Equipment for Engineering Education

Experiment Instructions
WP950 Deformation of
Straight Beams

G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH

P.O. Box 1125
D - 22881 Barsbüttel • Germany
Phone+49 40 670 854 - 0
Fax +49 40 670 854 - 42
E-Mail: [email protected]
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH , Hamburg

Experiment Instructions

Publication No.: 912.000 00A 950 12 07/08

 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

Table of contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Unit description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.1 Bending on the cantilever bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.1.1 Deflection at the point of application of force . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
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3.1.2 Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3.1.3 Determining the elastic line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.4 Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Bar on two supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.1 Measurement of the supporting forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.2 Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.3 Elastic line for centre loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.4 Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Maxwell-Betti’s influence coefficients and law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.1 Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Statically undetermined systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.1 Calculation of the supporting force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4.2 Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.1 Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.2 Formulae and units used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

1 Introduction

The WP 950 device for deformation of straight

beams permits a broad spectrum of experiments
on the deformation of a bending bar.
The experiments include
- Elastic line under different support conditions
- Elastic line under different loads
- Demonstration of the Maxwell-Betti law
- Supporting forces in statically undetermined systems
The loads are applied in a visual manner using sets
of weights.
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Deformation of the bar is measured using dial

gauges.
Supporting forces can be determined via the dyna-
mometers integrated in the supports.
Bars of various materials are available in order to
demonstrate the influence of the modulus of ela-
sticity on deflection.
By using very thin, elastic bars, deformation of the
bar under load can be seen very clearly, even
without dial gauges. Accordingly, the device is not
only suitable for practical experiments, but is also
ideal for demonstration in the classroom. The dy-
namometers have large, clear scales and can
easily be read from some distance away.

1
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

2 Unit description

12
4

8 7

2 2 2 5 3
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The bar bending device consists of a light, stable

frame (1) made of aluminium. The various sup-
ports (2,3) are fastened to the lower girder with
clamping levers. The dial gauges (4) are fastened
to the upper girder with holders.

The load weights (5) are attached to the bar (7)

6
via movable riders (6). The riders can be locked
in position. The load can be adjusted in incre-
ments of 25 N using weight blocks.
5

9 The articulated supports (2) are fitted with dyna-

mometers (8). The height of the support can be
2
adjusted using a threaded spindle (9). The support
10 can be locked in position by the screw (10). This
8
compensates deformation of the bar by its own
weight or deflection of the support caused by
spring excursion of the dynamometer.

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

In statically undetermined systems, it is possible to

demonstrate the influence of support deflection on
load distribution.

The scales on the dynamometers (8) rotate to

enable taring.

11 The bar (7) is fixed in the support with clamp (3)

7 by means of a clamping plate (11).
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12 The height of the dial gauges (4) can be adjusted

4 on their holders (12).

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3 Experiments

Below are descriptions of some of the experiments

which can be performed with the WP950. They
represent only a small proportion of the experi-
ments which are possible with the device and
should provide ideas for other experiments.

3.1 Bending on the cantilever bar

3.1.1 Deflection at the point of application of force

The aim of this experiment is to check the mathe-

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matically determined deflection of the cantilever

bar.
In a cantilever bar, one side of the bar is fixed and
the other side free. This is known as a tri-valent
support which transmits normal force, transverse
force and moment. The bar is therefore supported
in a statically determined manner.
The equation for the deflection f of the bar at the
F point of application of force is
E, Iy
F L3
f f=
3 E Iy
L
Deflection is proportional to the load F and inver-
Cantilever beam
sely proportional to the modulus of elasticity E and
planar moment of intertia (PMI) I y. The length of
the bar is cubed.

The influence of the lenght L should be demonsta-

ted in this experiment.
For this purpose, the force should be constant.
The experimental bar is made of steel (modulus of
elasticity E = 210000 N/mm2) and has a cross-
section of 20 x 6 mm2. This produces a PMI of

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

b h3 6 ⋅ 203
Iy = = = 360 mm4
12 12

With these values and a load of 17.5 N (suspender

2.5N + 3 weights 5N), the following deflection
values are achieved:

Deflection of the cantilever bar according to length

Lenght L in mm Deflection f in mm
300 2.08
400 4.94
500 9.64
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3.1.2 Performing the experiment

The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.

The following equipment is required:
- Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm (7)
- Rider for weight (6)
- Suspender for weights (5)
- 3 weights 5N
- Dial gauge with holder (4, 12)
- Support pillar with clamp (3)

12
4
Clamp
Deflection f
6 7
3
Lenght L

5
Load F

5
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

- Fasten the support pillar to the frame

- Clamp the bar in the support pillar

- Place the rider on the bar and lock in the

Tracer pin required position
Flattened
part
- Fasten the dial gauge to the frame with the
Rider holder in such a way that the tracer pin is
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touching the flattened part of the rider bolt

Twist
scale - Set the dial gauge to zero with the bar unloa-
ded. To do so, adjust the holder and rotate the
scale for precise adjustment

- Suspend the load weight, read the deflection

on the dial gauge and record
5

The following table compares the results of the

experiment with the results of the mathematical
calculation.
Comparision between measured and calculated deflections
Lenght L in mm Measured Calculated
deflection in mm deflection in mm
300 2.45 2.08
400 5.4 4.94
500 10.2 9.64

The consistency can be described as good. The

measured deflection values are all slightly too high.
It is possible that the modulus of elasticity of the
material itself does not match the one assumed for
the calculation.

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.1.3 Determining the elastic line

This experiment measures the elastic line of a

cantilever bar and compares it with the result of the
mathematical calculation.
The equation for the elastic line of a cantilever
F bar loaded with a single force is as follows for the
x x2 loaded section II with 0 ≤ x2 ≤ a
Section I Section II
F a3  x2 x32 
w(x2) = − +
6 E Iy  a a3 
w(b) 2 3 .
w(0)
α
In the unloaded section I between the point of
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b a
application of the force and the free end, the de-
L flection is a linear function of the length and the
Elastic line of a cantilever bar inclination α in the point of application of force.
This is not bending, but slanting
w(x) = w(b) + (b − x) α .

Where

F a3 F a2
w(b) = und α = .
3 E Iy 2 E Iy

For a load of F = 17.5 N where a = 500 mm, the

following deflection values are achieved:

Elastic line of a cantilever bar

x in mm Deflection f in mm
0 18.33
100 15.43
200 12.74
300 9.65
400 6.79
500 4.17
600 2.00
700 0.54
800 0

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.1.4 Performing the experiment

The experiment is set up as described in 3.1.2.

Distance x

Lenght a = 500mm

Load F
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The load remains constant and is applied at a= 500

mm.
The deflection of the bar is measured at intervals
of 100 mm with the dial gauge
- Relieve the bar
- Apply the dial gauge at the required position
and set to zero
- Load the bar
- Read the deflection value and record
- Relieve the bar and move the dial gauge to the
next position
Repeat the measuring procedure

Elastic line of cantilever bar

x in mm Measured Calculated
deflection in mm deflection in mm
0 18.7 18.33
100 15.9 15.43
200 13.0 12.74
300 10.2 9.65
400 7.3 6.79
500 4.65 4.17
600 2.3 2.00
700 0.8 0.54

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

The values determined can be recorded in a graph

as an elastic line. The calculation and the meas-
urement are very consistent. The linear pattern is
clearly recognisable in section I.

0
Calculated

5 Measured
Section I
Deflection in mm

10 Section II
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15

20
0 200 400 600 800
Distance x in mm
Elastic line of a cantilever bar

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.2 Bar on two supports

3.2.1 Measurement of the supporting forces

The articulated supports are fitted with dynamome-

ters to measure the supporting forces. This
experiment determines the supporting forces for a
bar depending on the point of application of the
load x. The supporting forces A and B can be
determined via balances of moments.
Balance of moments around support B

L Σ MB = 0 = F (L − x) − A L
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x F
Supporting force A
x
A = F ( 1− )
L
A B

Supporting forces on the bar Balance of moments around support A

Σ MA = 0 = B L − F x

Supporting force B
x
B=F .
L

A bar with a length L=1000 mm and a load of F=20

N produces the following supporting forces A and B.
The sum of the supporting forces must correspond
to the load.

Supporting forces at a load of F = 20 N

(values for one half only; the other half is symmetrical)
Distance x from Supporting force Supporting force
support A in mm A in N B in N
0 20 0
100 18 2
200 16 4
300 14 6
400 12 8
500 (Centre) 10 10

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.2.2 Performing the experiment

The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.

The following equipment is required:
- Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm (4)
- Rider for weight (6)
- Suspender for weights (5)
- 3 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N
- 2 articulated supports (2) with dynamometer (7)
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4
6

2 2
5
Load F

The load of 20 N is applied in the centre at x= 500

mm.

- Fasten the articulated supports (2) at a distan-

ce of 1000 mm
- Push the rider (6) for the weight suspender onto
the bar (4) and place the bar on the supports

3
4
- Loosen the locking screw (1) on the support (2).
1 Adjust the height of the support using the
rotary knob (3) until the bar (4) is horizontal.
Re-secure the support using the locking screw
(1)

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

7 - Set the scale on the dynamometer (7) to zero

by twisting

- Suspend the weight (5) and load the bar

5
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- Read the supporting forces on the dynamome-

7 ters (7) and record

The measured supporting forces are very consi-

stent with the calculated values.

Measured suporting forces at a load of F = 20 N

(values for one half only; the other half is symmetrical)
Distance x from Support force A Support force B
support A in mm in N in N
0 20 0
100 18.3 1.7
200 16 4
300 14.3 5.7
400 12 8
500 (Centre) 10 10

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.2.3 Elastic line for centre loading

This experiment measures the elastic line of a bar

on two supports and compares it with the mathe-
matically calculated result.
The equation for the elastic line of a bar loaded
in the centre with a single force is as follows for the
section between the left-hand support and the load
with 0 ≤ x ≤ L⁄2

x F F L3  x x3 
w(x) =  3 −4 3.
48 E Iy L L 

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The section between the load and the right-hand

f w(x) support is symmetrical to this.
Bar on two supports The maximum deflection is at the centre of the bar
where x = L⁄2 directly beneath the load

F L3
f= .
48 E Iy

The following deflection values are achieved for a

1000 mm long bar with a load of F = 20 N at x =
500 mm:

Elastic line of a bar on two supports

(only one half; the other half is symmetrical)
x in mm Deflection w in mm
0 0
100 1.63
200 3.13
300 4.36
400 5.20
500 (Centre of bar) 5.51 (max. deflection)

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.2.4 Performing the experiment

The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.

The following equipment is required:
- Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm (4)
- Rider for weight (6)
- Suspender for weights (5)
- 3 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N
- 2 articulated supports (2) with dynamometer (7)
- 3 dial gauges with holder (4,8)
The load remains constant and is applied in the
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centre at x= 500 mm.

Dial gauge (8) for Dial gauge (4) for

support deflection bar deflection

Left support (2) Right support (2)

6 4

7 7

Force F 5

The deflection of the bar is measured with the dial

gauge (4) at intervals of 100 mm.
Two dial gauges (8) on the supports (2) measure
the deflection due to the dynamometer (7)
3
- Relieve the bar
- Loosen the locking screw (1) on the support.
1 Adjust the height of the support using the rotary
knob (3) until the dial gauges (8) read zero.
- Fasten the supports using the locking screw (1)
- Place the dial gauge (4) in the required position
and set to zero
- Load the bar

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

Excursion f of
The dynamometers experience spring excursion
F
the supports under load. In order to prevent measurement er-
rors as a result of this additional deflection f, the
supports should be returned to their original posi-
w(x)
tion.
- Loosen the locking screw (1) on the support.
x Raise the support using the rotary knob (3) until
L the dial gauges (8) read zero.
Measurement of the elastic line Fasten the support using the locking screw (1)
- Read the deflection value from the dial gauge
(4) and record
- Relieve the bar, move the dial gauge to the next
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position, and repeat the measurement.

Elastic line of a bar on two supports

x in mm Measured Calculated
deflection w(x) in deflection w(x) in
mm mm
0 0 0
100 1.3 1.63
200 2.8 3.13
300 4.0 4.36
400 4.6 5.20
500 5.1 5.51

The measured deflections are slightly too low. The

following graph compares the measured elastic
line with the calculated elastic line:

0
Deflection w(x) in mm

2 Measured

4
Calculated

5
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Distance x in mm
Elastic line of bar on two supports

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.3 Maxwell-Betti’s influence coefficients and law

Influence coefficients link the deflection at a certain

point in the bar to the loading of the bar. In general,
the deflection wi for a point xi can be specified as
the function of n forces Fj as follows:
n

wi = ∑ aij Fj.
j=1

This experiment is only intended to examine the

effect of a force on points x1 and x2 on the deflecti-
on at points x1 and x2
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F1
w1 = a11 F1
w1

w1 = a12 F2
F2
w1
w2 = a21 F1
F1
w2
w2 = a22 F2
F2
w2 According to the Maxwell-Betti transposition law,
x1 x2 deflection at point x1 as a result of the force on
point x2 is just as large as the deflection at point x2
caused by an identical force on point x1. This
correlation is described by the following formula
w1 = a12 F2 = w2 = a21 F1

a21 = a12

In general, according to Maxwell-Betti, the follo-

wing applies
aij = aji

The two influence coefficients a11 and a22 indi-

cate the deflection at the point of force.

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.3.1 Performing the experiment

The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.

The following equipment is required:
- Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm
- Rider for weight
- Suspender for weights
- 3 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N
- 2 articulated supports with dynamometer
- 3 dial gauges with holder
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x2 = 600 mm
x1 = 300 mm

The distance between the supports is 1000 mm.

The load of 20 N remains constant and is applied
at x1= 300 mm and x2 = 600 mm.
The deflection of the bar at points x1 and x2 is
measured with the dial gauge.
Two dial gauges on the supports measure the
deflection caused by the dynamometers and serve
to compensate it. The procedure is the same as
described in the previous experiment.

17
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

- Load the bar at point x1 and measure the

deflection at x1 and x2.
- Load the bar at x2 and measure the deflection
at x1 and x2

Influence coefficients for bars on two supports

Deflection at point Force at point Deflection w Influence
in mm in mm in mm coefficient in
mm/N
x1= 300 x1= 300 3.1 a11= 0.155
x1= 300 x2= 600 3.5 a12= 0.175
x2= 600 x1= 300 3.5 a21= 0.175
x2= 600 x2= 600 4.3 a22= 0.215
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From the load and the deflections, it is possible to

calculate the influence coefficients.
As predicted, the influence coefficients a12 and a21
are identical.

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.4 Statically undetermined systems

A statically undetermined system exists when the

valency of the support is greater than the number
of degrees of freedom of the system. A system
in the plane, such as the bar, has 3 degrees of
freedom:
- horizontal displacement
- vertical displacement
- rotation in the plane
A movable support (articulated support) is mono-
valent, as it only prevents vertical motion.
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A clamp (support pillar) is tri-valent, since in addi-

tion to vertical motion, it also prevents horizontal
motion and rotation.
If a bar is clamped on one side and supported by
a movable support on the other side, the sum of all
support valencies is 4, in other words, larger than
the number of degrees of freedom (3). The bar is
statically undetermined, or more precisely, it is
statically overdetermined.
In such cases, the unknown support reactions,
whose number corresponds to the sum of the
support valencies, cannot be calculated solely by
means of the equilibrium relations of the forces and
moments. In such a case, there are only as many
equations which are independent of one another
as there are degrees of freedom. In order to be
able to calculate the numerous unknown support
reactions, equations with the deformation proper-
ties of the bar must be used.
By applying the superposition principle, the ex-
perimental approach is similar to the calculatory
approach.

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

3.4.1 Calculation of the supporting force

F The superposition principle states that the sum of

all deformations caused by individual loads corre-
fF
Deformation due to sponds to the deformation caused by a combined
load load from the individual loads.
Therefore, the system is loaded with the individual
fA loads, one after the other, and from the calculatory
summation of these individual results, it is possible
A Deformation due to
supportr to determine the overall deformation of a combined
load occurring simultaneously.
f=fF+fA=0 In order to determine the unknown supporting
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force, the total deformation at the front end of the

Total deformation bar must be zero. Consequently, the deformation
must be zeron
induced by supporting force A must be just as large
Superposition principle as but opposite to the one induced by the load F.
According to experiment 3.1.3, the deformation at
the end of the bar caused by the load F is

F a3 F (L−a) a2
fF = w(b) + b α = + .
F 3 E Iy 2 E Iy

a The deformation at the end of the bar due to

L supporting force A is calculated as follows:

A L3
fA = − .
3 E Iy

The sum of both deformations must be zero

F a3 F (L−a) a2 A L3
fF + fA = 0 = + − .
3 E Iy 2 E Iy 3 E Iy

Solving the equation with respect to the unknown

supporting force produces:
F
A= 3 ( 3 L a − a ).
2 3
2L

20
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

With a load of F= 15 N, a length L= 800 mm and a

distance a= 500 mm, this produces the following
for the unknown supporting force A:
15
A= ( 3 ⋅ 800 ⋅ 5002 − 5003) = 6.96 N
2 ⋅ 8003

3.4.2 Performing the experiment

The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram.

The following equipment is required:
- Steel bar 6 x 20 x 1000 mm
- Rider for weight
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- Suspender for weights

- 2 weights 5N, 1 weight 2.5 N
- Articulated support with dynamometer
- Support pillar with clamp
- Dial gauge with holder

L= 800 mm
a= 500 mm

The articulated support has a distance of 800 mm

from the clamp, and the load 500 mm from the
clamp. The dial gauge is positioned above the
articulated support

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

- Twist the articulated support downwards. The

25 mm distance between the unloaded end and the
support should be at least 25 mm
- Whilst unloaded, set the dial gauge at the end
of the bar to zero

- Load the bar with 15 N. The bar will deflect

f=fF
downwards at the end by fF= 16.2 mm
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- Twist the support upwards to compensate the

f=fF+fA=0
deflection by load. The dial gauge should re-
A = 6.7 N turn to zero. The dynamometer will now display
the supporting force.

Reading produces a supporting force of 6.7 N. A

comparison with the mathematically calculated re-
sult of 6.96 N indicates good consistency. To
check, the unloaded bar can be raised by f A= 16.2
mm via the support. The dynamometer should
then likewise show 6.7 N.

22
 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

4 Appendix

4.1 Technical data

Number of sets of weights: 4

Weight graduation: 16 x 5 N
4 x 2.5 N
Number of supports: articulated 3
fixed 1
Measurement range of dynamometers: 40N
Measurement range of dial gauges: 20mm

Test bars
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Steel 90MnCrV8
3 x 20 x 1000 mm
4 x 20 x 1000 mm
6 x 20 x 1000 mm
Brass CuZn39Pb3
6 x 20 x 1000 mm
AluminiumAlMgSi0,5F22
6 x 20 x 1000 mm

Dimensions L x W x H: 1400x400x750 mm
Weight: 40 kg

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

4.2 Formulae and units used

Formulae:

a , aij: Distance, influence coefficient

A: Supporting force
b: Width of cross-section, distance
B: Supporting force
E: Modulus of elasticity
f: Deflection
F: Force, load
h: Height of cross-section
Iy: Planar moment of inertia
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L: Length
M: Bending moment
w: Deflection downwards
x: Longitudinal coordinate of bar
α: Inclination

Units:

Force: N
Length, width, height: mm
Deflection, deflection downwards: mm
Modulus of elasticity: N/mm2
Planar moment of inertia: mm4
Inclination: rad

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 WP950 Deformation of Straight Beams

4.3 Index

A
adjusting height of support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
articulated supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B
balance of moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
bar on two supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
C
cantilever bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 7
clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
D
deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gerätebau GmbH , Hamburg

degrees of freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
dial gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
dynamometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E
elastic line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
equation for the deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
equation for the elastic line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 13
experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
F
formulae:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
I
influence coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
L
load weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
M
Maxwell-Betti’s influence coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
movable support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
P
planar moment of intertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
S
statically undetermined systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
superposition principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
support with clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
supporting forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
T
technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
test bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
V
valency of the support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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