Materials Science

04-Phase Diagram

By Dr Sohaib Z Khan
[email protected]
 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Introduction

To study correlation between microstructure and
mechanical properties

The development of microstructure of an alloy is related
to the characteristics of its phase diagram

Phase diagrams provide valuable information about
melting, casting, crystallization, and other phenomena

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Terminology

Component: components are pure metals and/or compounds of
which an alloy is composed
 For example, in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu
and Zn

Solvent: represents the element or compound that is present in the
greatest amount; on occasion, solvent atoms are also called host
atoms

Solute: is used to denote an element or compound present in a
minor concentration

Solid Solution: forms when, as the solute atoms are added to the
host material, the crystal structure is maintained, and no new
structures are formed
 Analogy with a liquid solution, if two liquids, soluble in each other
(such as water and alcohol) are combined, a liquid solution is
produced as the molecules intermix, and its composition is
homogeneous throughout

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Terminology

System: which has two meanings
 First, it may refer to a specific body of material under
consideration (e.g., a ladle of molten steel)
 Second, it may relate to the series of possible alloys consisting
of the same components, but without regard to alloy composition
(e.g., the iron–carbon system)

Solubility Limit: many alloy systems and at some specific
temperature, there is a maximum concentration of solute atoms that
may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution
 Solute in excess of this solubility limit
results in the formation of another solid
solution or compound that has a
distinctly different composition
(e.g., sugar–water system)

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Terminology

Phase: may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system that
has uniform physical and chemical characteristics
 Every pure material is considered to be a phase
 Example: Sugar–water syrup solution is one phase, and solid
sugar is another. Each is different chemically (i.e., has a different
chemical composition); one is virtually pure sugar, the other is a
solution
 Either has different physical or chemical or both

Water and ice: physically dissimilar but identical in chemical

Two or more polymorphic forms (e.g., both FCC and BCCs),

each of these structures is a separate phase because their
respective physical characteristics differ

Homogeneous: a single-phase system

Heterogeneous systems / mixtures: systems composed of two or
more phases

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Terminology

Microstructure: the physical properties and, in particular, the
mechanical behavior of a material depend on the microstructure
 Direct microscopic observation, using optical or electron
microscopes (already covered in seminar TGSS-01-03)

Free energy: is a function of the internal energy of a system, and
also the randomness or disorder of the atoms or molecules (or
entropy)

Equilibrium: A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a
minimum under some specified combination of temperature,
pressure, and composition
 In a macroscopic sense, this means that the characteristics of
the system do not change with time but persist indefinitely; that
is, the system is stable
 A change in temperature, pressure, and/or composition for a
system in equilibrium will result in an increase in the free energy
and in a possible spontaneous change to another state whereby
the free energy is lowered

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Terminology

Phase equilibrium: as it applies to systems in which more than one
phase may exist
 Water-sugar system

at 20°C  65 wt% sugar

at 100°C  80 wt% sugar

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Phase Diagram: Terminology

Metastable: It is often the case, especially in solid systems, that a
state of equilibrium is never completely achieved because the rate of
approach to equilibrium is either extremely slow or fast; such a
system is said to be in a nonequilibrium or metastable state
 A metastable state or microstructure may persist indefinitely,
experiencing only extremely slight and almost imperceptible
changes as time progresses
 Often, metastable structures are of more practical significance
than equilibrium ones.

For example, some steel and aluminum alloys rely for their
strength on the development of metastable microstructures
during carefully designed heat treatments

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Solid Solution

Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of
which there are two types:
 Substitutional: solute or impurity atoms replace or
substitute for the host atoms
 Interstitial

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Solid Solution

Atomic size factor: Appreciable quantities of a solute may be
accommodated in this type of solid solution only when the difference
in atomic radii between the two atom types is less than about ±15%.
Otherwise the solute atoms will create substantial lattice distortions
and a new phase will form

Crystal structure: For appreciable solid solubility the crystal
structures for metals of both atom types must be the same

Electronegativity: The more electropositive one element and the
more electronegative the other, the greater is the likelihood that they
will form an intermetallic compound instead of a substitutional solid
solution

Valences: Other factors being equal, a metal will have more of a
tendency to dissolve another metal of higher valency than one of a
lower valency.

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Isomorphous Systems
Three different phase regions, or
fields, appear on the diagram,
an alpha α field,
a liquid (L) field,
a two-phase α + L field.

Each region is defined by the

phase or phases that exist over
the range of temperatures and
compositions delimited by the
phase boundary lines

The liquid L is a homogeneous

liquid solution composed of both
copper and nickel

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Isomorphous Systems
The phase is a substitutional solid
solution consisting of both Cu and
Ni atoms, and having an FCC
crystal structure

At temperatures below about

1080 °C Cu and Ni are mutually
soluble in each other in the solid
state for all compositions. This
complete solubility is explained by
the fact that both Cu and Ni have
the same crystal structure (FCC),
nearly identical atomic radii and
electronegativities, and similar
valences

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Isomorphous Systems
The Cu–Ni system is termed
isomorphous because of this
complete liquid and solid solubility
of the two components

The solidus and liquidus lines

intersect at the two composition
extremities; these correspond to
the melting temperatures of the
pure components. For example,
the melting temperatures of pure
copper and nickel are 1085 and
1453oC respectively.

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Isomorphous Systems
For any composition other than
pure components, this melting
phenomenon will occur over the
range of temperatures between
the solidus and liquidus lines;
both solid α and liquid phases will
be in equilibrium within this
temperature range. For example,
upon heating an alloy of
composition 50 wt% Ni–50 wt%
Cu melting begins at
approximately 1280oC the amount
of liquid phase continuously
increases with temperature until
about 1320oC ), at which the alloy
is completely liquid

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams: Composition
1. A tie line (isotherm) is constructed
across the two-phase region at the
temperature of the alloy
2. The intersections of the tie line and
the phase boundaries on either
side are noted
3. Perpendiculars are dropped from
these intersections to the horizontal
composition axis, from which the
composition of each of the
respective phases is read

31.5 wt% Ni 42.5 wt% Ni

68.5 wt% Cu 57.5 wt% Cu

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams: Amount
1. A tie line (isotherm) is constructed
2. The overall alloy composition is
located on the tie line
3. The fraction of one phase is
computed by taking the length of
tie line from the overall alloy
composition to the phase boundary
for the other phase, and dividing by
the total tie line length
4. The fraction of the other phase is
determined in the same manner
5. If phase percentages are desired,
each phase fraction is multiplied by
100

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams: Amount

Of course, identical answers are

obtained if compositions are expressed
in weight percent copper instead of
nickel.

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams

Composition
Amount
 Compositions of phases  Fractional phase amounts
are expressed in terms of (e.g., mass fraction of the
weight percents of the solid or liquid phase), when
components (e.g., wt% Cu, a single phase exists, the
wt% Ni) alloy is completely that
 For any alloy consisting of phase
a single phase, the  For a two-phase alloy, on
composition of that phase the other hand, the lever
is the same as the total rule is utilized, in which a
alloy composition ratio of tie line segment
 If two phases are present, lengths is taken
the tie line must be
employed, the extremities
of which determine the
compositions of the
respective phases

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Interpretation of Phase Diagrams
A copper–nickel alloy of
composition 70 wt% Ni–30 wt%
Cu is slowly heated from a
temperature of 1300C (2370F)
(a) At what temperature does the
first liquid phase form?
(b) What is the composition of this
liquid phase?
(c) At what temperature does
complete melting of the alloy
occur?
(d) What is the composition of the
last solid remaining prior to
complete melting?

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys

Equilibrium Cooling: cooling
occurs very slowly, in that
phase equilibrium is
continuously maintained

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Systems

eutectic
means
easily
melted

An Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science for chemical and materials engineers.pdf p169
Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012
 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Cu-Ag

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Cu-Ag

α: solid solution rich in copper; it
has silver as the solute
component and an FCC crystal
structure

β: solid solution also has an FCC

structure, but copper is the solute

Liquid:

Pure Cu  α
Pure Ag  β

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Cu-Ag

The solubility in each of these
solid phases is limited, in that at
any temperature below line BEG
only a limited concentration of
 silver will dissolve in copper
(for the α phase),
 similarly for copper in silver
(for the β phase)

The solubility limit for the α phase
corresponds to the boundary line,
CBA; it increases with
temperature to a maximum [8.0
wt% Ag at 779°C] at point B, and
decreases back to zero at the
melting temperature of pure
copper, point A [1085°C]

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Cu-Ag

At temperatures below (779°C),
The lowest liquid phase
the solid solubility limit line temperature BEG
separating the α and α+β phase
regions is termed a solvus line

The boundary AB between the α
and α+L fields is the solidus line

For the β phase,

Solvus  HG
Solidus  GF

The maximum solubility of copper

in the β phase, point G (8.8 wt%
Cu), also occurs at 779C

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Cu-Ag

Three, two-phase regions

Liquidus  AE , EF

Melting temperature of copper is
lowered due to the addition of
silver; same for silver

Point E is called an invariant
point, which is designated by the
composition CE and temperature
TE

Copper–silver system,
CE 71.9 wt% Ag
TE  779 °C

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Cu-Ag

Eutectic reaction:

Similar to solidification for pure

components, however, eutectic
solidification is always two solid
phases, whereas for a pure
component only a single phase
forms

two-phase region that consists of
the two single phases; α and β
phase is situated between the α
and β single phase

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary Eutectic Systems: Pb-Sn

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys
Redistribution is
accomplished by
atomic diffusion

Formation of the eutectic structure for the

lead–tin system. Directions of diffusion of
tin and lead atoms are indicated by blue
and red arrows, respectively

Photomicrograph showing the

microstructure of a lead–tin alloy of
eutectic composition

For eutectic structure forms in alternating layers, because of lemellar configuration,

atomic diffusion of Pb and Sn only occur over relatively short distances.

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys

Photomicrograph showing the microstructure of

a lead–tin alloy of composition 50 wt% Sn –50
wt% Pb. This microstructure is composed of a
primary lead-rich α phase (large dark regions)
within a lamellar eutectic structure consisting of
a tin-rich β phase (light layers) and a lead-rich
α phase (dark layers).

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys

Reading assignment for development of microstructure
in eutectic alloys, Pb-Sn, from

Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction,

William D. Callister, ed 7, page 276-280.

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Binary alloy systems: The Iron–Carbon System

Ferrite (α-iron)  BCC structure

Austenite (γ-iron)  FCC structure

Cementite  Orthorhombic crystal structure

Pearlite  α-ferrite (88 wt%) + cementite (12%)

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

At room temperature the stable form, called ferrite, or α-iron, has a
BCC crystal structure

Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC austenite,
or γ-iron, at 912°C and this austenite persists to 1394°C at which
temperature the FCC austenite reverts back to a BCC phase known
as δ-ferrite, which finally melts at 1598°C

The composition axis extends only to 6.70 wt% C; at this
concentration the intermediate compound iron carbide, or cementite
(Fe3C), is formed, which is represented by a vertical line on the
phase diagram

Thus, the iron–carbon system may be divided into two parts: an iron-
rich portion, as in Figure , and the other (not shown) for
compositions between 6.70 and 100 wt% C (pure graphite)

In practice, all steels and cast irons have carbon contents less than
6.70 wt% C; therefore, we consider only the iron–iron carbide
system. Thus, the previous diagram labeled as the Fe–Fe3C phase
diagram

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron and forms a solid solution
with each of α and δ ferrites, and also with austenite, as indicated by
α, δ, and γ single-phase fields

In BCC ferrite, only small concentrations of carbon are soluble; the
maximum solubility is 0.022 wt% at 727°C

The limited solubility is explained by the shape and size of the BCC
interstitial positions, which make it difficult to accommodate the
carbon atoms. Even though present in relatively low concentrations.

Carbon significantly influences the mechanical properties of ferrite.
This particular iron–carbon phase is relatively soft, may be made
magnetic at temperatures below 768°C, and has a density of 7.88
g/cm3

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

The austenite, or γ phase of iron, when alloyed with carbon alone, is
not stable below 727°C, as indicated in Figure. The maximum
solubility of carbon in austenite, 2.14 wt%, occurs at 1147°C

This solubility is approximately is 100 times greater than the
maximum for BCC ferrite, since the FCC interstitial positions are
larger, and, therefore, the strains imposed on the surrounding iron
atoms are much lower. Austenite are very important in the heat
treating of steels, and, it is nonmagnetic

The δ-ferrite is virtually the same as α-ferrite, except for the range of
temperatures. δ-ferrite is stable only at relatively high temperatures,
it is of no technological importance and is not discussed further

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

Cementite (Fe3C) forms when the solubility limit of carbon in α-ferrite
is exceeded Below 727°C, Fe3C will also coexist with the phase
between 727 and 1147°C . Mechanically, cementite is very hard and
brittle; the strength of some steels is greatly enhanced by its
presence

Strictly speaking, cementite is only metastable; that is, it will remain
as a compound indefinitely at room temperature. However, if heated
to between 650 and 700°C, for several years, it will gradually
change or transform into α-iron and carbon, in the form of graphite,
which will remain upon subsequent cooling to room temperature; the
decomposition rate of cementite is extremely sluggish

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

It may be noted that one eutectic exists for the iron–iron carbide
system, at 4.30 wt% C and 1147°C for this eutectic reaction,

It may be noted that a eutectoid invariant point exists at a

composition of 0.76 wt%C and a temperature of 727°C, This
eutectoid reaction may be represented by following or, upon cooling,
the solid γ phase is transformed into α-iron and cementite

Ferrous alloys are those in which iron is the prime component, but
carbon as well as other alloying elements may be present

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Iron–carbon Alloys

Schematic representation of the formation of pearlite from

austenite; direction of carbon diffusion indicated by arrows

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Development of Microstructure in Iron–carbon Alloys

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
T1: Result

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science

Phase Diagram

OTHER USEFUL STUFF

Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012

 Materials Science
Classification of Ferrous Alloys

An Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science_for chemical and materials engineers.pdf p173
Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012
 Materials Science
Iron

Cooling curve for pure iron

An Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science for chemical and materials engineers, Brian S. Mitchell, 2004, p161
Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012
 Materials Science
The Iron–iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

The body-centered tetragonal Variation of tetragonality in steel

unit cell of steel martensite martensite with axial ratio

An Introduction to Materials Engineering and Science for chemical and materials engineers, Brian S. Mitchell, 2004, p163
Materials Science by Dr Sohaib Z Khan – Spring 2012