Simple for Dead Load–Continuous for

Live Load Steel Bridge Systems

ATOROD AZIZINAMINI

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the development of design, fabrication, erection and construction procedures for a new steel bridge system referred to
as simple for dead and continuous for live loads (SDCL). The economy of the SDCL system depends on several factors, including the use of
economical and efficient details over the interior supports. Extensive experimental, numerical and analytical work was conducted to develop
economical details and efficient ways of using the SDCL steel bridge system for straight and minimally skewed bridges in which the skew
angle is less than 10°. Several bridges were then designed using the research results, and their performance from the time of fabrication to
construction and their long-term behavior were studied. This knowledge was then used to provide detailed information on design, fabrication,
erection and construction procedures for steel bridges using the SDCL system. This paper provides a summary of the entire work, including
design recommendations and economical details to be employed in conjunction with the SDCL steel bridge system.

Keywords: steel bridges, steel girders, SDCL, simple for dead load–continuous for live load.

INTRODUCTION development of an economical concept for the SDCL system

for use in both conventional and Accelerated Bridge Con-
T he simple for dead and continuous for live load (SDCL)
system is providing steel bridges with new horizons and
opportunities for developing economical bridge systems,
struction (ABC), development of design provisions and field
application and long-term monitoring of SDCL systems that
are open to traffic. Additional results of this comprehensive
especially in cases for which accelerating the construction
research effort are summarized and published in the research
process is a priority. The system has many advantages over
dissertations of six graduate students (Lampe, 2001; Mos-
conventional methods of constructing straight and mini-
sahebi, 2004; Otte, 2006; Farimani, 2006; Kowalski, 2007;
mally skewed steel bridges in which the skew angle is less
Javidi, 2009). This paper provides a summary of the overall
than 10°, including lower initial and life-cycle costs, easier
work that was carried out, with references to more detailed
inspection and reduced maintenance. The key to economic
information on various aspects of the research study.
application of the system lies in selecting appropriate con-
The following briefly describes four significant aspects of
nection details over interior supports to provide live load
the research study:
continuity. Due to the lack of guidelines, unnecessarily
complicated details are often used in practice. The SDCL Experimental Investigation. Full-scale tests were car-
steel bridge system also provides an attractive alternative for ried out to develop practical details for joining girders over
application in highly seismic areas, but additional research the interior supports for live load continuity using conven-
is necessary. tional construction practices (Lampe et al., 2014).
The objective of this paper is to provide complete infor- Force Transfer Mechanism. Comprehensive numerical
mation for design, fabrication and construction of straight and analytical studies were carried out to provide an under-
and slightly skewed steel bridges using the SDCL concept. standing of the force transfer mechanism for the details that
The information presented is based on more than 10 years were developed to connect the steel girders in the SDCL
of comprehensive research, parts of which are published system over the interior supports (Farimani et al., 2014). A
in the form of final research reports (Azizinamini, Lampe detailed design approach was then developed that provided
and Yakel, 2003; Azizinamini, Yakel and Farimani, 2005; an excellent comparison with the test results. This detailed
Azizinamini et al., 2005). The investigation included the design method was then used to develop a more practical
and simplified design approach that gives conservative
results and is suitable for use in a design office. The sim-
plified design steps for one recommended connection detail
are provided in this paper.
Atorod Azizinamini, Ph.D., P.E., Professor and Chair, Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL. E-mail: Monitoring of In-Service SDCL Bridges. Several
aazizina@fiu.edu bridges were constructed using the recommended details
developed in these research projects. The behavior of

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 these bridges during construction and their long-term per- splices and simplifying the construction sequences. It was
formance were monitored (Yakel and Azizinamini, 2014). concluded that what was needed was a system in which the
Monitoring of the in-service behavior of SDCL steel bridges girders would act as simple spans during deck casting and
ranged from two to more than five years. then act as continuous girders for live load.
SDCL System for Accelerated Bridge Construction.  The idea of using a simple-span girder for dead load and
Additional work was carried out to customize the SDCL steel then making the girder continuous for live load was origi-
bridge systems for accelerated bridge construction (Javidi, nally developed in the 1960s for precast, prestressed con-
Yakel, and Azizinamini, 2014). Work included developing crete girders to prevent leakage through the deck joints in
suitable details over the interior supports; conducting exper- simple beam spans (Freyermuth, 1969). However, there are
imental, numerical and analytical studies; field application some major differences between the application of this sys-
using the ABC philosophy of construction; and short- and tem to prestressed concrete girder bridges and to steel girder
long-term monitoring of an in-service SDCL bridge system bridges.
constructed using ABC principles. Figure 1 shows a conventional two-span continuous steel
bridge girder. The construction sequence consists of erect-
ing the middle section and then connecting the two end sec-
BACKGROUND tions using either bolted or welded field splices. This type of
The latter half of the 20th century saw many changes in construction usually requires two cranes on site with pos-
the design of bridges, one of the most significant of which sible traffic interruptions.
resulted from the introduction of alternative construction Another possibility is to place two simple-span gird-
materials. Prestressed concrete has become increasingly ers between the abutments and pier, cast the deck slab and
popular since its introduction in the 1950s (Dunker and Rab- provide the continuity for live load and superimposed dead
bat, 1992). The increase coincided with a decrease in the use loads only (e.g., barriers and the future wearing surface).
of steel in short- to medium-span bridges. Several factors Figure 2 shows a schematic of such a system.
contributed to this trend, among them costly details such In the case of both prestressed and steel girder bridges,
as bolted splices. The contemporary trend in steel bridge continuity for live and superimposed dead load is typically
design and construction is to eliminate unnecessary details accomplished by placing reinforcing bars over the pier and
that contribute both to cost and decreased service life. Fol- casting concrete diaphragms over the pier. In both cases, the
lowing a series of discussions with designers, steel fabrica- bottom portion of the concrete diaphragms in the vicinity of
tors and contractors in the late 1990s and early 2000s, it the girders is subjected to a compressive force transferred
was concluded that the development of a steel bridge system from adjacent girders. These compressive forces are gen-
for multi-span bridges, with each span having maximum erated by negative moments produced by traffic loads and
lengths of about 150 ft, would benefit the bridge industry superimposed dead loads. In the case of prestressed girders,
the most. Review of National Bridge Inventory (NBI) data the bottom flanges of the girders generally have large areas
indicates that about 90% of the bridges in service have a and are able to distribute the compressive force and pre-
maximum single-span length of less than or equal to 150 vent crushing of the concrete. However, in the case of steel
ft (Lampe et al., 2014). Two factors were identified to help girder bridges, the bottom flanges of the girder have smaller
improve the economy of steel bridges: eliminating bolted areas and a higher modulus of elasticity than the flanges of

Fig. 1.  Conventional two-span continuous steel bridge girder.

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 concrete girders. These two factors combined can result in whereas the dashed line corresponds to the SDCL system.
crushing of the concrete in the diaphragm in the vicinity of As indicated in Figure 3, the maximum positive moment in
the steel girder bottom flanges when the load is transferred. the SDCL system is larger than in the conventional case.
In the initial stages of the development of the system, a This is expected because the girders resist the noncomposite
series of preliminary finite element analyses was conducted dead loads as a simple span. On the other hand, as shown
(Lampe et al., 2014), which indicated that the level of these in Figure 4, the maximum negative moment for the SDCL
compressive stresses is large. For instance, for a two-span system is decreased. This behavior is a result of the fact that
bridge with a span length of 100 ft and girder spacing of 10 the noncomposite dead load does not produce any negative
ft, the resulting compressive stress in the bottom of the con- moment at the pier.
crete diaphragm due to traffic loads could exceed the com-
pressive strength of the concrete by a factor of 4 or higher
RECOMMENDED CONNECTION DETAIL FOR
(assuming 4000-psi concrete is placed in the diaphragms).
CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Therefore, in the case of steel bridges utilizing the SDCL
concept, there is a need to develop a detail that could elimi- A possible connection detail to provide live load continuity
nate the possibility of crushing of the concrete in the con- over the pier in an SDCL steel girder system for the case of
crete diaphragm immediately adjacent to the bottom flanges conventional methods of construction is to use a concrete
of the girders. diaphragm over the piers to connect the girders. Figure 5
shows the recommended connection detail over the pier. The
following are the various elements of the connection detail:
OVERALL STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
• Concrete diaphragm, which should be cast at least a
Figures 3 and 4 compare the maximum positive and nega-
few days prior to casting the deck.
tive moments, respectively, for two-span steel bridges with
equal length spans, analyzed assuming conventional and • Steel slab reinforcement to provide live load continu-
SDCL systems. In the conventional case, the girders were ity. This reinforcement is placed before casting the
assumed continuous for both dead and live loads. In the deck.
SDCL system, the girders were analyzed as simple spans • End plates welded to the ends of each girder.
for the dead weight of the girders and wet concrete deck and
• Steel blocks welded toward the bottom of each end
as continuous spans for superimposed dead and live loads.
plate.
Three two-span bridges were considered. The span lengths
for these three bridges were 100, 120 and 150 ft. The girder • Elastomeric pads where the steel girders seat.
spacing in all cases was 10 ft (Lampe et al., 2014). The solid • A small gap is needed between the bottom of the steel
line in each graph corresponds to the conventional case, flanges and the top surface of the cap beams. The gap
should be filled with soft material, such as expanded
polystyrene, to allow the rotation of the entire detail
once the concrete diaphragm is cast and cured.
• Dowel reinforcement could also be placed to connect
the cap beam to the concrete diaphragm in order to
prevent longitudinal movement of the superstructure
at the connection point.
The detail shown is applicable to both I- and box-girder
bridges. Figures 6 and 7 show photos of the recommended
detail used in I- and box-girder bridges, respectively. In both
cases, a steel block is provided near the bottom flanges. In
the case of the box girder, an additional steel plate is welded
to the top flanges, as shown in Figure 7, to prevent pull-
out of the tension flanges of the girder from the concrete
diaphragm.
Figure 8 shows a portion of the recommended connection
detail over the pier. Minimal steel reinforcement is needed
within the concrete diaphragm. For the sake of clarity, not
all of the reinforcement is shown in Figure 8. Figure 9 shows
an example of the steel reinforcement that could be provided
Fig. 2.  Construction sequence for SDCL bridge systems. inside the concrete diaphragm.

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 Positive Moment at Midspan
16000

14000

12000
Moment (k*ft)

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

Span Length (ft) Solid = Continuous

Dashed = Simple Span

Fig. 3  Maximum positive moment comparison.

Negative Moment at Interior Support

18000
16000
14000
12000
Moment (k*ft)

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Span Length (ft) Solid = Continuous
Dashed = Simple Span

Fig. 4. Maximum negative moment comparison.

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 .
Pier Centerline
Slab Reinforcement

End Plate

Steel Block
Elastomeric Pad Compression Flange

Soft Material

Pier Column Cap Beam

Fig. 5.  Concrete diaphragm detail over the pier for conventional methods of construction.

Fig. 6.  Recommended detail on an I girder. Fig. 7.  Recommended detail on a box girder.

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 Fig. 8.  A partial schematic of the steel reinforcement in the concrete diaphragm.

Fig. 9.  Example of the required minimal reinforcement in the concrete diaphragm.

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 For the recommended connection detail shown in Fig- end plates to the end of the girders, as was the case in test 3,
ure 5, the bottom flanges will be subject to a compression resulted in a larger capacity. Connecting the bottom flanges
force under traffic live loads. Where the number of spans and welding end plates to the ends of girders, as was the case
exceeds two, bottom flanges could also be subject to a ten- for test 1, proved to achieve the best performance. Note that
sile force. However, the level of this tensile force is generally for clarity, curved segments associated with unloading and
small. In cases where the tension force becomes significant, subsequent reloading of the specimen have been removed
it might be necessary to positively attach the bottom portion from the plots in Figure 10. This has resulted in the appear-
of the connection shown in Figure 5 to enhance the tension ance of a jagged response, particularly for the case of test 1.
capacity of the connection. The reasons for unloading varied, but were typically to deal
Research results show that for the recommended detail, with fixture and load system issues. Additional details can
the compressive force created by the live loads is capable be found in the referenced research reports.
of crushing the concrete in the vicinity of the compression The main reason for the significant capacity reduction
flanges of the steel girder. To demonstrate this aspect of observed in the case of test 2, as compared to tests 1 and 3, is
the connection detail, Figure 10 shows results of three full- that the bottom flanges crushed the concrete adjacent to the
scale tests. Each test utilized different connection details. bottom flanges and prevented the development of adequate
Figure 10 shows the details used in each test along with a compression capacity in the connection. With the moment
resulting moment versus deflection curve for each test speci- capacity of the connection being equal to total compressive
men. The only difference among the three test specimens force times the moment arm (i.e., the distance between the
was the details used at the end of the steel girders. In test 2, resultant compressive force located near the bottom flanges
the ends of the girder were simply embedded in the concrete and the resultant tensile force located near the tension rein-
diaphragm, which resulted in the lowest capacity. Welding forcement), a reduction in compression resistance near the

7000 L
Test 1
6000
Δ Test 3
M
7000 L
5000 Test 1
Moment=M (kips-ft)

6000
Δ Test 3
Test 2
M
4000

5000
Moment=M (kips-ft)

3000
Test 2
4000
2000
L 3000
Test 1 1000
Δ Test 3
2000
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
1000
Drift = Δ/L (in./in.)
Test 2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Drift = Δ/L (in./in.)
Test 1
Test 3

Test 1: Test 2: Test 3:

Test 2 Connection type 1 Connection type 2 Connection type 3

0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 Fig. 10. 0.025

Effect of end details on moment-deflection performance.
Drift = Δ/L (in./in.)

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 bottom flange translates into a lower moment capacity. days before casting the deck and the remainder of the dia-
Therefore, preventing the crushing of the concrete near phragm. Casting 2 to q of the depth of the diaphragm pro-
the bottom flanges enhances the moment capacity of the vides excellent torsional bracing for the ends of the girders,
connection. which is required with respect to flexural capacity and dur-
The principal consideration in selecting the connection ing casting of the deck. This eliminates the need to provide
detail for the SDCL system when a concrete diaphragm is a steel diaphragm at each girder end simply for construction
used is the transfer of the compressive force from the com- purposes. Indeed, the load stiffener visible in Figure 11 is
pression flange of one steel girder to the compression flange technically unnecessary but is an artifact from conventional
of the adjacent girder without going through the concrete design requested to be left in by the owner. The use of con-
diaphragm. An example of a practical solution used in sev- crete over the support encases the girder ends and protects
eral bridges is shown in Figure 11. As mentioned previously, them against corrosion, enhancing the service life of the
in the case of multi-span bridges and in cases in which bot- girder ends.
tom flanges could be subjected to significant tensile forces,
positively attaching the bottom portion of the recommended
DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR CONVENTIONAL
connection will be needed (see Figure 11).
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Figure 11 shows the recommended detail for providing
live load continuity over the pier before casting the dia- A combination of experimental and numerical studies was
phragm concrete. The recommended detail to transfer the carried out to better comprehend the contribution of the
compression force from one girder to the next without going various elements of connection types 1, 2 and 3 shown in
through the concrete diaphragm is to weld the end plate to Figure 10. Connection type 2 (no end details) was used as a
the end of each girder and then weld a steel block to the end reference point and should be avoided. Research results indi-
plate near the bottom of the connection, as shown in Fig- cated that connection type 3 could still experience crushing
ures 5, 6, 7 and 11. These steel blocks are about 2 in. thick of the concrete in the vicinity of the compression flange and
by 4 in. high and as wide as the width of the girder flanges. inside the concrete diaphragm. Classes of connection details
Although the steel blocks need to touch each other, they do resembling connection type 1 are recommended for use in
not need to be perfectly in contact, as shown in Figure 11. practice. The main characteristics of connection type 1 are
The holes shown in the webs of the steel girders, visible in that the compression flanges of the girder inside the con-
Figure 11, are provided to accommodate the steel reinforce- crete diaphragm are in contact, and the possibility of crush-
ment needed in the concrete diaphragm (see also Figures 8 ing of the diaphragm concrete is eliminated. Table 1 shows
and 9). the contribution of each connection element to the overall
The use of concrete to connect the two girders provides moment capacity of connection types 1 and 3 as determined
several advantages. Based on research and field observa- by finite element analysis. The moment of each element was
tions, it is recommended that about 12 to q of the depth of computed about the centerline of the bottom plate.
the concrete diaphragm be cast and cured for about seven Every element within the concrete diaphragm contributes

  

Fig. 11.  Typical live load continuity detail used in field application; overall view on the left, close-up view on the right.

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 Table 1.  Contribution of Each Resisting Element to Overall Moment Capacity
Resisting Element Connection Type 1 Connection Type 3
Tension reinforcement in slab 60.82% 66.77%
Stirrups in tension 5.09% 5.42%
Concrete in tension 4.35% 6.03%
Stirrups in compression 0.00% 1.58%
Concrete in compression 12.37% 20.20%
Bottom plate in compression 17.37% NA
Total 100.00% 100.00%

to the overall moment capacity of the connection; however, where

the contribution of some elements could conservatively be Mn = nominal moment capacity of the connection, in.-kip
ignored. It is recommended to use connection types that As = area of the slab tension reinforcement, in.2
would resemble type 1, which is the focus of the following fy = yield stress of the slab tension reinforcement, ksi
discussion. The design procedure for connection type  3 is d = distance between the bottom of the girder and the
more complex and is provided in Farimani et al. (2014). It centroid of the slab tension reinforcement, in.
is not recommended to use connection type 3 in practice H = height of the steel block, parallel to the girder depth,
since some level of crushing of the concrete adjacent to the in.
compression flange was observed in the experimental tests. tpl = thickness of the steel block, parallel to the girder
Closer examination of the information provided in Table 1 length, in.
indicates that the flexural capacity for connection type 1 is
The use of the recommended design procedures is dem-
predominantly (approximately 77%) provided by a couple
onstrated using a two-span bridge consisting of two 97‑ft
created by the tension reinforcement placed in the deck and
spans with the following design information:
the compression steel block located at bottom of the con-
nection. Based on the research findings, it is suggested that Required live load
simplified design provisions be followed for calculating the   moment capacity, Mu(LL) 34,770 in.-kip
flexural capacity of connection type 1. The same procedure Steel beam W40×249
can also be used to calculate the area of steel reinforcement Depth of the steel beam 43.375 in.
needed in the slab to provide live load continuity. Width of compression flange, bf 15.75 in.
As mentioned previously, based on the values shown in Bottom of girder to centroid of rebar, d 47.75 in.
Table  1, the effect of the stirrups and diaphragm concrete Effective width of concrete slab, be 92 in.
can be ignored when calculating the moment capacity of Slab thickness 8.5 in.
connection type 1. This leaves only the bottom compression Strength reduction factor, ϕ 0.9
block and slab tension reinforcement to provide the moment- The nomenclature used to describe the size of the steel
resisting capacity. The capacity is then simply the tension blocks is as follows:
capacity of the slab reinforcement multiplied by the moment
arm. Because the bottom compression block will be sized so • The dimension of the steel block parallel to the depth
that it will not yield, the resulting moment arm is equal to of the girder will be referred to as the height of the
the distance between the slab tension reinforcement and the steel block and is designated as H.
center of the bottom compression block. The steel blocks are • The dimension of the steel block parallel to the width
in contact (bearing) and can resist stresses well beyond the of the girder flange will be referred to as the steel
yield stress. block width and is designated as bf.
Research has shown that failure of connection detail • The dimension of the steel block parallel to the length
type 1 coincides with the slab tension reinforcement reach- of the girder is referred to as tpl. This dimension could
ing its ultimate capacity. Research has also shown that all vary and it is suggested to be at least 2 in.
tension reinforcement within the effective width will yield.
The resulting equation for calculating the capacity of the To begin, a steel block with a height of 2 in. will be
connection is therefore: assumed. After calculating the required area of the slab
tension reinforcement, the adequacy of this block will be
Mn = As fy (d − H/ 2)(1) checked. To calculate the required area of the reinforcement,

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 Equation 1 can be set equal the required strength and solved plate could be achieved using minimum size fillet welds.
for As: As shown in Figure 11, the steel blocks need to touch each
other; however, they do not need to be in full contact. Dur-
Mu ing construction, the longitudinal movement of the girders
As = (2)
ϕf y ( d − H 2 )  could create a gap between the steel blocks due to thermal
loads. This should not be a concern, however, because con-
Using Equation 2, the required area of slab tension rein- crete paste can fill the space between the steel blocks and
forcement is calculated as shown: create a smooth load transfer path. This recommendation is
based on observed test results and field experiences.
34, 770 One of the critical steps during the construction stage is
As =
0.9 ( 60 ) ( 47.75 − 2 2 ) the casting of the concrete diaphragm prior to the casting of
the deck. This involves two opposing requirements. First,
= 13.8 in.2
the ends of the girders must be prevented from twisting dur-
In order to ensure that the bottom compression block ing the casting of the deck to ensure stability of the girders.
remains elastic when the ultimate capacity of the connec- This is a requirement for using the flexural design provi-
tion is reached, the required minimum height of the steel sions of the LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO,
block can be found using Equation 3. Note that the ultimate 2012). In this regard, casting the full depth of the concrete
strength of the tension reinforcement is used. Based on the diaphragm would be ideal. However, field measurements
results of the research, the ultimate strength is assumed to be indicate that full-depth casting of the concrete diaphragm
1.7 times the yield strength. can provide about 50% moment continuity during deck
casting. This unintended continuity can result in cracking
1.7As fy of the concrete diaphragm during deck casting. This behav-
H min = (3) ior was observed in the construction of Highway N-2 over
b f Fypl
the I-80 bridge in Nebraska (Yakel and Azizinamini, 2014)
where for which the concrete diaphragm was completely cast and
Hmin = minimum height of the bottom compression block, cured before casting the deck. After removing the formwork,
parallel to the depth of the girder, in. cracks were observed on the face of the concrete diaphragm,
Fypl = yield strength of the steel block, ksi as shown in Figure 12. Formation of cracks in the concrete
bf = width of the girder flange, in. diaphragm resulted in a reduction in the level of continuity
moment. The cracks were later filled with epoxy. It should
The width of the block is assumed to be equivalent to the be noted that these cracks did not pose any safety hazard or
width of the girder bottom flange and the area of reinforce- potential for failure—they can be repaired with epoxy fill-
ment is assumed to be equivalent to the required area calcu- ing—rather, the issue was more of an aesthetic problem and
lated with Equation 1. If the actual area of reinforcement is possibly a service-life issue. Nevertheless, departments of
larger based on the arrangement of bars selected, the thick- transportation generally do not favor the formation of such
ness of the block should be re-evaluated. cracks.
Field experience indicates that the level of unintended
1.7 (13.8 )( 60 ) continuity is significantly reduced if the concrete diaphragm
H min =
15.75 ( 50 ) is cast to about 12 to q of its full depth before placing a thin
steel sheet between the end plates running across the entire
= 1.79 in. < 2 in.
width of the concrete diaphragm. Figure 13 shows the sug-
∴ assumed block height acceptable gested detail that was used in construction of a bridge using
Therefore, using steel blocks with dimensions of 2 in. by 2 in. an SDCL steel bridge system in Montana.
by 15.75 in. is adequate. The thin cold-formed steel sheet shown in Figure 13
should be extended to near the bottom flange of the gird-
ers and secured while casting the partial-depth concrete dia-
FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION phragm. Other details or approaches may also be feasible to
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONVENTIONAL reduce this unintended continuity. The main objective is to
CONSTRUCTION METHODS secure the ends of the girder in concrete and provide good
For the recommended connection detail shown in Figure 11, torsional bracing while, to the extent possible, allowing the
test results indicated that minimum size fillet welds could be girder ends to rotate when casting the deck without subject-
used to attach the end plates to the girder ends. In addition, ing the concrete diaphragm to tensile forces. The incorpora-
the attachment between the steel blocks and the steel end tion of cold-formed thin steel sheet, as shown in Figure 13,

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 Fig. 12.  An example of cracking in the concrete diaphragm if it is cast full depth.

Fig. 13.  Recommended solution for reducing unintended continuity over the pier.

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 also controls the direction of cracking, if any, in the con- 4. Providing a stable configuration during construction.
crete diaphragm while casting the deck. It is recommended The recommended detail and construction procedure,
that about 25% dead load continuity should be assumed, as described earlier, simplifies the bridge details while
despite precautionary measures that may be taken to avoid producing a stable configuration during deck casting.
the development of unintended dead load continuity during This is achieved by rigidly securing the ends of the
the design process. girder in the partially cast concrete diaphragm.
Although this discussion focused on I-shaped steel gird- 5. Allowing the sequence of casting for multi-span
ers, the same conclusions are applicable to box-shaped bridges to be ignored since the deck may be cast from
girders. one end of the bridge to the other end in a single cast.
This advantage is a reflection of the fact that each span
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION acts as a simply supported span when casting the deck;
ADVANTAGES USING CONVENTIONAL the number of spans is not a design consideration.
CONSTRUCTION METHODS 6. Providing protection of the girder ends against pos-
SDCL steel bridge systems present several advantages when sible corrosion by using the recommended detail over
used in conjunction with conventional construction meth- the pier, which enhances the service life of the bridge.
ods, including: Eliminating the bolted splices also enhances the ser-
vice life by reducing the risk of corrosion.
1. Eliminating the need for bolted splices.
2. Allowing the use of the same cross-section through-
out the girder length. The positive moment along the DESIGN, FABRICATION AND
girder length is increased slightly, while the negative CONSTRUCTION RECOMMENDATIONS
moment in the same span near the interior supports FOR ACCELERATED CONSTRUCTION
is decreased. Investigated cases that included span Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) is a response to
lengths of 90 to 150 ft, which are typically found in public demand for avoiding traffic interruption. The SDCL
simple-grade crossings, have shown that the result- steel bridge system provides an excellent opportunity for
ing moments allow the use of the same cross-section accelerating the construction process. This objective can be
throughout the girder length. This observation favors achieved in several ways. One approach is to use the adja-
the use of rolled beams where possible. cent girder concept as described later. The concept can be
3. Reducing negative moment near the interior pier. This implemented using either I-shaped girders or box girders.
allows for increasing the spacing between the interior However, the following discussion focuses on using steel
pier and first cross frame, which can in turn reduce the box girders in applying the SDCL system to ABC. The
number of cross frames. Casting the ends of the girder application of the SDCL system to ABC is further explained
in concrete creates a boundary condition that is fixed using as an example the bridge over I-80 at 262nd Street in
against torsion, which can allow a further increase Nebraska.
in the distance between the interior support and first The adjacent girder concept utilizes prefabricated units
cross frame. However, this additional fixity is usually consisting of an individual steel box girder pre-topped by
ignored in routine design. a portion of deck slab, as shown in Figure 14. In this dis-
cussion, each steel section with a pre-topped deck will be

Fig. 14.  Single (interior) box girder and deck unit.

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 referred to as a unit. With this approach, the units are pre- using regular cranes and placed on the supports, as shown in
fabricated and then shipped to the job site. The portion of Figure 17. The main advantage of steel box girders is their
the deck shown in Figure 14 is cast at the fabrication shop or significantly lower weight compared to concrete box gird-
temporary staging location. Once on site, the individual units ers, especially for longer span lengths. Use of lightweight
are set into place on the supports adjacent to one another concrete can further reduce the total weight of the pre-
(see Figure 15). A longitudinal deck closure strip between topped units if necessary.
the individual units is then cast, joining them together. At Figure 18 shows the photo of the bridge over I-80 at 262nd
the same time, the concrete diaphragm over the interior pier Street after placement of all the pre-topped units side by side.
is cast. The interior concrete diaphragm connects the spans Another major advantage of using steel box girders in the
and provides continuity between them for subsequent load- adjacent girder system is the ability to match the elevation of
ing (e.g., live load). Step-by-step details of the procedure are different units and achieve the overall geometry. In the case
described as follows. of concrete girders, creep and shrinkage deflections cause
different pre-topped units to experience different displace-
Construction Sequence ments, and it is almost impossible to match the elevation of
adjacent units. Further, in the case of prestressed concrete
Step 1. Steel Box-Girder Fabrication.  The first step is to
girders, attaching them over the pier for live load continuity
fabricate the steel box girders. One option is to have webs
can result in cracking in the concrete diaphragm because
perpendicular to the flanges. This allows fabricators to use
of creep and shrinkage-related deformation of the girders,
standard I-girder techniques and jigs. Often, webs of box
which is not an issue for steel girders. These issues can result
girders are sloped, which can be costly to fabricate and can
in serious field challenges and job delays, especially for lon-
require special modifications to equipment.
ger span lengths.
Step 2. Cast the Deck onto the Girders.  This operation can
Step 4. Detail for the Interior Supports and Longitudinal
be performed in a precast concrete facility or some other
Closure Pour.  The detail recommended for ABC applica-
temporary location. Two available options for formwork are
tion of SDCL steel bridge systems is shown in Figure 19
conventional form jacks or a shored deck bed. The chosen
and is similar to that used for conventional methods of
system depends on fabricator preference and the nature of
construction.
the job.
The longitudinal reinforcement extending from the pre-
Figure 16 shows the fabrication of pre-topped units for
topped deck can be developed over shorter distances by
the bridge over I-80 at 262nd Street. A primary advantage
hooking the bars inside the concrete diaphragm. This par-
of ABC is that most of the construction activities can be
ticular detail was investigated extensively—including a full-
accomplished off site, away from traffic zones, eliminat-
scale test—by Javidi, Yakel, and Azizinamini (2014) and
ing the risk associated with exposing workers to work zone
was found to provide good performance. It is recommended
hazards.
that development of the extended longitudinal reinforcement
Given the inherent stability of the steel box section, con-
using straight splices be avoided. Developing the longitudi-
ventional form jacks can be used for the deck forming. The
nal reinforcement extending from pre-topped girders is not
steel girder is placed on temporary supports, and construc-
recommended, unless the bars are terminated in the region
tion is carried out using conventional methods. Depending
of the deck subjected predominantly to compression. End-
on the fabricator’s preference, the segments can be con-
ing tension reinforcement in a tension zone will create stress
structed individually or all at once.
concentrations and develop cracking in the deck, adversely
Other options include placing the steel girder on a flat bed
affecting the service life of the bridge deck.
and fully supporting the unit while casting the deck.
The detail to be used for longitudinal closure pour is a
Step 3. Placement of the Units on Supports.  After casting critical aspect of using pre-topped adjacent girder systems.
the deck, the individual pre-topped units can be picked up

Fig. 15.  Three adjacent box-girder units.

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 Figure 20 shows the longitudinal closure pour detail used for width (about 8 in.) and take measures to ensure good quality
the 262nd Street Bridge, which utilized headed bars. control during construction.
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) provides bet- The fresh concrete that is placed in the closure pour will
ter alternatives for longitudinal closure pours. In the case be restrained by concrete that is already hardened on the
of the bridge over I-80 at 262nd Street, the width of the clo- either side of the closure pour region (i.e., the pre-topped
sure pour was 13 in. The headed bars that were used allowed deck over the girders). This restraint will result in the devel-
for development of the deck transverse reinforcement over a opment of tensile stresses in both the longitudinal and trans-
shorter length. Using UHPC, the width of the closure pour verse directions in the concrete that is placed in the closure
region could further be reduced to 8 in., eliminating the need pour. These tensile stresses can easily exceed the modulus of
for the headed bars. The shortcoming is that very tight toler- rupture of the concrete and result in the development of lon-
ances need to be specified, which could create challenges in gitudinal and transverse cracking at close intervals along the
the field. From the standpoint of durability and service life, closure pour region. Field observations indicate that these
the width of closure pours needs to be as small as practical. transverse cracks can be 1 or 2 ft apart. The narrower the
However, from the standpoint of tolerance, the width needs closure pour region, the lower the severity of these trans-
to be as wide as possible. It is recommended to use a narrow verse and longitudinal cracks. The restraining phenomenon

  

Fig. 16.  Preparing the formwork for casting the deck on the unit.

  

Fig. 17.  Pickup and placement of pre-topped units on the supports.

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 described earlier is very similar to the behavior of a closure OTHER DETAILS USED FOR
pour in phase-constructed bridges. A detailed description of IN-SERVICE BRIDGES
the behavior of closure pours in phased constructed bridges
Several states have used SDCL steel bridge systems (Talbot,
and recommended design provisions are provided elsewhere
2005; Stone, Lindt and Chen, 2011; Morales, 2004; Was-
(Azizinamini, Yakel and Swendroski, 2003).
serman, 2005) and some have used modified versions of
In the case of the 262nd Street Bridge over I-80, a partial-
the recommended details discussed herein. In the sections
depth pre-topped deck was used necessitating placement of
that follow, these details are presented along with brief dis-
an overlay as the last step of the construction. The use of
cussions of their effectiveness based on research and field
an overlay allows the addressing of minor adjustments that
observations.
might be needed during construction.

Fig. 18.  Completing the placement of the pre-topped units for the bridge over I-80 at 262nd Street in Nebraska.

  

Fig. 19.  Recommended interior support detail for an SDCL system used in an ABC application.

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 The Ohio DOT used the detail shown in Figure 21 in the movement of the girders due to thermal loading before cast-
construction of State Route 22 in Circleville, Ohio (Morales, ing the concrete diaphragm should be evaluated. Restrain-
2004). The entire connection detail shown was cast in con- ing both ends of the girder against longitudinal movement
crete forming the concrete diaphragm. The holes shown in before casting the diaphragm can result in failure of the
Figure 21 are provided to pass through the transverse rein- anchor rods. As noted in Figure 22, half of the concrete dia-
forcement that extends along the entire width of the concrete phragm was first cast and cured to secure the girder ends
diaphragm. before casting the deck and the rest of the diaphragm. As
The major difference between this detail and the detail described earlier, this is an excellent approach for securing
recommended in this study is the gap that is left between the the end of the girders against twist and eliminating the need
bottom (compression) flanges bearing directly on the con- for a steel diaphragm at the girder ends. As recommended
crete diaphragm. Based on the research results presented, previously, somewhere between 12 to q of the concrete dia-
this detail—which is similar to the type 3 detail described phragm should be cast first to provide torsional bracing at
earlier—can result in crushing of the concrete in the vicinity the girder ends, and to reduce any unintended moment con-
of the compression flange. In construction of the bridge, the tinuity for dead load.
diaphragm and deck were cast simultaneously. This would The second class of details used in Tennessee in conjunc-
require providing a steel diaphragm at each end of the girder tion with SDCL steel bridge systems is shown in Figure 23.
to act as torsional bracing. It is not clear whether this was This detail was used in the construction of the DuPont
provided or not. Access Road Bridge in New Johnsonville, Tennessee. The
The Tennessee DOT has used two different details with major variation from the recommended detail in this case
an SDCL steel bridge system (Wasserman, 2005). For con- is the cover plate that is provided to connect the top flanges
struction of the State Route 35 Bridge in Maryville, Tennes- before pouring the concrete diaphragm and deck; thereby
see, the detail used was very similar to the recommended providing the continuity for the deck dead load. Bolts con-
detail in this paper. This detail is shown in Figure 22. necting the top flanges of the girders are not shown in Fig-
The detail shown in Figure 22 is similar to connection ure 23. Such a practice could help reduce the camber that
type 3 described in this paper, except that the girders are is needed and the deflection of the girder due to the dead
anchored to the cap beam using anchor rods. The behavior of weight of the wet concrete.
this type of detail was investigated by Farimani et al. (2014). A variation of the detail shown in Figure 23 was used
However, this detail is not recommended for field applica- earlier in New Mexico in the construction of the Las Cruces
tion because there was evidence of crushing of the concrete and Hatch Bridges (Morales, 2004), with the exception that
adjacent to the compression flange. A positive aspect of this the bolts in the top cover plates were tightened after pour-
detail is the attachment of the compression flange to the cap ing a portion of the deck in order to provide continuity for
beam using anchor rods, which can be beneficial if moment the live load only. Such a practice could potentially result
reversal is a possibility and the bottom flange is placed in in construction complexities. Tightening of the cover plate
tension. However, during construction, the longitudinal bolts after deck casting has started could be challenging in

  

Fig. 20.  Possible detail for longitudinal closure pour.

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 Fig. 21.  Detail used by the Ohio DOT.

Fig. 22.  Detail used in construction of the State Route 35 Bridge in Maryville, Tennessee.

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 the field. Research results indicate that there is no need for a girder ends. Further, having too many unprotected steel ele-
top cover plate, and field experience indicates that contrac- ments over the pier, created by the presence of a heavy steel
tors do not favor this detail. diaphragm, can further lower the service life and durability
Another detail that was used on a SDCL steel bridge sys- of the bridge. One of the major benefits of casting a concrete
tem is a detail used by the Colorado DOT (Stone, Lindt and diaphragm over the girder ends at the pier is enhancing the
Chen, 2011) and illustrated in Figure 24. This detail was service life of the bridge by eliminating joints.
used in the construction of a six-span, 470-ft long bridge In summary, variations of the recommended details in
on U.S. Route 36 near Denver, Colorado. A concrete dia- this study have been used by other DOTs for bridges that
phragm was not used in this detail. The girders were seated are in service. From the experiences gained from this study
on an elastomeric bearing pad along with a 30 in. by 14 in. and the use of SDCL steel bridge systems in several states,
by 1 in. steel plate. The bottom flanges of the girders were the following conclusions may be drawn with respect to the
welded to the plate to provide compression-flange continu- characteristics that a preferred detail should possess for join-
ity. Heavy cross frames were provided (W27×84 sections) ing girders over interior piers in SDCL steel bridge systems:
for the girders (W33×152 sections) near each girder end and
1. There is a need to provide a continuous load path for
over the pier to provide torsional bracing for the girder ends
transferring the compression force from one bottom
during deck casting. Webs of the two girders over the pier
flange to the adjacent bottom flange, without crushing
were not connected, which raises a question about the type
the concrete in the diaphragm.
of connection that was developed. To develop a full-moment
connection, flanges and webs need to be spliced and con- 2. The detail to be used should be selected with consid-
nected. The type of detail used by the Colorado DOT falls eration given to service life and durability. Casting the
in the category of a semi-rigid-type connection and would ends of the girder in concrete can protect the end of the
need experimental verification to assess its rotational stiff- girder against corrosion and eliminate joints over the
ness for analysis purposes. Simply assuming that this detail pier.
is rigid and the girders are continuous for the purpose of 3. Details that could potentially create construction chal-
live load analysis is not correct. Further, the transverse weld lenges should be avoided. Otherwise, the simplicity of
attaching the bottom flanges of the girders to the 30 in. by the SDCL system will be compromised. Details such
14 in. by 1 in. plate is a Category E or E′ detail for fatigue. as a cover plate for attaching the top flanges of the
The deck detail used over the pier could also develop cracks girder should be avoided. Research results indicate that
during its service life and result in moisture leaking over the there is no need to provide a cover plate for continuity

Fig. 23.  Second detail for an SDCL steel bridge system, used for the DuPont Access Road Bridge in New Johnsonville, Tennessee.

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 or any other reason. Prestressed concrete bridges have 5. For analysis purposes, the type of connection used
used SDCL systems for years without any need for over the pier needs to be identifiable with respect to
connecting the top flanges for continuity or any other rigidity. Connection details that are chosen should be
reasons. classified as rigid, providing a full-moment connec-
4. The ends of the girders during deck casting need to be tion to reduce efforts in the analysis stage.
torsionally braced. An effective way to provide this is 6. Low-category fatigue details should be avoided.
to partially cast the ends of the girder in concrete, as
described earlier.

Fig. 24.  Detail used by the Colorado DOT for a bridge located on U.S. Route 36 near Denver, Colorado.

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 SEISMIC APPLICATION larger portions of the pier column (two plastic hinges versus
one for single curvature) to participate in energy dissipation.
The recommended detail combined with additional research
Under longitudinal excitation, plastic hinges are located
could provide an economical steel bridge system alternative
near the top and bottom of the columns, while under trans-
in highly seismic areas; however, to date, no research studies
verse excitation, the plastic hinge is located near the bottom
have been carried out to extend the application of SDCL sys-
of the pier column as shown in Figure 26.
tem to these areas. The following is a brief discussion of the
The main design feature in the seismic design of bridges
issues involved and recommendations for further research,
is to keep the superstructure elements completely elastic
which could allow application of the recommended detail
during an entire seismic event. These elements are called
to highly seismic areas. Limited efforts by the author of this
protected elements. The inelasticity is then forced to take
paper are under way to expand application of SDCL steel
place at predefined locations within the substructure. The
bridge systems to high seismic areas.
predefined damage locations are the weak links or fuses that
Steel bridges are lighter (about 40%) than concrete
control the level of forces to be transmitted to superstructure
alternates and can provide better performance in a major
elements. This design approach is referred to as the capacity
earthquake. However, observations from a past earthquake
design approach and is used for designing bridges in seismic
(Astaneh-Asl et al., 1994) demonstrate that use of incorrect
regions.
details or systems could result in steel bridges sustaining
In the capacity design approach, protected elements are
major damage. In the case of the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu
designed for the largest possible force effects they might
earthquake in Kobe, Japan (Bruneau, Wilson, and Tremblay,
experience, considering overstrength that may exist because
1996; Chung 1996; Shinozuka et al., 1995; Azizinamini and
of higher actual material strength than that specified in
Ghosh, 1997), steel bridges suffered damage to superstruc-
design. The capacities of the bridge elements in the desired
ture elements (e.g., inadequate cross-frame detailing led
damage location (plastic hinge locations) are controlled
to lateral bending of the girder webs near the girder ends),
through design. The plastic hinge regions are also detailed
resulting in major retrofit activities and the closing of major
so that they can provide the desired capacities while deform-
highways, such as the Hanshin Expressway, for more than a
ing beyond elastic limits during a seismic event (ductility
year. The Kobe experience demonstrated that even relatively
through adequate detailing).
minor damage to steel bridges in seismic events can result
In seismic areas, the use of an SDCL steel bridge sys-
in types of damage that could be very difficult to repair.
tem will demand the incorporation of a detail that can resist
Among the lessons learned is that critical elements of the
cyclic loading, which will require that the bottom portion
bridge that are difficult to inspect and repair must be pro-
of the recommended connection detail be designed for both
tected from any level of damage and remain elastic during
tension and compression forces. Further, in seismic applica-
the entire seismic excitation.
tions, the entire concrete diaphragm region, including the
Seismic input is largely unknown; therefore, the design
girder ends and connection elements, needs to remain com-
philosophy for buildings and bridges is to work on behavior
pletely elastic (protected elements) during the entire seismic
of the structure under known conditions. Specifically, the
event. An additional requirement is that the predefined dam-
design objective is to predefine the damage locations and
age areas (plastic hinge locations) must be forced to be at
design them accordingly by providing adequate levels of
some distance away from the concrete diaphragm region,
ductility. In the case of bridges, the preferred damage loca-
allowing repair and inspection after a major seismic event.
tions are at the ends of pier columns (formation of plastic
These objectives could be achieved by making the concrete
hinges). In the direction of traffic, it is preferred to put col-
diaphragm and substructure elements integral, as depicted
umns in double curvature as shown in Figure 25. This allows
in Figure 27.

Fig. 25.  Deflected shape of a three-span bridge in the longitudinal (parallel to traffic) direction.

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 The concrete diaphragm will be the protected element research and performing field applications of the new steel
and must remain elastic; therefore, it must be designed for bridge system for straight and minimally skewed bridges in
maximum credible torsion and remain elastic. The torsional which the skew angle is less than 10°, referred to as simple
moment to which the concrete diaphragm will be subjected for dead load and continuous for live loads (SDCL). These
is the negative moment at the girder ends, developed by vari- papers provide a complete summary of the observations and
ous load combinations. recommendations related to the design, fabrication and con-
Several approaches can be used to ensure that the concrete struction of the SDCL steel bridge system. A major aspect
diaphragm remains elastic under maximum credible tor- of the system is the connection that should be used to join
sion. Post-tensioning the concrete diaphragm (Patty, Seible the girders over the interior supports. A recommended detail
and Uang 2001) is one possibility. Further, the plastic hinge that was developed by conducting a combination of full-scale
at the column end must form at some distance away from experimental tests and analytical and numerical studies is
column ends. The final configuration of the suitable detail provided along with design provisions (Lampe et al., 2014;
should create a frame action between the superstructure and Farimani et al., 2014). The recommended detail has been
substructure (integral pier cap). The integral pier cap detail applied successfully to several in-service bridges. Perfor-
is also desirable for aesthetic considerations. A combination mance of several of these bridges has been monitored dur-
of experimental, numerical and analytical investigations ing construction, and for more than five years under ambient
will need to be carried out to develop a modified version of traffic and environmental loadings. Results of these moni-
the recommended detail for seismic applications. toring programs, some of which have lasted more than five
years, indicate excellent performance of the recommended
detail (Yakel and Azizinamini, 2014). The recommended
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
detail embodies the main philosophy that should be used
This paper and its related papers present the results of in developing a suitable and economical connection detail
more than 10 years of experience gained from conducting for interior supports, namely, preventing the crushing of the

(a) Longitudinal Deformation (b) Transverse Deformation

Fig. 26.  Deflected shape of the pier column in the (a) longitudinal and (b) transverse directions.

Fig. 27.  Transfer column moment to the concrete diaphragm through an integral connection.

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 concrete within the concrete diaphragm. Using variations of experimental testing include John Swendroski, J. Brian
the recommended detail is feasible, as long as they include Hash, Patrick Mans, Luke Glaser and Nima Ala. The study
characteristics described earlier in this paper. was supported by the Federal Highway Administration
An SDCL steel bridge system provides an excellent oppor- and the Nebraska Department of Roads (NDOR). Several
tunity for accelerating the construction process. A variation visionary engineers at NDOR were helpful to the successful
of the recommended detail, suitable for ABC applications, completion of the project: Lyman Freeman, Moe Jamshdi
was developed and full-scale tests were carried out to ver- and Hussam “Sam” Fallaha. Steel fabrication and assistance
ify its behavior and develop design provisions. The same during specimen preparation were provided by Capitol Con-
detail was also used in construction of a bridge that imple- tractors of Lincoln, Nebraska.
mented the ABC philosophy and its behavior was monitored The opinions and conclusions presented in this paper
for about two years (Javidi, Yakel and Azizinamini, 2014). are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the
Results of the entire effort indicate that the recommended viewpoints of the project sponsors.
ABC detail provides an excellent connection detail for ABC
application. REFERENCES
A few similar details comparable to the recommended
AASHTO (2012), LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
detail are also used in practice by various DOTs. Known
American Association of State Highway and Transporta-
details are presented and their advantages and disadvan-
tion Officials, Washington, DC.
tages are discussed.
An SDCL steel bridge system also potentially presents an Astaneh-Asl, A., Bolt, B., McMullin, K.M., Donikian, R.R.,
attractive alternative for application in highly seismic areas Modjtahedi, D. and Cho, S. (1994), Seismic Performance
but requires further investigation. Preliminary ideas on how of Steel Bridges During the 1994 Northridge Earthquake,
to extend the SDCL steel bridge system to these areas are Report UCB/CE-STEEL-94-01, Department of Civil and
also presented. Environmental Engineering, University of California,
In summary, the SDCL steel bridge system provides Berkeley, CA, 1994.
an economical bridge system for straight and minimally Azizinamini, A. and Ghosh, S.K. (1997), “Steel Rein-
skewed bridges that also features the potential for enhanced forced Concrete Structures in 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu
service life. Eliminating bolted field splices and embed- Earthquake.” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
ding the ends of the girder in concrete can result in a sig- Vol. 123, No. 8, pp. 986–992.
nificant enhancement in service life. SDCL steel bridge Azizinamini, A., Lampe, N.J. and Yakel, A.J. (2003),
systems reduce construction concerns such as stability and Toward Development of a Steel Bridge System — Simple
the sequence of deck casting. Less equipment is needed to for Dead Load and Continuous for Live Load, A Final
erect SDCL bridge systems. SDCL system design is rela- Report Submitted to the Nebraska Department of Roads,
tively simple, and field monitoring of several SDCL bridges National Bridge Research Organization: www.nlc.state.
already in service indicates excellent field performance. A ne.us/epubs/r6000/b016.0088-2003.pdf.
suggestion for future research is the application of the SDCL
Azizinamini, A., Yakel, A.J. and Farimani, M.R. (2005),
concept to curved steel bridges.
Development of a Steel Bridge System—Simple for Dead
Load and Continuous for Live Load, Volume 1: Analy-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS sis and Recommendations, Final Report NDOR 542,
Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln, NE.
This investigation was directed by Atorod Azizinamini,
Professor and Chair at Florida International University, and Azizinamini, A., Yakel, A.J., Lampe N.J., Mossahebi, N.
was made possible by contributions from many current and and Otte, M. (2005), Development of a Steel Bridge Sys-
former graduate students and research associates, as well as tem—Simple for Dead Load and Continuous for Live
input from many in the bridge community. In particular, the Load, Volume  2: Experimental Results, Final Report
contributions of the following individuals are acknowledged. NDOR P542, Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln,
Graduate students earning degrees from the project were NE.
Nick Lampe, Nazanin Mahasebi, Reza Farimani, Saeed Azizinamini, A., Yakel, A.J. and Swendroski J. (2003),
Javidi, Derek Kowalski and Mark Otte. The research study Development of a Design Guideline for Phase Construc-
was conducted at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. tion of Steel Girder Bridges, Final Report, Nebraska
Aaron Yakel was the research associate assisting the proj- Department of Roads, Lincoln, NE.
ect. Laboratory technicians Jeff Boettcher, John Dageford,
and Peter Hilsabeck assisted in conducting the experimental
portion of the study. Graduate students who assisted with

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 Bruneau, M., Wilson, J.W., and Tremblay, R. (1996), “Per- Lampe, N.J., Mossahebi, N., Yakel, A.J., Farimani, M.R.
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States—The First 40 Years,” PCI Journal, Vol. 37, No. 3, for dead, continuous for live, M.S. Thesis, University of
May–June, pp. 487–464. Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE.
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Made-Continuous Connections in Steel Girder Bridges, of Integral Bridge Connections: Structural Systems
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lin- Research Project, Final Report No. SSRP-2000/16,
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