INTRODUCTION

To begin with, it seems of great importance to define the term syllabus in order to have a
better understanding of what it actually means and to which aspects and dimensions of ELT it
is related. Of course, it should be noted that there are many challenges to proper defining and
elaborating on the concept syllabus. For example, in recent years, the focus of syllabuses has
shifted away from structure to situations, functions and notions to topics and tasks. That is
why, as Nunan (1988:52) highlights; with the development of the latter obviously "the
traditional distinction between syllabus design and methodology has become blurred".
Accordingly, though it is a little difficult on initial appearance to describe syllabus, it seems
possible to make an attempt to define syllabus at least in an understandable way. In Wilkins'
(1981) words, syllabuses are "specifications of the content of language teaching which have
been submitted to some degree of structuring or ordering with the aim of making teaching
and learning a more effective process." A syllabus can also be seen as "a plan of what is to be
achieved through our teaching and our students' learning" (Breen, 1984a) while its function is
"to specify what is to be taught and in what order" (Prabhu, 1984). Hutchinson and Waters
(1987:80) define syllabus as at its simplest level “as a statement of what is to be learnt”.

So in this paper we will discuss about procedural syllabus and task-based syllabus.

1. PROCEDURAL SYLLABUS

As mentioned earlier, the procedural syllabus is associated with the work of Prabhu and his
colleagues in the Bangalore Project. Dissatisfied with the structural-oral-situational (S-O-S)
method, which was widely practiced in the 1960s and 1970s in India, Prabhu decided to bring
about a change in the traditional English language teaching (ELT) methodology of his
country. Prabhu (1987) had observed that the students who had been taught English through
S-O-S for several years at school were still unable to use it outside the class for
communicative purposes.procedural syllabus is a task-based syllabus which stresses the
importance of focus-on-meaning activities. An activity which required learners to arrive at an
outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed
teachers to control and regulate that process, was regarded as a task (Prabhu, 1987: 24).
Prabhu provides us with an abstract definition of task for the purposes of the procedural
syllabus which is oriented towards cognition, reasoning, process, and teacher-regulated
pedagogy.
Prabu (1987) stated that meaning-focused activities are divided broadly into three categories,
including information-gap, reasoning-gap, and opinion-gap activities.
1. Information-gap activity involves a transfer of given information from one person to
another or from one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling
for the decoding or encoding of information from or into language.
2. Reasoning-gap activity involves deriving some new information from given
information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a
perception of relationships or patterns.
3. Opinion-gap activity involves identifying and articulating a personal preference,
feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation.

2. TASK-BASED SYLLABUS

In order to interpret this definition, two items should be made clear, “Task” and “Syllabus”.
The following definition of tasks is made by David Nunan:

A task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,

producing, or interacting in the target language which their attention is particularly focuses on
meaning rather than form (1989. 10).

From this one we can draw on the following features: it is a piece of meaning-focused work,
a piece of work involving learners and communicative language skills, and a series of
interactions which are needed to meet the learners’ ends. In other words, a task is a piece of
work which is done by learners in everyday life, involving learners in processing information
and using target language, then a final product is completed.

The other definition is Syllabus: refers to the selecting and grading of content (Nunan.1989.
14). So we can conclude that Task-based syllabuses are constructed with varieties of tasks as
the basic blocks, focusing on using the target language in real world rather than drilling on
the isolate grammatical items.

Task-Based Syllabus is organized around task that students will complete in the target
language. A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language such as finding a
solution to puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, reading a set of instructions and
assembling a toy. Tasks are activities which have meaning as their primary focus. Success in
task is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and task generally bear some
resemblance to real life language use, Skehan in Richards’s book (1996:20).

Task based syllabus is based on task that have been specially designed to facilitate second
language learning and one in which task or activities are basic unit of syllabus design. In
Task-based Syllabus, learners are said to receive comprehensible input and modified output,
process believed central to second language acquisition. Long and Crookes in Richards’s
book claim that tasks provide a vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language
sample to learners–input which they will inevitably reshape via application of general
cognitive processing capacities – and for the delivery of comprehension and production
opportunities of negotiable difficulty.

The basic claim for a task based syllabus are:

- Task are activities that derive the second language acquisition process.
- Grammar teaching is not central with this approach because learners will acquire
grammar as a by product of carrying out task.
- Tasks are motivating for learners and engage them in meaningful communication.

The following are tasks of this kind:

- jigsaw tasks : this task involve learners in combining different pieces of information
to form a whole (e.g. three individual or groups may have three different parts of a
story and have to piece the story together).
- Information gap tasks : task in which one student or group of students has one set of
information and another student or group has a complementary set of information.
They must negotiate and find out what the other party’s information is in order to
complete an activity.
- Problem solving tasks: Students are given a problem and a set of information. They
must arrive at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the
outcome.
- Decision-making task: students are given a problem for which there a number of
possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
 - Opinion exchange task: learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do
not need to reach agreement.

3. Main components (including selecting and grading criteria )

Course design is concerned with the selection and sequencing content. In relation to task-
based syllabus, selection and grading tasks will be particularly concerned in this section.

3.1 Task types

There are a variety of approaches to classifying tasks. In this section, we just sketch four
approaches to classifying tasks, that is, pedagogic, rhetorical, cognitive and psycholinguistic,
as surveyed by Ellis (2003:211-215).

Pedagogical Rhetorical Cognitive Psycholinguistic

Listing Narrative Information gap activity Interactant
Ordering & sorting Instructions Reasoning-gap activity relationship
Comparing Description Option-gap activity Interaction
Problem-solving Reports requirement
Sharing personal etc. Goal orientation
experiences Outcome options
Creative tasks

Table 1 Classification of task types

3.2 Task selecting

Task selecting is concerned with deciding what type of task and what content of tasks
should be selected. In the case of specific task selection and content targeted, analysis of
learners’ needs is involved. In this section, we draw on the approach proposed by Estaire and
Zanòn (1994) to select the thematic content of tasks.
 5

2
1

student

Figure 1 The theme generator (Estaire & Zanòn 1994:21)

**1 student 2 homes 3 school life, schools, classmates, teachers

4 the world around us and our community 5 fantasy and imagination

3.3 Criterion for grading tasks

Task-based syllabus is characterized by the following design features, that is, input,
conditions, processes and outcomes (Ellis 2003:228). They are outlined in Table 2.

Criterion Easy Difficult

A Input
1 Medium pictorial -> written -> oral
2 Code complexity high frequency low frequency
vocabulary; short and vocabulary; complex
simple sentences sentence structure
3 Cognitive complexity
 a. information gap static -> dynamic -> abstract
b. amount of few elements/ many elements/
information relationships relationships
c. degree of structure well-defined structure little structure
d context here-and-now there-and-then
dependency orientation orientation
4 Familiarity of familiar unfamiliar
information
B Conditions
1 Interactant relationship two-way one-way
(negotiation of meaning)

2 Task demands single task dual task

3 Discourse mode dialogic monologic
required to perform
the task
C Processes
1 Cognitive operations:
a type exchanging information -> -> exchanging opinions reasoning
b reasoning need few steps involved many steps involved
D Outcomes
1 Medium pictorial -> written -> oral
2 Scope closed? open?
3 Discourse mode of lists, descriptions, -> instructions,
task outcome narratives, Classification arguments

Table 2 Criteria for grading tasks

3.4 Criteria for determining the difficulty of grammatical structures as explicit knowledge

Task-based syllabus introduces a focus on form into a meaning-centered curriculum. The

syllabus consists of tasks as well as allowing for the systematic treatment of linguistic forms.
For example, Ellis (2002) proposed criteria for determining the difficulty of grammatical
structures as explicit knowledge.

Table 3 Criteria for grading tasks

Criteria Definition Example

1. Formal complexity The extent to which the Plural –s is formally simple;
structure
relative pronouns are
involves just a single or
many elements complex.

2. Functional complexity The extent to which Plural –s is transparent;

meanings realized by a articles are opaque.
feature are transparent or
opaque.
3. Reliability The extent to which the rule Third person –s is very
has exceptions reliable;
the rule for periphrastic
genitive has many
exceptions.
4. Scope The extent to which the rule The present simple tense has
has a broad narrow broad scope; the future
coverage. perfect tense has narrow
scope.
5.. L1/L2 contrast A feature that has a correlate Chinese four tones are
in the L1 is easy. A feature difficult for English learners
that has no correlate is more because English has no such
difficult. particles.
Table 3. Criteria for determining the difficulty of grammatical structures as explicit
knowledge
4. Strengths and Weaknesses of a Task-Based Syllabus
Strengths of a task-based syllabus
1. SLA Theory Base
Crookes and Long (1993:37), argue that task-based syllabuses are based on second language
learning research, second language classroom research, and principles of course design. As
SLA research has shown, language is not learned sequentially in an additive manner, it is
therefore argued that synthetic syllabuses are inadequate as they rely on specifying and
sequentially teaching linguistic items. This gives support to analytic syllabuses such as the
task-based syllabus which aim to activate the internal processes which lead to acquisition
(Nunan 2004:11; Beglar & Hunt 2002:97).

2. Focus on Form and Noticing

Both Willis (1996b) and Skehan (1996b) argue that focus on form is therefore a necessary
component of task-based instruction. Focus on form allows not only the introduction of
potentially useful language for learners to experiment with, but also increases the saliency of
features of the target language to facilitate noticing, thus speeds up the process of input
becoming intake (Long & Crookes 1992:42). Learner attention can be further directed to
form through repeat performances of tasks, which enables closer focus on language form
(Hawkes:2012). This supports an important principle of TBLT, which aims to recycle
language use in order to maximise learning opportunities (Nunan 2004:36).

3. A Learner-Centred Approach
A further benefit of TBLT is that it advocates a learner-centred approach to language
learning. During the pre-task and task stages learner error is also not explicitly corrected
allowing learners to focus on meaning rather than concentrate on trying to conform to
linguistic norms. A task-based syllabus therefore offers learners a sense of ‘freedom and
responsibility’ (Van den Branden 2006:10), which seems likely to also increase student
motivation. Further to this, Nunan argues, learners learn best through active use of language,
therefore the majority of class time should be devoted to using the language (Nunan
2004:36).

4. Real-World Language Use

Relating language to the real world is in fact a key factor of TBLT (Van den Branden
2006:6). Nunan (2004:19-22) highlights the difference between target tasks, the realworld
uses learners may be expected to engage in, and pedagogical tasks, activities for practice of
language within the classroom which do not relate to a specific real-world use situation. The
recognition of real-world language use is further exemplified in the support of needs analysis
within TBLT. Long and Crookes (1992:44; 1993:40) propose that a task-based syllabus
should begin by identifying relevant target tasks before classifying these tasks into task types
and finally deriving pedagogic tasks for classroom use.

5. Tasks Build Fluency and Create Motivation

Through negotiation of meaning learners become more adept at conveying meaning, while
frequent practice and experimentation with language forms will lead to the ability to deploy
existing knowledge more efficiently in conversation. Willis (1996a:14) further argues that
success and satisfaction in using language to achieve task goals will lead to increased
motivation, a strong factor in language learning success.

6. Flexibility of the Task-Based Syllabus

Finally, as task-based approaches to syllabus design do not specify the type of language to be
taught they offer both versatility and flexibility. Task-based approaches can be adapted to a
wide variety of teaching contexts, such as English for specific purposes, teaching young
learners, beginners, as well as helping experienced learners improve fluency and accuracy.

Weaknesses of a task-based syllabus

1. Problems with the Theoretical Base

Strong criticism of task-based instruction comes from Swan (2005:379-381). Firstly, in
criticising dependence on the on-line hypothesis that learning only takes place during
communication. Swan, with this knowledge one should be able to form questions without
acquiring it naturalistically. However, explicit knowledge does not necessarily translate to the
ability to use language. He further criticises the noticing hypothesis for being controversial
and originating from informal analysis, and teachability hypothesis for lacking empirical
evidence.
2. Focus on Form and a Concern with Syntax
Sheen (2003) proposes that focus on form is a myth perpetuated by proponents of TBLT to
support new teaching methods. Swan makes further claim that focus on forms is necessary, as
skill-building and practice of discrete items leads to automatized knowledge, stating ‘one
would not wish to travel on a plane whose pilot had been left to acquire the skill of landing
naturalistically’ (2005:383). This analogy would thus suggest it reasonable to refuse to
converse with a non-native speaker on the grounds that they had not yet practised, for
example, English past tense. Finally, Swan criticises TBLT for being excessively concerned
with acquisition of syntax. However, as task-based approaches develop we are beginning to
see more experimentation, for example, development of vocabulary (Hobbs:2005) and
teacher talk (Moser, Harris & Carle:2011).

3. Fluency at the Expense of New Language

While naturalistic, task-based approaches may excel at developing increasing fluency, they
do this, Swan argues, at the expense of teaching new language (2005:378). While this may
lead to more efficient use of pre-existing knowledge, it does not sufficiently stretch learners’
interlanguage or encourage processing new forms of language. However, this criticism is also
recognised by proponents of task-based learning. Skehan (1996a) recognises that native
speakers operate a dual-mode system, allowing them to switch between the need to be precise
and a need to communicate quickly through lexicalised forms. Skehan proposes three goals
for task-based approaches: accuracy, complexity and fluency. Through careful structuring
and the inclusion of pre- and post-task stages he argues teachers can improve not only
fluency but also encourage accuracy and experimentation with new language. Likewise,
Willis (1996b) includes language focus and practice in the post-task stage to facilitate
acquisition of new language.

4. Difficulties for Teachers

Many proponents of TBLT recognise the increased demands it places on teachers. Skehan
(1996a:30) recognises that teachers will need to command a significantly wider range of
skills than in more structural approaches’, while Willis (1996b) states that teachers may feel
uncomfortable stepping away and allowing learners more control of their learning.
Furthermore, Shehadeh (2005:27-28) argues that one reason traditional approaches remain
popular is that teachers can predict language that will occur in lessons. This is perhaps
especially valid for non-native-speaker teachers who may not possess the confidence or
linguistic knowledge to cope with unexpected language.
 5. Difficulties for Learners
Task-based learning relies on learners utilising existing knowledge to complete tasks. It
seems likely therefore that task-based learning would pose a difficulty for absolute beginners
whose language resources are severely limited. Brown (2007:243), for example draws
attention to the fact that:
In order to complete a task, a learner needs to have sufficient organisational competence,
illocutionary competence to convey intended meaning, strategic competence to compensate
for unforeseen difficulties, and then all the tools of discourse, pragmatics, and even nonverbal
communicative ability.
This is particularly the case for learners in the early stages of general education, who may be
better served by a product syllabus (Hedge 2000:361). Further to these difficulties, a
taskbased approach may not be in line with learner expectations of L2 instruction, which can
make transition to TBLT difficult (Willis 1996a:137).

6. Sequencing, Difficulty and Assessment

A final problem for the task-based syllabus lies with the design and implementation, or ‘how
to put together a series of tasks to form a coherent programme’ (Hedge 2000:360). Numerous
proposals have been suggested for the selection and grading of tasks into a course of study.
For example, Nunan, (2004:113-25) identifies three factors that affect task difficulty:
• Factors of input
• Learner factors
• Procedural factors
Careful consideration of these factors can help teachers assess task difficulty and produce an
appropriate sequence of tasks. It is also worth noting that the problem of sequencing is not
exclusive to TBLT and presents difficulty for all kinds of language instruction (Long &
Crookes 1992:42). Finally, task-based syllabuses are often claimed to be incompatible with
traditional testing methods. While it is true that synthetic syllabuses lend themselves easily to
testing, Nunan suggests that performance can be measured via criterion-referenced testing
(2004:146-147).
 CONCLUSION

From the explanation above, we can conclude that procedural syllabus and task based
syllabus are giving same stress in meaning. However some researchers has criticized
procedural syllabus and task-based syllabus, As EFL, procedural syllabus and task based
syllabus are important in language teaching because learners’ do not focus in grammatical
structure. learners will acquire the target language by communication. So, the structure will
be learn subconsciously when they communication. And by doing task which comes from
real-life world, will make students easier to learn target language.
 REFERENCES

Ellis, R. 2002. Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of Implicit knowledge? A
review of the research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 24/2: 223-236.

Ellis, R. 2003. Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Nunan, D. (1989). Syllabus design. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Prabhu, N. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Richards, J.C.(2001).Curriculum development in Language Teaching.Cambridge University

Press: USA

Townsend Leon and Cartwright. 2014. An Analysis of the task based

syllabus:strengths;weakness; and the case for its implementation. MA
TEFL/TESL.

Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

EXAMPLE TASK 1 :

Students work individually and pretended become a journalist. s/he interview her/his
classmates about their name, date of birth, and their hobby.

Example:

A : what’s your name ?

B : I’am Riza
A : Riza, when were you born?
B : february, 14th 2000
A : How old are you?
B : 14 years old
A : what is your hobby?
B : My hobby is Playing football
NO. NAME Date Of Birth Age Hobby
1. Riza february, 14th 2000 14 years old Playing football
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
…

EXAMPLE TASK 2 :

Read this story and discuss with your friends about your opinion of this story!

THE GOLDEN EGG

By. Tony, Ireland.

Once upon a time there lived a cloth merchant in a village with his wife and two children.
They were indeed quite well-off. They had a beautiful hen which laid an egg everyday. It was
not an ordinary egg, rather, a golden egg. But the man was not satisfied with what he used to
get daily. He was a get rich-trice kind of a person.

The man wanted to get all the golden eggs from his hen at one single go. So, one day he
thought hard and at last clicked upon a plan. He decided to kill the hen and get all the eggs
together.

So, the next day when the hen laid a golden egg, the man caught hold of it, took a sharp knife,
chopped off its neck and cut its body open. There was nothing but blood all around & no
trace of any egg at all. He was highly grieved because now he would not get even one single
egg.

His life was going on smoothly with one egg a day but now, he himself made his life
miserable. The outcome of his greed was that he started becoming poorer & poorer day by
day and ultimately became a pauper. How jinxed and how much foolish he was.

PROCEDURAL SYLLABUS AND TASK BASED

SYLLABUS

Submitted to fulfill partial requirement of Curriculum and Syllabus Design Subject Guided by:

1. Prof. Dr. Cucu Sutarsyah, M.A

2. Dr. Flora, M.Pd

By:

1. Muhammad Riza NPM.1423042059

2. Nining Yasrida NPM.1423042060
3. Nur Arifah Hanafiah NPM.1423042062
4. Risky Fitria Mulyadi NPM.1423042064

POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAINING FACULTY

LAMPUNG UNIVERSITY

2015