs.[4]

A common type of opto-isolator consists

of an LED and a phototransistor in the
same opaque package. Other types of
source-sensor combinations include LED-
photodiode, LED-LASCR, and lamp-
photoresistor pairs. Usually opto-isolators
transfer digital (on-off) signals, but some
techniques allow them to be used with
analog signals.

History
The value of optically coupling a solid
state light emitter to a semiconductor
detector for the purpose of electrical
isolation was recognized in 1963 by
Akmenkalns,et al. (US patent 3,417,249).
Photoresistor-based opto-isolators were
introduced in 1968. They are the slowest,
but also the most linear isolators and still
retain a niche market in the audio and
music industries. Commercialization of
LED technology in 1968–1970 caused a
boom in optoelectronics, and by the end of
the 1970s the industry developed all
principal types of opto-isolators. The
majority of opto-isolators on the market
use bipolar silicon phototransistor
sensors.[5] They attain medium data
transfer speed, sufficient for applications
like electroencephalography.[6] The fastest
opto-isolators use PIN diodes in
photoconductive mode.

Operation
An opto-isolator contains a source
(emitter) of light, almost always a near
infrared light-emitting diode (LED), that
converts electrical input signal into light, a
closed optical channel (also called
dielectrical channel[7]), and a photosensor,
which detects incoming light and either
generates electric energy directly, or
modulates electric current flowing from an
external power supply. The sensor can be
a photoresistor, a photodiode, a
phototransistor, a silicon-controlled
rectifier (SCR) or a triac. Because LEDs
can sense light in addition to emitting it,
construction of symmetrical, bidirectional
opto-isolators is possible. An optocoupled
solid-state relay contains a photodiode
opto-isolator which drives a power switch,
usually a complementary pair of
MOSFETs. A slotted optical switch
contains a source of light and a sensor,
but its optical channel is open, allowing
modulation of light by external objects
obstructing the path of light or reflecting
light into the sensor.

Electric isolation

Planar (top) and silicone dome (bottom) layouts -

cross-section through a standard dual in-line package.
Relative sizes of LED (red) and sensor (green) are
[ ]
exaggerated.[note 2]

Electronic equipment and signal and

power transmission lines can be subjected
to voltage surges induced by lightning,
electrostatic discharge, radio frequency
transmissions, switching pulses (spikes)
and perturbations in power supply.[8]
Remote lightning strikes can induce
surges up to 10 kV, one thousand times
more than the voltage limits of many
electronic components.[9] A circuit can
also incorporate high voltages by design,
in which case it needs safe, reliable means
of interfacing its high-voltage components
with low-voltage ones.[10]
The main function of an opto-isolator is to
block such high voltages and voltage
transients, so that a surge in one part of
the system will not disrupt or destroy the
other parts.[2][11] Historically, this function
was delegated to isolation transformers,
which use inductive coupling between
galvanically isolated input and output
sides. Transformers and opto-isolators are
the only two classes of electronic devices
that offer reinforced protection — they
protect both the equipment and the human
user operating this equipment.[12] They
contain a single physical isolation barrier,
but provide protection equivalent to double
isolation.[12] Safety, testing and approval of
opto-couplers are regulated by national
and international standards: IEC 60747-5-
2, EN (CENELEC) 60747-5-2, UL 1577, CSA
Component Acceptance Notice #5, etc.[13]
Opto-isolator specifications published by
manufacturers always follow at least one
of these regulatory frameworks.

An opto-isolator connects input and output

sides with a beam of light modulated by
input current. It transforms useful input
signal into light, sends it across the
dielectric channel, captures light on the
output side and transforms it back into
electric signal. Unlike transformers, which
pass energy in both directions[note 3] with
very low losses, opto-isolators are
unidirectional (see exceptions) and they
cannot transmit power.[14] Typical opto-
isolators can only modulate the flow of
energy already present on the output
side.[14] Unlike transformers, opto-isolators
can pass DC or slow-moving signals and
do not require matching impedances
between input and output sides.[note 4]
Both transformers and opto-isolators are
effective in breaking ground loops,
common in industrial and stage
equipment, caused by high or noisy return
currents in ground wires.[15]
The physical layout of an opto-isolator
depends primarily on the desired isolation
voltage. Devices rated for less than a few
kV have planar (or sandwich)
construction.[16] The sensor die is
mounted directly on the lead frame of its
package (usually, a six-pin or a four-pin
dual in-line package).[7] The sensor is
covered with a sheet of glass or clear
plastic, which is topped with the LED die.[7]
The LED beam fires downward. To
minimize losses of light, the useful
absorption spectrum of the sensor must
match the output spectrum of the LED,
which almost invariably lies in the near
infrared.[17] The optical channel is made as
thin as possible for a desired breakdown
voltage.[16] For example, to be rated for
short-term voltages of 3.75 kV and
transients of 1 kV/μs, the clear polyimide
sheet in the Avago ASSR-300 series is only
0.08 mm thick.[18] Breakdown voltages of
planar assemblies depend on the
thickness of the transparent sheet[16] and
the configuration of bonding wires that
connect the dies with external pins.[7] Real
in-circuit isolation voltage is further
reduced by creepage over the PCB and the
surface of the package. Safe design rules
require a minimal clearance of 25 mm/kV
for bare metal conductors or 8.3 mm/kV
for coated conductors.[19]
Opto-isolators rated for 2.5 to 6 kV employ
a different layout called silicone dome.[20]
Here, the LED and sensor dies are placed
on the opposite sides of the package; the
LED fires into the sensor horizontally.[20]
The LED, the sensor and the gap between
them are encapsulated in a blob, or dome,
of transparent silicone. The dome acts as
a reflector, retaining all stray light and
reflecting it onto the surface of the sensor,
minimizing losses in a relatively long
optical channel.[20] In double mold designs
the space between the silicone blob
("inner mold") and the outer shell ("outer
mold") is filled with dark dielectric
compound with a matched coefficient of
thermal expansion.[21]

Types of opto-isolators
Device Current
Source of light[7] Sensor type[7] Speed
type[note 5] transfer ratio

Incandescent light
Resistive opto- Very low
bulb CdS or CdSe
isolator <100%[note 6]
Neon lamp photoresistor (LDR) Low
(Vactrol)
GaAs infrared LED Low

Diode opto-
GaAs infrared LED Silicon photodiode Highest 0.1–0.2%[22]
isolator

Bipolar silicon
Medium 2–120%[22]
Transistor opto- phototransistor
GaAs infrared LED
isolator Darlington
Medium 100–600%[22]
phototransistor

Opto-isolated Silicon-controlled Low to

GaAs infrared LED >100%[23]
SCR rectifier medium

Opto-isolated Low to
GaAs infrared LED TRIAC Very high
triac medium

Stack of photodiodes
Stack of GaAs driving Low to Practically
Solid-state relay
infrared LEDs a pair of MOSFETs or high[note 7] unlimited
an IGBT

Resistive opto-isolators
The earliest opto-isolators, originally
marketed as light cells, emerged in the
1960s. They employed miniature
incandescent light bulbs as sources of
light, and cadmium sulfide (CdS) or
cadmium selenide (CdSe) photoresistors
(also called light-dependent resistors,
LDRs) as receivers. In applications where
control linearity was not important, or
where available current was too low for
driving an incandescent bulb (as was the
case in vacuum tube amplifiers), it was
replaced with a neon lamp. These devices
(or just their LDR component) were
commonly named Vactrols, after a
trademark of Vactec, Inc. The trademark
has since been genericized,[note 8] but the
original Vactrols are still being
manufactured by PerkinElmer.[24][note 9]

The turn-on and turn-off lag of an

incandescent bulb lies in hundreds of
milliseconds range, which makes the bulb
an effective low-pass filter and rectifier but
limits the practical modulation frequency
range to a few Hertz. With the introduction
of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in 1968–
1970,[25] the manufacturers replaced
incandescent and neon lamps with LEDs
and achieved response times of
5 milliseconds and modulation
frequencies up to 250 Hz.[26] The name
Vactrol was carried over on LED-based
devices which are, as of 2010, still
produced in small quantities.[27]

Photoresistors used in opto-isolators rely

on bulk effects in a uniform film of
semiconductor; there are no p-n
junctions.[28] Uniquely among
photosensors, photoresistors are non-
polar devices suited for either AC or DC
circuits.[28] Their resistance drops in
reverse proportion to the intensity of
incoming light, from virtually infinity to a
residual floor that may be as low as less
than a hundred Ohms.[28] These properties
made the original Vactrol a convenient and
cheap automatic gain control and
compressor for telephone networks. The
photoresistors easily withstood voltages
up to 400 volts,[28] which made them ideal
for driving vacuum fluorescent displays.
Other industrial applications included
photocopiers, industrial automation,
professional light measurement
instruments and auto-exposure meters.[28]
Most of these applications are now
obsolete, but resistive opto-isolators
retained a niche in audio, in particular
guitar amplifier, markets.
American guitar and organ manufacturers
of the 1960s embraced the resistive opto-
isolator as a convenient and cheap
tremolo modulator. Fender's early tremolo
effects used two vacuum tubes; after 1964
one of these tubes was replaced by an
optocoupler made of a LDR and a neon
lamp.[29] To date, Vactrols activated by
pressing the stompbox pedal are
ubiquitous in the music industry.[30]
Shortages of genuine PerkinElmer
Vactrols forced the DIY guitar community
to "roll their own" resistive opto-
isolators.[31] Guitarists to date prefer opto-
isolated effects because their superior
separation of audio and control grounds
results in "inherently high quality of the
sound".[31] However, the distortion
introduced by a photoresistor at line level
signal is higher than that of a professional
electrically-coupled voltage-controlled
amplifier.[32] Performance is further
compromised by slow fluctuations of
resistance owing to light history, a
memory effect inherent in cadmium
compounds. Such fluctuations take hours
to settle and can be only partially offset
with feedback in the control circuit.[33]

Photodiode opto-isolators
A fast photodiode opto-isolator with an output-side
amplifier circuit.

Diode opto-isolators employ LEDs as

sources of light and silicon photodiodes
as sensors. When the photodiode is
reverse-biased with an external voltage
source, incoming light increases the
reverse current flowing through the diode.
The diode itself does not generate energy;
it modulates the flow of energy from an
external source. This mode of operation is
called photoconductive mode.
Alternatively, in the absence of external
bias the diode converts the energy of light
into electric energy by charging its
terminals to a voltage of up to 0.7 V. The
rate of charge is proportional to the
intensity of incoming light. The energy is
harvested by draining the charge through
an external high-impedance path; the ratio
of current transfer can reach 0.2%.[22] This
mode of operation is called photovoltaic
mode.

The fastest opto-isolators employ PIN

diodes in photoconductive mode. The
response times of PIN diodes lie in the
subnanosecond range; overall system
speed is limited by delays in LED output
and in biasing circuitry. To minimize these
delays, fast digital opto-isolators contain
their own LED drivers and output
amplifiers optimized for speed. These
devices are called full logic opto-isolators:
their LEDs and sensors are fully
encapsulated within a digital logic
circuit.[34] The Hewlett-Packard
6N137/HPCL2601 family of devices
equipped with internal output amplifiers
was introduced in the late 1970s and
attained 10 MBd data transfer speeds.[35]
It remained an industry standard until the
introduction of the 50 MBd Agilent
Technologies[note 10] 7723/0723 family in
2002.[36] The 7723/0723 series opto-
isolators contain CMOS LED drivers and a
CMOS buffered amplifiers, which require
two independent external power supplies
of 5 V each.[37]

Photodiode opto-isolators can be used for

interfacing analog signals, although their
non-linearity invariably distorts the signal.
A special class of analog opto-isolators
introduced by Burr-Brown uses two
photodiodes and an input-side operational
amplifier to compensate for diode non-
linearity. One of two identical diodes is
wired into the feedback loop of the
amplifier, which maintains overall current
transfer ratio at a constant level regardless
of the non-linearity in the second (output)
diode.[38]

A novel idea of a particular optical analog

signal isolator was submitted on 3, June
2011. The proposed configuration consist
of two different parts. One of them
transfers the signal, and the other
establishes a negative feedback to ensure
that the output signal has the same
features as the input signal. This proposed
analog isolator is linear over a wide range
of input voltage and frequency.[39]
However linear opto couplers using this
principle have been available for many
years, for example the IL300.[40]

Solid-state relays built around MOSFET

switches usually employ a photodiode
opto-isolator to drive the switch. The gate
of a MOSFET requires relatively small total
charge to turn on and its leakage current in
steady state is very low. A photodiode in
photovoltaic mode can generate turn-on
charge in a reasonably short time but its
output voltage is many times less than the
MOSFET's threshold voltage. To reach the
required threshold, solid-state relays
contain stacks of up to thirty photodiodes
wired in series.[21]
Phototransistor opto-isolators

Phototransistors are inherently slower

than photodiodes.[41] The earliest and the
slowest but still common 4N35 opto-
isolator, for example, has rise and fall
times of 5 μs into a 100 Ohm load[42] and
its bandwidth is limited at around 10
kilohertz - sufficient for applications like
electroencephalography[6] or pulse-width
motor control.[43] Devices like PC-900 or
6N138 recommended in the original 1983
Musical Instrument Digital Interface
specification[44] allow digital data transfer
speeds of tens of kiloBauds.[45]
Phototransistors must be properly biased
and loaded to achieve their maximum
speeds, for example, the 4N28 operates at
up to 50 kHz with optimum bias and less
than 4 kHz without it.[46]

Design with transistor opto-isolators

requires generous allowances for wide
fluctuations of parameters found in
commercially available devices.[46] Such
fluctuations may be destructive, for
example, when an opto-isolator in the
feedback loop of a DC-to-DC converter
changes its transfer function and causes
spurious oscillations,[20] or when
unexpected delays in opto-isolators cause
a short circuit through one side of an H-
bridge.[47] Manufacturers' datasheets
typically list only worst-case values for
critical parameters; actual devices surpass
these worst-case estimates in an
unpredictable fashion.[46] Bob Pease
observed that current transfer ratio in a
batch of 4N28's can vary from 15% to
more than 100%; the datasheet specified
only a minimum of 10%. Transistor beta in
the same batch can vary from 300 to 3000,
resulting in 10:1 variance in bandwidth.[46]

Opto-isolators using field-effect transistors

(FETs) as sensors are rare and, like
vactrols, can be used as remote-controlled
analog potentiometers provided that the
voltage across the FET's output terminal
does not exceed a few hundred mV.[38]
Opto-FETs turn on without injecting
switching charge in the output circuit,
which is particularly useful in sample and
hold circuits.[11]

Bidirectional opto-isolators

All opto-isolators described so far are uni-

directional. Optical channel always works
one way, from the source (LED) to the
sensor. The sensors, be it photoresistors,
photodiodes or phototransistors, cannot
emit light.[note 11] But LEDs, like all
semiconductor diodes,[note 12] are capable
of detecting incoming light, which makes
possible construction of a two-way opto-
isolator from a pair of LEDs. The simplest
bidirectional opto-isolator is merely a pair
of LEDs placed face to face and held
together with heat-shrink tubing. If
necessary, the gap between two LEDs can
be extended with a glass fiber insert.[48]

Visible spectrum LEDs have relatively poor

transfer efficiency, thus near infrared
spectrum GaAs, GaAs:Si and AlGaAs:Si
LEDs are the preferred choice for
bidirectional devices. Bidirectional opto-
isolators built around pairs of GaAs:Si
LEDs have current transfer ratio of around
0.06% in either photovoltaic or
photoconductive mode — less than
photodiode-based isolators,[49] but
sufficiently practical for real-world
applications.[48]

Types of configurations
Usually, optocouplers have a closed pair
configuration. This configuration refers to
optocouplers enclosed in a dark container
wherein the source and sensor are facing
each other.

Some optocouplers have a slotted

coupler/interrupter configuration. This
configuration refers to optocouplers with
an open slot between the source and
sensor that has the ability to influence
incoming signals. The slotted
coupler/interrupter configuration is
suitable for object detection, vibration
detection, and bounce-free switching.

Some optocouplers have a reflective pair

configuration. This configuration refers to
optocouplers that contain a source that
emits light and a sensor that only detects
light when it has reflected off an object.
The reflective pair configuration is suitable
for the development of tachometers,
movement detectors and reflectance
monitors.
The later two configurations are frequently
referred to as 'optosensors'.

Alternatives
Alternative isolators are typically built
using ultra thin (0.01 mm – 0.02 mm)
insulation layers, whereas optocouplers
have insulation thicknesses up to 2 mm.
The thinner insulation barrier means that
alternative isolators experience much
higher electric-field stress than
optocouplers, and could be less robust
under high voltages. Currently, there are no
IEC component level safety standard
available for such isolators. As a result,
some manufacturers might seek IEC
60747-5-2 (older revision) or IEC 60747-5-
5 (current revision) certification (a
standard originally intended for
optocouplers). Alternative isolators are
structurally different from optocouplers
and thus do not qualify for full IEC60747-5-
2/5 certification, but only for BASIC
insulation.[50]

The following are claims from

manufacturers of alternative isolators:

Developers have long recognized that

Optocouplers are based on outdated
technology, and only recently have cost
effective and easy to use alternatives
become available. These advanced
package and pin compatible drop-in
optocoupler replacements provide
sustainability higher performance and
reliability with none of the technical
liabilities of optocouplers. Digital
isolators can directly replace 6-pin and
8-pin optocouplers and are suitable for
both optocoupler retrofit and new
system designs. These devices use
CMOS-based isolation architecture that
are ten times more reliable than
optocouplers, enabling manufacturers to
support longer end product warranties
and reduce costs associated with
repairs or replacement.
Opto-isolators can be too slow and bulky
for modern digital applications. Since
the 1990s, researchers have examined
and perfected alternative, faster and
more compact isolation technologies.
Two of these technologies, transformer
based isolators and capacitor-coupled
isolators, reached the mass market in
the 2000s. The third alternative, based
on giant magnetoresistance, has been
present on the market since 2002 in
limited quantities. As of 2010,
production models of all three types
allow data transfer speeds of
 150 Mbit/s and resist voltage transients
of up to 25 kV/μs, compared to 10 kV/
μs for opto-isolators.[4] Unlike opto-
isolators, which are stacks of discrete
LEDs and sensors, the new devices are
monolithic integrated circuits, and are
easily scalable into multi-bit data bus
isolators.[51]

Notable events concerning alternative

isolators:

In 2000 Analog Devices introduced

integrated magnetic isolators —
electrically-decoupled 100 Mbit/s,
2.5 kV isolation circuits employing air
core transformers micromachined on
the surface of silicon integrated circuits.
They featured lesser power
consumption, lesser cost[note 13] and
were four times faster than the fastest
contemporary opto-isolators.[52] In 2010,
Analog increased the speed of their
magnetic isolators to 150 Mbit/s and
offered isolation up to 5 kV.[53]
Microtransformer-based isolators can
work as dc-dc converters, passing both
signal and power. Commercially
available ICs can carry up to four
isolated digital channels and a 2 W
isolated power channel in miniature 20-
pin packages.[54] According to Analog
Devices, by December 2011 the
company has more "than 750 million
[magnetic isolator] channels
deployed".[54] In the same year NEC and
Renesas announced transformer-based
CMOS devices with transfer rates of
250 Mbit/s.[55][56]
High-speed capacitive-coupled
isolators[note 14] were introduced in 2000
by Silicon Laboratories and
commercialized by Texas Instruments.
These devices convert an incoming data
stream into an amplitude-modulated
UHF signal, pass it through a silicon
dioxide isolation layer, and demodulate
the received signal. The spectra of
spurious voltage transients, which can
pass through the capacitive barrier and
disrupt operation, lie far below the
modulation frequency and can be
effectively blocked. As of 2010,
capacitive-coupled isolators offer data
transfer speeds of 150 Mbit/s and
voltage isolation of 560 V continuous
and 4 kV peak across the barrier.[57]
NVE Corporation, the pioneer of
magnetoresistive random-access
memory, markets an alternative type of
isolator based on giant
magnetoresistance (GMR) effect
(Spintronic and IsoLoop trademarks).
Each isolation cell of these devices is
formed by a flat square coil which is
 micromachined above four spin valve
sensors buried in the silicon wafer.[58]
These sensors, wired into a Wheatstone
bridge circuit, generate binary on/off
output signals.[59] At the time of their
introduction in 2002, NVE advertised
speeds 5 to 10 times higher than the
fastest opto-isolators;[58] and in March
2008 commercial devices marketed by
NVE were rated for speeds up to
150 Mbit/s.[59]

See also
Galvanic isolation

Notes
1. Real-world schematic diagrams omit the
barrier symbol, and use a single set of
directional arrows.
2. Based on conceptual drawings published
by Basso and by Mims, p. 100. Real-world
LEDs and sensors are much smaller; see
the photograph in Avago, p. 3 for an
example.
3. A transformer can have as many coils as
necessary. Each coil can act as a primary,
pumping energy into a common magnetic
core, or as a secondary – picking up energy
stored in the core.
4. The input side circuitry and the LED must
be matched, the output side and the sensor
must be matched, but there is, usually, no
need to match input and output sides.
5. See Horowitz and Hill, p. 597, for an
expanded list of opto-isolator types with
their schematic symbols and typical
specifications.
6. Current through the photoresistor (output
current) is proportional to the voltage
applied across it. In theory it can exceed
100% of input current, but in practice
dissipation of heat according to Joule's law
limits current transfer ratio at below 100%.
7. Low-cost solid-state relays have
switching times of tens of milliseconds.
Modern high-speed solid-state relays like
Avago ASSR-300 series (see datasheet )
attain switching times of less than
70 nanoseconds.
8. According to the United States Patent
and Trademark Office, trademark registered
in 1969 for "photocell combined with a light
source" is now dead (USPTO database
record serial number 72318344 . Retrieved
November 5, 2010). The same trademark,
registered in 1993 for "medico-surgical
tubing connector sold as a component of
suction catheters" is now live and owned by
Mallinckrodt Inc. (USPTO database record
serial number 74381130 . Retrieved
November 5, 2010).
9. Vactec was purchased by EG&G
(Edgerton, Germeshausen, and Grier, Inc.), a
defense contractor, in 1983. In 1999 EG&G
purchased formerly independent
PerkinElmer, and changed own name
PerkinElmer (see reverse takeover). An
unrelated company, Silonex (a division of
Carlyle Group) brands its photoresistive
opto-isolators Audiohm Optocouplers.
10. The former semiconductor division of
Agilent Technologies operates as an
independent company, Avago Technologies,
since 2005.
11. Exception: Ternary and quaternary
GaAsP photodiodes can generate light. -
Mims, p. 102.
12. "Even the garden variety signal diodes
you use in circuits have a small photovoltaic
effect. There are amusing stories of bizarre
circuit behavior finally traced to this." -
Horowitz and Hill McCoulny, p. 184.
13. "Low cost" of components, in industry
language, means "low price for the [bulk
volume] buyer". It does not necessarily
indicate low costs to produce these
components, particularly when the
manufacturer introduces a new type of
device.
14. Burr-Brown introduced a distinct class
of capacitive-coupled analog isolation
amplifiers in the 1980s. These hybrid
circuits attain analog bandwidth of 70 kHz
and isolation of 3.5 kV. - Horowitz and Hill,
p. 464.

References
1. Graf, p. 522.
2. Lee et al., p. 2.
3. Hasse, p. 145.
4. Joffe and Kai-Sang Lock, p. 279.
5. Graf, p. 522; PerkinElmer, p. 28.
6. See Ananthi, pp. 56, 62 for a practical
example of an opto-coupled EEG
application.
7. Mims, p. 100.
8. Hasse, p. 43.
9. Hasse, p. 60.
10. See Basso for a discussion of such
interfacing in switched-mode power
supplies.
11. Horowitz and Hill, p. 595.
12. Jaus, p. 48.
13. Jaus, pp. 50–51.
14. Joffe and Kai-Sang Lock, p. 277.
15. Joffe and Kai-Sang Lock, pp. 268, 276.
16. Mataré, p. 174
17. Ball, p. 69.
18. Avago Technologies (2007). ASSR-301C
and ASSR-302C (datasheet) . Retrieved
November 3, 2010.
19. Bottrill et al., p. 175.
20. Basso.
21. Vishay Semiconductor.
22. Mataré, p. 177, table 5.1.
23. Mataré, p. 177
24. Weber, p. 190; PerkinElmer, p. 28;
Collins, p. 181.
25. Schubert, pp. 8–9.
26. PerkinElmer, pp. 6–7: "at 1 fc of
illumination the response times are typically
in the range of 5 ms to 100 ms."
27. Weber, p. 190; PerkinElmer, pp. 2,7,28;
Collins, p. 181.
28. PerkinElmer, p. 3
29. Fliegler and Eiche, p. 28; Teagle and
Sprung, p. 225.
30. Weber, p. 190.
31. Collins, p. 181.
32. PerkinElmer, pp. 35–36; Silonex, p. 1
(see also distortion charts on subsequent
pages).
33. PerkinElmer, pp. 7, 29, 38; Silonex, p. 8.
34. Horowitz and Hill, pp. 596–597.
35. Porat and Barna, p. 464. See also full
specifications of currently produced
devices: 6N137 / HCPL-2601 datasheet .
Avago Technologies. March 2010. Retrieved
November 2, 2010.
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