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Basic Concepts Overview SI Prefixes

• SI Prefixes These are used throughout the curriculum and by engineers
• Definitions: Current, Voltage, Power, & Energy Multiplier Prefix Symbol Example
1012 tera T TB
• Passive sign convention 109 giga G GB
• Circuit elements 106 mega M MHz
• Ideal Sources 103 kilo k kΩ
100 V
10−3 milli m mH
10−6 micro µ µA
10−9 nano n ns
10−12 pico p pF
10−15 femto f
10−18 atto a

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Circuit Analysis: Introduction Flashlight Circuit

• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles which Switch
matter consists, measured in coulombs (C) i

• 1 C of charge requires 6.24 × 10 18

electrons Batteries
1.5 V
1.5 V Light Bulb
• Law of conservation of charge: charge cannot be created or Each
10 Ω

destroyed, only transferred. 1.5 V

• A flashlight circuit has 4 circuit elements

• We will use symbols for circuit elements
• Facilitates analysis

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Electric Current Notes on Current

• Electric Current is the rate of change of charge, measured in i
amperes (A)
e-
• 1 A = 1 C/s 1.5 V
10 Ω
• Two main types
– Direct Current (DC): Current remains constant 1.5 V

– Alternating Current (AC): Current varies sinusoidally with

time

dq • Current in circuits physically realized by movement of electrons

i= • Direction of current must be specified by an arrow
dt
where • By convention, current direction defined as flow of positive charge
i= current in amperes • Note positive charge is not flowing physically
q= charge in coulombs • Electrons have a negative charge
t= time in seconds
• They move in the opposite direction of current

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Propagation Rate Key Assumptions

For the duration of this class, we will make the following assumptions.
i

1.5 V • Propagation is instantaneous (lumped-parameter system)

10 Ω
• Net charge stored by all circuit elements is 0 (zero)
1.5 V – Nothing can store electrons
• No magnetic coupling between wires or circuit elements

• Average drift velocity is very small (mm/sec)

• Propagation is very fast (close to speed of light)
• Effects appear to be instantaneous
• Similar to a hose full of water

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Voltage Voltage Concept

• Voltage is the energy absorbed or expended as a unit charge i
moves through a circuit element +
• Analogous to pressure in a hydraulic system 1.5 V
3V 10 Ω
• Sometimes called potential difference
1.5 V -
• Can be created by a separation of charge
• Is a measure of the potential between two points
• Voltage pushes charge in one direction
• The voltage sources push current through the circuit
• We use polarity (+ and − on batteries) to indicate which direction
• The current is the rate of flow of charge (i.e. electrons)
the charge is being pushed
• The light bulb (resistor) resists the flow of current
where
v= voltage in volts
dw
v= w= energy in Joules
dq q= charge in coulombs

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Example 1: Voltage Concept Example 2: Voltage Concept

Pressure Reservoir

Sponge

Current mg

• Voltage ∼ Pressure • Voltage ∼ Force due to gravity (mg)

• Electric Current ∼ Water Current • Electric Current ∼ Marble velocity
• Sponge Porosity ∼ Resistance • Viscosity ∼ Resistance

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Power Energy
• Power: time rate of expending or absorbing energy • Law of Conservation of Energy: the net power absorbed by a
• Denoted by p circuit is equal to 0
• By convention • In other words
– Circuit elements that absorb power have a positive value of p – The total energy produced in a circuit is equal to the total
– Circuit elements that produce power have a negative value of energy absorbed
p – Every Watt absorbed by an element must be produced by some
other element(s)
dw • Energy: capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)
p= p = ±vi
t
t
dt
where w= p(t) dt = ±v(t)i(t) dt
t0 t0
p= power in watts (W = J/s)
w= energy in joules (J) If current and voltage are constant (DC),
t= time in seconds (s)
t
v= voltage in volts (V) w= p dt = p(t − t0 )
i= current in amperes (A) t0

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Passive Sign Convention Example 3: Passive Sign Convention

• Passive Sign Convention (PSC): Current enters the positive Suppose the circuit element shown below is characterized by
terminal of an element v = ±f (i) and i = ±g(v). Determine whether the PSC is satisfied and
– Equivalent: Current leaves the negative terminal write the equations for the voltage, current, and power for each of the
diagrams below.
• Most two-terminal circuit elements (e.g. batteries, light bulbs,
resistors, switches) are characterized by a single equation that i i i i
relates voltage to current: v = ±f (i) or i = ±g(v) - + + -
• Called the defining equation
v v v v
• The PSC determines the sign of the relationship
– If PSC is satisfied: v = f (i) or i = g(v)
+ - - +
– If PSC is not satisfied: v = −f (i) or i = −g(v)
• This is also true of power
– If PSC is satisfied: p = +vi
– If PSC is not satisfied: p = −vi

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Example 4: Passive Sign Convention Example 5: Passive Sign Convention

Find the power (absorbed) for each element. Find the total power absorbed in the circuit.

2A 2A 2A 2A - +
- + + - Voltage Current Power va a vd d
(V) (A) (W) ia
+ -
a -18 -51 + vc - +
4V 4V 4V 4V b -18 45 id
c f vf
c 2 -6
- - d 20 -20 ic if -
+ + - ib + ie
e 16 -14
f 36 31 vb b ve e
+ -

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Passive Sign Convention Remarks Voltage Drops & Rises Defined

• Failure to comply with the PSC will result in a wrong equation in
1 kΩ
the early stages of circuit analysis a b
5V

-
• All of the results that follow will be wrong
• This translates to many lost points on exams • The following statements are true and equivalent
– There is a 5 V drop from a to b
• One of the key ideas is that the defining equations depend on the
voltage polarity and current direction – There is a 5 V rise from b to a
– There is a −5 V rise from a to b
• Example: p = ±vi
– There is a −5 V drop from b to a
• You must examine how the polarity of v and the direction of i is
labeled on the circuit diagram to determine the sign • The first expression is the most common
• In most cases, we will be concerned with voltage drops

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Ideal Voltage Sources Ideal Current Sources

Vs Vs c I1
Is c V1

Independent Independent Dedependent Independent Dedependent

Source Source Source Source Source
(Battery)
• Ideal Current Source: produces Is amps regardless of the
• Ideal Voltage Source: produces Vs volts regardless of the
current in the device
current absorbed or produced by the device
• The current produced may depend on some other circuit variable
• The voltage produced may depend on some other circuit variable
(current or voltage)
(current or voltage)
• Note the sign of Is can be negative
• The sign of Vs can be negative

2A = -2 A 2A = -2 A
12 V = -12 V 12 V = -12 V

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Notes on Ideal Sources

• Ideal sources are models used to simplify analysis
• These devices do not exist physically
– How much power can an ideal source produce?
– How much power can a battery produce?
• Ideal models serve as a good approximation of physical devices,
but only over a limited operating range
• We will use and discuss more accurate models later in the term

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