GEOPHYSICS 224 – Winter 2008

CHAPTER 2 – GRAVITY EXPLORATION

(Textbook: chapter 6)

2.1 Gravity and gravity anomalies

2.1.1 Newtonian gravitation

Consider two point masses that are a distance r apart.

Newton’s theory of gravitation predicts that they will attract each other with a force F
that is given by:

Gm1 m2
F= (1)
r2

Newton deduced this equation in 1687 by observing the motion of planets and moons in
the solar system. The parameter G is the universal gravitational constant (also called
“big G” – but it is actually a small number). The units are:

F Newtons (N)
m kilograms (kg)
r metres (m)
G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
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It can be shown that if the masses are of a finite size (e.g., a planet or the sun) then F will
be the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the centre:

Assume m1 = m2 = 1,000,000 kg (1000 tonnes), then the variation of F as r increases will

show the “inverse square law”.
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Now consider the mass m2. Newton’s third law of motion predicts that the gravitational
force will cause this mass to accelerate with an acceleration (a), given by:

F = m2 a

Rearranging this:
F
a=
m2

The value of F is given by equation 1. Therefore:

Gm1m2 1 Gm
a= 2
= 21 = g (2)
r m2 r

where g is called the gravitational acceleration and has units m s-2.

Consider than m1 is the Earth and that m2 is a small mass that we are going to drop.
Equation 2 tells us:

• acceleration does not depend on the mass of the object being dropped. A
small mass and a large mass will fall with the same acceleration

• g decreases with distance from m1 - decreases by 1/r2 (inverse square law).

2.1.2 Density of rocks

The mass (m) of an object is equal to its density multiplied by its volume (V):

m=ρxV

The Greek letter rho (ρ) is used to represent density. S.I. units for density are kg m-3.
Often density is reported in g cm-3. To convert, remember that: 1 g cm-3 = 1000 kg m-3

Pure minerals – Tend to have a high density because atoms are closely packed together.
Density reflects the composition - higher density if minerals contain a significant fraction
of heavy elements, such as Fe and Mg.

Galena (PbS) ρ = 7.40 – 7.60 g cm-3

Magnetite (Fe304) ρ = 4.90 – 5.20 g cm-3
Pyrite (FeS2) ρ = 4.90 – 5.20 g cm-3
Halite (NaCl) ρ = 2.10 – 2.40 g cm-3
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Sedimentary rocks – have lower density because atoms are not as closely packed
together and have pore space that is filled with lower density materials (e.g., air, water,
hydrocarbons). Composition has a secondary effect on density.

Water ρ = 1.00 – 1.05 g cm-3

Shale ρ = 2.06 – 2.66 g cm-3
Limestone ρ = 2.60 – 2.80 g cm-3
Dolomite ρ = 2.28 – 2.90 g cm-3
Sandstone
Cretaceous ρ = 2.05 – 2.35 g cm-3
Triassic ρ = 2.25 – 2.30 g cm-3
Carboniferous ρ = 2.35 – 2.55 g cm-3

The range of density values reflects the degree of weathering and the porosity. Density
tends to increase with depth, owing to increased compaction. This reduces the pore space
available for low density materials. Density tends to increase with age, owing to
increased cementation.

Igneous and metamorphic rocks – more dense than sedimentary rocks owing to
negligible porosity. Density is primarily determined by composition. Mafic rocks are
generally more dense due to a decreased silica content and an increased amount of
heavier elements (Fe and Mg).

Granite ρ = 2.52 – 2.75 g cm-3

Basalt ρ = 2.70 – 3.20 g cm-3
Gneiss ρ = 2.61 – 2.99 g cm-3

2.1.3 Gravity anomalies and milligals

Subsurface variations in rock density result in small changes in the value of gravitational
acceleration (g) observed at the Earth’s surface. In gravity exploration, measurements
of the gravitational field are taken at a series of different locations in the area of interest.

The objective is to associate small variations in the observed gravity (g) with the
distribution of subsurface densities and hence rock types.

subsurface subsurface
g at surface density geology
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The average gravitational acceleration at the Earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2. Usually,
variations in subsurface density produce only very small changes in this value, so it is
more convenient to use a smaller unit – the milligal.

1 mgal = 10-5 m s-2

9.8 m s-2 =
980 cm s-2
=
980 Gal (after Galileo)
=
980,000 milligals (mgal)

Note that textbook uses the unit gu (“gravity unit”):

1 gu = 1 μm s-2 = 10-6 m s-2 = 0.1 mgal

In addition, for data analysis and interpretation, it is often easier to use gravity
anomalies – the difference between the observed gravity and the average background
gravity.

2.1.4 Magnitude of gravity anomalies

Consider a spherical ore body with a density ρ and radius a that is buried at a depth z
below the surface. The surrounding soil has a density ρ0.

The ore body has a density that is larger than the surrounding soil and therefore we
expect that the gravitational acceleration should be larger over the sphere. The maximum
gravity will be greatest at a point P directly over the ore body.

To simplify things (for now), assume that the gravity anomaly (g) due to the sphere is the
same as if all the mass were concentrated at the centre.
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⎛4 ⎞
Total mass of the ore body = volume × density = ⎜ πa 3 ⎟ × ρ
⎝3 ⎠

Excess mass of the sphere, ME = mass of the ore body – mass of the soil
⎛4 ⎞ ⎛4 ⎞
= ⎜ πa 3 ⎟ × ρ - ⎜ πa 3 ⎟ × ρ 0
⎝3 ⎠ ⎝3 ⎠
⎛4 ⎞
= ⎜ πa 3 ⎟ × (ρ − ρ 0 )
⎝3 ⎠

The quantity ρ- ρ0 is the density contrast – the difference in density between the ore
body and the soil (background density).

Above the ore body, the change in gravity due to the ore body (the gravity anomaly) can
be determined from equation 2:

GM E 4Gπa 3 (ρ − ρ 0 )
Δg = =
z2 3z 2

Assume some values:

a = 50 m
z = 100 m
ρ = 4000 kg m-3
ρ0 = 2000 kg m-3

Using these values, the calculated gravity anomaly is: Δg = ___________ mgal

Compare the gravity anomaly to the average gravitational acceleration of the Earth
(~980,000 mgal). You can see that the anomaly is a very small fraction of the total
gravity field – less than 0.0001%!

How does the gravity anomaly change if the ore body is deeper? Has a larger radius?
Has a larger density?

2.1.5 Gravity anomaly profiles

Consider a buried ore body which is more dense than the surrounding soil. How does the
gravitational acceleration vary as you walk across the surface?

To measure the gravity field, we could do a simple experiment where we drop a ball at a
number of locations and record its gravitational acceleration. This is a gravity profile.
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In experiment 2, assume that all densities are reduced by subtracting the density of the
soil (ρ0).

Note that the shape of the gravitational acceleration curve does not depend on the
absolute densities of the materials. We would obtain a profile with the same shape if the
materials had different densities, as long as the density contrast (Δρ=ρ- ρ0) between the
ore body and the soil is the same. The only difference in the profiles is an offset in the
absolute values of the gravitational acceleration.

The shape and magnitude of the gravity anomaly contains all the information that is
needed to determine the geometry and depth of the ore body.