INPM Training Manual 1

Part 1 - Flow

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 - Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition 2

A Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition:

The ability to accurately measure and control flow is essential to maintain the
process conditions required to maximize plant production and product quality. In
most process applications, proper regulation of flow rates ensures control of process
reaction rates as well as the regulation of other variables such as pressure, level and
temperature. Often, flow measurements are used as indicators of overall process
performance.

A-1 Density:

Density is a measurement of the proximity of the molecules that make up a

substance. In the simplest terms, density is mass per unit of volume. This can be
expressed as:
m

v
Where:
• = density
• m = mass
• v = volume

A-2 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Density:

The density of a substance is affected by variables such as temperature and

pressure. These effects vary according to the physical properties of the substance.
For example, the effects of temperature on the density of solids and gases varies
widely. Gases are most affected; solids are least affected; with liquids generally
ranging somewhere in between. The effects of pressure on the density of solids and
liquids are considered negligible because both are relatively non-compressible.
However, the effect of pressure on the density of gases is very pronounced.
Consequently, systems designed to measure the flow of gases must include
compensation for both variables in order to ensure accurate results.

Volumetric expansion, which affects the density of a liquid, can be expressed as:

V  Vo1   T 
where:
 = the cubical coefficient of expansion of the liquid that is consistent with the
temperature units used.
Vo = Initial Volume
T = Temperature difference

Gases Volume to Pressure Relationship (Charles Law): This phenomenon is described

in Charles' Law, which states that for an ideal gas or mixture of gases at constant
pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

V = constant x T

To compare the volumes of an ideal gas at constant pressure and at different

temperatures, the following equation is used:

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 - Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition 3

V T

Vo To
Gases Volume to Pressure Relationship (Boyles Law): This principle is described in
Boyle's Law which states that for any ideal gas or mixture of ideal gases at a
constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
V = constant P
Boyle's Law can also be stated in another form:
V P

Vo Po
This formula can be used to compare the volumes of an ideal gas at different
pressures while maintained at a constant temperature.

A-3 Specific Gravity :

Another term commonly used to express the density of fluids is specific gravity.
While density is a stand-alone measurement, specific gravity is a ratio comparing the
density of a fluid at a specific temperature to the density of water or air at the same
temperature. The specific gravity of liquids and gases can be represented by the
following equations.

Specific Gravity = (Density of a liquid) / (Density of water at standard conditions)

Specific Gravity = (Density of Gas) / (Density of air at standard condition)

Standard conditions should be defined when density is to be calculated from the

specific gravity. Typically, liquid specific gravity is referenced to 60 o F and 14.696
psi. Since other standard temperatures may also be used, the following information
may be helpful.
Density of water at 60oF = 62.33630 lb/ft3
= 0.999012 1 g/cm3
Density of water at 68 F
o
= 62.31572 lb/ft3
= 0.9982019 g/cm3
Density of air at 60 F
o
= 14.696 psia.
= 0.0764 lb/ft3

A-4 Flow:

While a study of flow measurement requires an understanding of what causes fluid to

flow, accurate measurement systems must also take into account the flow profile of
fluids. Fluids may move in smooth patterns, agitated or turbulent patterns, or the
patterns may be a combination of these characteristics.

Flow classification:

• Laminar Flow: Figure 2-3A represents a smooth, layered flow, which is

described as Laminar flow. In Laminar flow, the fluid particles move along
parallel paths. If Laminar flow could be observed, it would appear as several
streams of liquid flowing smoothly alongside each other.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 - Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition 4

Figure 2-3A

• Turbulent Flow: Figure 2-3B represents a turbulent flow pattern. In

comparison to laminar flow, turbulent flow is agitated and disturbed.
Turbulent flow appears to have small, high frequency fluctuations that travel
in all directions forming eddies.

Figure 2-3B

• Transitional flow, which is illustrated in Figure 2-3C, exhibits characteristics of

both laminar and turbulent patterns. In some cases, transitional flow will
oscillate between laminar and turbulent flow.

Figure 2-3C

The degree of fictional resistance generated by the three types of flow patterns
varies. Laminar flow offers the least amount of frictional resistance to fluid flow,
whereas turbulent flow causes a great deal of Fictional resistance. The degree to
which transitional flow tends toward one pattern or the other is a major factor in
determining the amount of friction the flow generates.

A-5 Viscosity:

Viscosity is the property that determines how freely fluids flow. Viscosity can be
further described as the property of a fluid that contributes to laminar or turbulent
flow characteristics. Fluids have various degrees of viscosity. Such variations result
from internal friction between the particles of the substance. If the molecules slide
easily over one another, the substance has a relatively low viscosity. A substance
with a higher viscosity has a higher resistance to flow.

pipe walls If the flow is laminar, the viscous force causes the flow to slow as it
approaches the. Theoretically, this flow is parabolic, with the central core having a
higher velocity and the outermost area having a lower velocity. This is illustrated in
Figure 2-4.
Turbulent flow is less affected by viscous forces along the walls of the pipe. Due to
relatively low viscous forces, turbulent flow exhibits a more uniform profile than
laminar flow. However, the fluid layer next to the wall remains laminar even in the
case of fully developed turbulent flow.
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INPM Training Manual Part 1 - Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition 5

Turbulent Flow Laminar Flow

Figure 2-4 Flow Profiles

A-6 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:

Temperature has a significant effect on the viscosity of a substance. Relatively small

changes in temperature may produce significant changes in a fluid's viscosity.
Generally, changes in temperature have an inverse effect on viscosity.

If the viscosity of a liquid at one temperature is known, its viscosity at another

temperature may be estimated by using the generalized viscosity curve for liquids
(see Figure 2-5). The value is expressed in centipoise (cP), a unit of viscosity
measurement. For example, if the viscosity of a liquid at 50 oC is 25 cP., the viscosity
of the liquid at OoC can be determined using the generalized viscosity curve for
liquids.

The initial viscosity is indicated where the generalized viscosity curve intersects at
25g cP and 500oC. As each division represents 50oC, the estimated viscosity at OoC is
approximately 400 cP. This example illustrates the magnitude of the effect on a
substance's viscosity even with small temperature changes.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 - Fluid Properties and Parameters Definition 6

Figure 2-5 Generalized Viscosity for Liquids

A-7 Reynolds Number:

Flow is often measured in terms of velocity. Therefore, when different portions of the
flow are moving at different velocities, measurement accuracy will be affected.
Further, as stated earlier, the flow profile depends on a combination of factors,
including the forces that resist flow and the forces that act to keep flow moving at a
constant rate. The relationship between these forces is expressed by the Reynolds
number: a ratio of inertial to viscous form specific to flow conditions.

RD = inertial forces / viscous forces = Dv/

Like specific gravity, the Reynolds number is dimensionless and is not absolute for a
given liquid substance, but varies with the conditions of flow. The following equations
are used to calculate the Reynolds number for liquid and gas flow through a pipe,
given that  is in pounds per cubic foot and D is in inches.

Liquid:
3160QSG
R
D
where:
0 3160 = units constant Q = flow rate in gallons per minute
SG = specific gravity  = Viscosity in Centipoise
D = Pipe diameter

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 7

Gas:
379Q
R
D
Where:
379 = constant Q = flow rate in gallons/minute  = Density

Flow Classification According to Reynolds

Number
Flow Classification Reynolds Number
Laminar Less than 2000
Turbulent Greater than 4000
Transitional Between 200 and 4000

Viscosity is the factor, which most affects the value of the Reynolds number. In
cases where small changes in temperature cause relatively large changes in
viscosity, corresponding changes in the Reynolds number will also occur. These
changes affect whether the flow is in the laminar, turbulent or transitional regions.
The Reynolds number is often a significant factor in deter- mining how well a specific
fluid-measuring device win perform and which applications are most appropriate to
its use.

B Fluid Flow Meter Classification:

B-1 Differential Producer Flow Meter:

Figure 1 illustrates a differential-producer flow meter. It consists of two separate
devices that act in combination to measure flow rate. The first is the primary device.
The geometry of the differential- producer element, the length of the upstream and
downstream piping, flow conditions, and pressure tap location with respect to the
primary element are all individual elements of the primary device.
Differential pressure is measured by transmitting pressure through lead lines to a
secondary differential-pressure measuring element. The secondary device in this
case consists of three elements: lead lines, valving, and a manometer. Since flow
can be calculated by visually observing the differential, no further readout equipment
is required.

If flow rate were calculated by a central processor, by an on-site computer, or from a

chart recorder these would be additional elements of the secondary device. In
combination, the two devices, primary and secondary, are referred to as the flow
meter. As shown in Fig. 1, differential pressure depends on pressure tap location and
on whether the contraction is abrupt or gradual-orifice or flow nozzle. The
relationship between measured differential and flow rate is then a function of tap
locations, primary element design, and associated upstream and downstream piping.
These effects are included in the discharge coefficient which relates the actual flow
rate to the theoretically calculated flow rate.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 8

B-1.1 Fundamental Unit Flow Rate equation:

If it is assume that the fluid is flowing through an inclined pipe, as shown in figure B-
1, the relationship between the differential (pressure) and the velocity can be
derived from the Bernoulli’s equation from the ideal incompressible fluid where there
is no density difference between taps due to gas expansion f1 =f2 = f

Figure B-1

This takes the form,

2 2
P1 V1 g P V g
  l Z1  2  2  l Z c (1)
p f 2gc gc p f 2gc gc

Z = Elevation above the datum of pipe center line, ft, m.

P = Static pressure, absolute psi, pascal.
f = Fluid density, ld/ft3, kg/m3
V = average stream velocity, ft/sec, m/s.
gc = Conversion constant, 32.17405 lbm.ft/lbf.s2, 1 kg.m/N.s2.
gl = Local acceleration due to gravity, m/s2, ft/s2
1,2 = upstream and down stream tap location respectively.

The relationship between average pipeline velocity V f and the differential pressure
obtained,
P P1  P2 V  V1
2 2
  2 (2)
f f 2gc
For steady flow the mass flow rate qM (lb/s, kg/s) between upstream and down
stream location is the same, and
qlbm/ s   fl1 A1V1   fl 2 A2V2 (3)
The relationship between pipe velocity V1 and the down stream velocity V2 for a
constant density fluid (f1 = f2) is then
A2
V1  V2 (4)
A1
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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 9

Substituting (4) to (2);

2 g c P
V2 
1  A / A  f
2 1
2
p
(5)

Flow rate is calculated in volume or mass units rather than in the velocity units of Eq.
5. To make this conversion, it is assumed that the area at which the velocity is V2 is
the area at the primary element. Then the volumetric flow rate, at flowing
conditions, is calculated as
2 g c P
qv  A2V2  A2

f p 1  4  (6)

Where :
 = Diameter ratio d = primary element bore, ft, m.
qv = volumetric flow rate at flow condition ft3/s, m3/s
P = Differential pressure lbf/ft2, Pascal

In terms of mass flow rate

 2 g c  f P
qm   f qv  d4
4 1  4
where qm = mass flow rate, lbm./s, kg./s.

Equations 6 and 7 are referred to as the theoretical flow rate equations in fundaments
units (feet, pounds-mass, pounds-force, seconds or meters, kilograms, seconds). Only for
contoured inlet devices, such as venturis and flow nozzles, will these equations calculate
a liquid flow rate to within 2%. Energy loss across the primary element and the expansion
of a gas (vapor) to the lower down- stream pressure P2 requires that two correction terms
be introduced: the discharge coefficient and a gas expansion factor.
The empirically determined discharge coefficient C corrects the equation from theoretical
to true flow rate based on experimental data obtained in a hydraulic laboratory. The
discharge coefficient is defined as

C = True flow rate/ theoretical flow rate {eq. (6) or (7)}

where the true flow rate is determined by collecting liquid in a mass or volume receiver
over a measured time interval. The theoretical flow rate is calculated by Eq. 6 or 7 using
the average differential P and liquid density over the collection interval.

Experimental evidence shows that the discharge coefficient changes with the pipe line
velocity profile. This change is correlated with the pipe Reynolds number by the
generalized equation of the form
C = C + bRnD (9)

where the constants C and b may be beta-dependent. Table I lists some of these
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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 10

equations. The pipe Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio of inertia to viscous flow
forces and is calculated as

q(lbm / s) q(kg / s)
Rd = 22737 = 127,3239 (10)
D D
Where:
cp = absolute viscosity,cP, gm/cm.s
D = Pipe diameter in, mm.
Q= mass flow rate lbm./s, kg

Some equations and value for C, b, and n for equation 9

Primary devices Discharge coeff. At Reynolds number term
infinite Coefficient b Exponent
Reynolds number n
Venturi
• Machined inlet 0.995 0 0
• Rough cast inlet 0.984 0 0
Universal Venturi tube
Lo-Loss tube 0.9797 0 0
Nozzle 1.005-0.4172-0.513 0 0
• ASME long radius 0.9975 -6.530.5 0.5
• ISA 0.9900-0.22624.1

Orifice(corner taps) 1708- 1.115

8936+19.7794.7
0.5959+0.0312- 0.5
91.712.5
0.1848
Note: For more expression of the discharge coefficient and Reynolds number term,
see Process Instrument and Control Handbook by Considine, 3 rd edition, table 1 page
4.20

The assumption of a constant density between the two pressure taps is not valid for
compressible fluids (air, nitrogen, etc.). Density decreases when a gas expands to
the lower pressure measured at the downstream tap. A gas expansion factor is
introduced into the equation to correct for this expansion. This factor is based on
experimental data (orifice) or derived from the thermodynamic general steady flow
energy equation to correct for this density difference. Assuming that the liquid-deter-
mined discharge coefficient applies to gas flows, the gas expansion factor is defined

Y1 = True flow rate of the gas / flow rate calculated by flow rate eq. (11)

where subscript I denotes that the gas expansion factor is based on an upstream tap
location density determination; if a downstream tap is used, a subscript 2 is inserted. The
relationship between these two gas expansion factors is

Y2 = (1-x1)-0.5Y1 (12)

For summary of the gas expansion factor see Process instrument and control
handbook by Considine 3rd edition, table 2 page 4.22.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 11

Where x1 = (P1 – P2)/P1

The true volumetric flow rate equation (ft3/s, m3/s) is then calculated by
 2 g c P  2 gcP 
qv = CY d
  = CY d
1   
2 2
1 2
4 1   4  fl 4 4
f2

and the true mass flow rate equation (lbm./s, kg/s) is then:
 2 g c P  2 gcP 
qm = CY d
  = CY d
1   
2 2
1 2
4 1   4  fl 4 4
f2

where the subscript M is lbm./s in the U.S system of units and kg./s in SI units

B-1.2A Orifice:

1. Square Edge:

In 2-in (50-mm) and larger line sizes, the concentric orifice (Fig. 2) is the most
common restriction for clean liquids, gases, and low-velocity vapor (steam) flows. It
is a sharp, square-edged hole bored in a flat, thin plate. The ratio of hole diameter
(d) to pipe diameter (D) defines the beta ratio ( ). For most applications this ratio
should be between 0.2 and 0.75, depending on the desired upper range differential,
a high beta ratio orifice producing less of a differential for the same flow rate than •
small beta ratio.

Depending on upstream and downstream tap locations (Fig. 3), the flow meter is
referred to as a corner tap, a flange tap, a D and D/2 tap, a pipe tap (2 1/2D and
8D), or a vena contracts tap orifice flow meter. Pipe taps (2 1/2D and 8D) are
sometimes used as bypass pump restrictors for natural gas or where other tapping
arrangements would require drilling too dose to the plate. Vena contracts taps are
replaced by D and D/2 taps when future changes in the orifice bore will require no
tap relocation.

Figure 2 Square edge concentric orifice

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 12

Differential Producer Flow Meter. (a)Flow meter, (b) elements of the primary device,
(c) elements of the secondary device,

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 13

Range and Accuracy for square edge orifice:

Accuracy ranges from ± 0.8 to ± 5% depending on fluid, upstream piping

configuration, measurement equipment, and whether corrections for the Reynolds
number, gas expansion factor, measured pipe diameter, or other effects are included
in the computation. While standards differ for the minimum pipe Reynolds number, a
value of 10,000 is considered acceptable by most. The maximum Reynolds number a
value of 10,000 is considered acceptable by most. The maximum Reynolds number
may be as high as 3.3 X 107 (Gorter and Rooij, 1977).

2. Quadrant and Conic Edge

When the pipe Reynolds number is below 10,000, the upstream orifice is either
round (quadrant) or conical (fig.5), these contours have a more constant and
predictable discharge coefficient at lower Reynolds numbers. At low Reynolds
number the coefficient of the square-edge orifice may be change by as much as
30%, but for these geometries the effect is only one or two percent making it the
more usable flow meter for viscous fluids.

3. Integral Orifice

When the pipe size is 1/2 in (12 mm) or smaller and the fluid is clean, it is common
to select an orifice installed integrally (Fig. 7) with the differential-pressure
transmitter. This provides a compact installation in which overall accuracy, usually ±
2 to 5% un-calibrated, has been predetermined based on flow calibrating
reproducible fixed-bore orifices.

Figure 3 Orifice pressure tap location and their names

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 14

Fig. Quadrant-edge Fig. 5 Conical Orifice

orifice

4. Eccentric and Segmental Orifice

By placing the orifice hole at the bottom (Fig. 8) of the pipe for gases and at the top
for liquids, entrained water or gases flow through the plate rather than building up in
front of it. If a Segmental opening (Fig. 9) is machined in the plate, the passage of
liquids, air, or particulate matter is also possible. Data for both orifice geometries are
limited, but both are a low-cost alternative for troublesome applications. Accepted
un-calibrated coefficient accuracy is ± 2%.

Orifice Advantages and Limitation:

Advantage:
• Lowest Cost
• Easily installed and or replaced.
• Well established coefficient of discharged
• Will not wiredraw or wear devices during test period.
• Sharp edge will not foul up with scale or other suspended matter.

Disadvantages:
• High non-recoverable head loss.
• Suspended matter may build up at he inlet side of the horizontally installed
pipe unless accentric or segmental types of orifice are use with the hole plus
with bottom of the pipe.
• Low capacity.
• Requires pipeline plunges, unless of special construction.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 15

B-1.3 Venturi Tube:

The Venturi tubes combines into a single unit a short constricted portion between
two tapered sections and is usually inserted between two flanges in a pipe. Its
purpose is to accelerate the fluid and temporarily lower its static pressure. Suitable
pressure connections are provided for observing the differences in pressure between
the inlet and the constriction portion, or throat.

Advantages:
• Lowest head loss.
• Has integral pressure connection.
• Requires shortest length of straight pipe on inlet side.
• Will not obstruct flow of suspended matter.
• Can be used where no pipe line plunges exist.
• Coefficient of discharge well established.

Disadvantage:
• Highest cost.
• Greatest weight and largest size for a given size line.

Accuracy:

• For pipe Reynolds numbers greater than 100,000, discharge coefficients for
venturis are constant and predictable to within ±0.5 to 2%, depending on
design.

Application:
• Since dirt will not build up as it passes through the contoured sections, like it
does in front of an orifice, this differential producer can be used in dirty flow
applications.
• When pumping cost and/or shorter upstream installation lengths are
important, the additional expense for a venturi design is usually warranted.

Figure 10 Classical Venturi

B-1.4 Flow Nozzle

Flow nozzle are another type of differential head producing device used with
differential pressure flow meter. Flow nozzle are restriction consisting of an elliptical
contoured inlet and a cylindrical throat section. A flow nozzle is illustrated in figure
12. Pressure taps used to measure the difference in static pressure created by a flow
nozzle are commonly located one pipe diameter upstream and one-half pipe
diameter down stream from the inlet face of the nozzle.
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Advantages:
• Can be use where no pipe flanges exist.
• Cost less than Venturi tubes and capable of handling same capacities.
• Because of improved rigidity, it is dimensionally more stable at higher
temperatures and velocities than an orifice.

Disadvantages:
• Higher cost than orifice.
• Same head loss as orifice for same capacity.
• Inlet pressure connection and threat taps when used must be made very
carefully.

Application:
• Flow nozzles are well suited for measurement of steam flow and other high
velocity fluid flow (steam flow at pipe line velocity of 100 ft./sec.) where
erosion may be a problem.

Figure 12 Flow nozzle

B-1.5 Elbow Flowmeter:

As a fluid passes through a pipe elbow, the pressure increases at the outside radius
of the elbow as a result of centrifugal force (Fig. 15). If pressure taps are located at
the outside and inside of the elbow at either 22% or 45o, a reproducible
measurement can be made. Taps located at angles greater than 45 o are not
recommended, because flow separation may cause erratic readings.

Advantages:
• Elbows are inexpensive flow meters.

Disadvantage:
• The major disadvantage of the elbow flow meter is the very low differential
produced, particularly for gas flows.

Accuracy:

Even when the elbow is measured, differences between elbows limit accuracy to ± 4%
(Murdock et al., 1963), but precision (repeatability) is good (± 0.2%). Flow is, however,
unobstructed with no additional permanent pressure loss. Several manufacturers offer
proprietary machined elbows for improved accuracy, but few data have been published.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 17

Figure 15. Elbow flow meter.

B-1.6 Pitot Tube and Annubar

The difference between total (stagnation) pressure and static pressure follows the
square root relationship, with velocity being sensed at the insertion depth only. By
traversing, an average velocity point can be located and used to measure flow rate.

The Annubar (Fig. 17) is a multiple-ported pitot tube that spans the pipe. Pressure
ports are located at mathematically defined positions based on published
axisymmetric pipeline velocity profiles. These are claimed to average the differential,
thereby eliminating the need to locate the average velocity point as is necessary for
pitot tubes. A variety of multiported designs are now available. The user should
review individual manufacturer's support data before extending the devices outside
the available data ranges.

Advantage and Disadvantages (Pitot Tube)

Advantages:
• Essentially no pressure loss.
• Economical to install.
• Some types can be removed from the lines.
Disadvantages:
• Poor Accuracy.
• Calibration data needs to be supplied from the manufacturer.
• Sensitive to upstream disturbances.

Advantages and Disadvantages (Annubar Tubes)

Advantages:
• Available for wide rage of pipe size from ½ to 150 inches.
• Simple and economical to install.
• Negligible pressure drop.
• Can be place in service under pressure.
• Can be rotated in service for cleaning action.
• Long-term measurement stability.
• Cost effective compared to an orifice plate installation above 6 inches pipe
diameter.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 18

Disadvantages:
• Not applicable to sticky or dirty fluids.
• Operating data still limited.

Application:

• The pitot tube (Fig. 16) is used for large pipe sizes when the fluid is a clean
liquid or gas (vapor) and an inexpensive measurement is required.
• The Annubar has essentially replaced the pitot tube for clean liquids, gases,
and vapors (steam). Because total pressure ports face the flow, a purging
flow is suggested for dirty stream applications.

Figure 16. Pitot tube

Figure 17. Annubar

B-1.7 Annular Orifice and Target Flow meter

Total (stagnation) pressure taps and rearward-facing taps produce a high differential
for a given beta ratio (), redefined as the ratio of disk diameter to pipe diameter.
Few data have been presented for line size correlation. Only air data are available for
the normally used beta ratios. A design that slips between flanges has reportedly
been successfully used for air in 24-in (600 mm) and larger line sizes.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Differential Producer Flow Meter 19

The target flow meter (Fig. 19) has the features of the annular orifice without the
disadvantages of freezing or plugging lead lines. The primary element consists of a
sharp leading edge disk (target) fastened to a bar. Differential pressure produced by
the reduced annular area creates a disk drag force. This force is transmitted through
a bar to a suitable force measuring a secondary device, and the flow rate is
calculated as the square root of this output.

Advantage and Disadvantage (Target Flow Meter)

Advantage:
• Useful for difficult measurement , such as slurries polymer-bearing and
sediment bearing materials, corrosive mixtures, etc.
• Good accuracy when calibrated for specific streams.
• Good Repeatability.
• Good for relatively high temperatures and pressure.
Disadvantages:
• In-line mounting required.
• No flow conditioning must exist for zeroing.
• Limited calibration data.

Accuracy:

Un-calibrated target flow meters accuracy ranges from  1 to  5% depending on

the size, beta ratio, and Reynolds number.

Application:
• The annular orifice (Fig. 18) was developed to overcome the problem of dirt
buildup in front of an orifice in liquid streams and of liquid buildup in a moist
gas stream.
• Target flow meter are particularly well suited for dirty and low Reynolds
number flow but are also used with clean fluids and natural gas.

Figure 18 Annular orifice

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Fig. 19 Target Flow Meter.

B-2 Magnetic Flow Meter:

B-2.1 General Principles of Operation:

Magnetic flow meters operate on the principle of Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic

Induction. This law states that the voltage (E) induced in a conductor moving
through a magnetic field at a right angle to the field is directly proportional to the
number of conductors, or, as in this cm, the distance between the probes (D), the
intensity of the magnetic field (B) and the velocity of the motion of the conductor
(v).
E = constant x D x B x v

When these three factors are present, an electrical voltage is induced in a conductor
dig is moving through a magnetic field and at right angles to the field. The faster the
conductor moves through the magnetic field, the greater the voltage induced in the
conductor.

Figure 5-1 demonstrates how a magnetic flow meter applies this principle. The flow
meter itself consists of a straight length of pipe. This is called the metering section;
it is made of nonmagnetic material. In this case, the process fluid serves as the
conductor. The direction of the induced voltage will be perpendicular to both the
motion of the conductor and the magnetic field. The magnetic field is produced by
either electro- magnetic coils or permanent magnets that are positioned on opposite
sides of the short length of the non-magnetic pipe. As the fluid passes through the
magnetic field, a voltage is generated. Two electrodes protecting through the
metering tube lining pick up the induced voltage. Wires connected to the electrodes
can be attached to a meter that will measure the amount of voltage produced. Since
the magnetic field is constant, the induced voltage is directly proportional to the
velocity of the liquid and, thus, to the volumetric flow rate of the liquid passing
through the meter. This measured voltage can be used to calculate flow rate.
In pipes, the induced voltage can be determined from Faraday's equation:
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E = constant x B x D x v
E = (constant x B x 4/ x D) x Q
D 2
where Q is determined by the equation Q = A x v and, A =
4
All the terms in parentheses are held constant in a magnetic flow meter. Therefore,
the induced voltage output is linearly proportional to the changes in flow rate (Q).
This rate of flow can be calculated and indicated as flow rate, volumetric flow rate or
mass flow rate.

Figure 5-1 Magnetic Flow

B-2.2 Magnetic Flow Meter Classifications:

1. AC Magnetic Flow meters

Alternating current (AC) magnetic flow meters excite the electromagnetic field with
AC current A typical AC magnetic flow meter is shown in Figure 5-2.

Problems to encountered when using AC flow meter to measure flow:

1. Signal distortion and interference caused by extraneous voltages or noises: Noise

may either be induced by or already present in the system. Because voltages
induced by the electromagnetic field are relatively small in comparison to the
extraneous voltages, measurement accuracy can be seriously affected.
Noise may be produced within the meter or within the process. The liquid
itself may bear trace voltages induced from exposure to a source of
electromagnetic interference upstream, or a static charge may be produced
by friction. Stray voltages caused by this noise, can be picked up by the
electrodes and introduce substantial inaccuracies in the measurement. Such

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sources of noise can be partially eliminated with a zero adjustment in the

measuring instrument. The zero must be adjusted when the flow meter is full
of process fluid at zero flow.

2. Electrode Sensitivity: The second problem that can adversely affect the accuracy
of AC flow meter measurements is that the sensitivity of the electrodes may be
reduced if the electrodes become coated with a non-conductive material, either
from electrolytic by-products of the process or by clinging process material. Build
up usually occurs gradually, but the effects over time can be significant.

Figure 5-2 AC flow meter

Some magnetic flow meters are available with removable electrodes. This option
allows the electrodes to be inspected periodically and cleaned, if necessary, without
dismantling the meter. Ultrasonic cleaning systems are also available to remove
accumulated non-conductive material from electrodes without opening the system.

2. DC Magnetic Flow meters

Direct current (DC) magnetic flow meters excite the electromagnetic field with a DC
current. A typical arrangement of a DC magnetic flow meter is shown in Figure 5-3.
When the liquid flows through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the liquid.
The voltage is picked up at the electrodes. The voltage measured represents the sum
of the flow induced in the moving conductor and the noise present in the system. To
eliminate the effect of noise, the device is zeroed when there is no process flow and
the electrodes only detect extraneous voltages. With flow restored, the output of the
meter will only indicate voltage induced by the process.

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Figure 5-3. DC Magnetic flow meters

DC magnetic flow meters are not subject to inaccuracies due to the coating of
electrodes. As long as electrode sensitivity remains high enough for a DC flow meter
to operate, its performance is relatively unaffected. Miniature DC magnetic flow
meters are also widely used in miniaturized electronic circuits. These instruments
weigh less and have reduced power requirements.

Advantages:
• Easy to install and, often more economical than other designs.
• Magnetic flow meters provide virtually unobstructed flow.
• Magnetic flow meters do not create pressure drop.
• Velocity is measured directly, and, thus, variations in density do not affect
their accuracy.
• Free of Reynolds number constraints; they may be used for measuring the
velocity of liquids with any flow profile.
• Can be maintained without shutting down the process.

Disadvantage:
• Logically, it cannot be used for non-conductive fluids.

Application:

Magnetic flow meters are widely used to measure the flow rate of conductive liquids
in process applications. Because the flow path is relatively unobstructed, they are
well suited to use with high viscosity fluids and process liquids containing solids.
Important applications include flow measurement of sludge in sewage treatment
plants, slurries in mining operations and liquid metals in various industrial processes.
Further, since they produce an electrical output, this type of flow meter is compatible
with electronic control systems.

B-3 Ultrasonic Flow Meters:

B-1 General Principles of Operation:

Ultrasonic, or acoustic flow meters are of two principal types: (1) Doppler-effect
meters and (2) transit-time meters. In both types, the flow rate is deduced from the
effect of the flowing process stream on sound waves introduced into the process
stream. In clamp-on designs, these meters make it possible to measure the flow rate
without intruding into the stream and thus are classified
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as noninvasive. But even in configurations where transducers are contained in

shallow wells, the flow- meters are essentially non-intrusive.
The principles of ultrasonic flow measurement have been known for many years, but
only within the last decade have these meters made measurable penetration of the
flow meter field. This lag in acceptance has been variously explained, but the general
consensus is that too many designs were introduced too soon-prematurely and
without testing them against adverse plant environments to the point that for several
years ultrasonic flow meter had somewhat of a tarnished image.

Doppler-Effect Meters

In 1842, Christian Doppler predicted that the frequencies of received waves were
dependent on the motion of the source or observer relative to the propagating
medium. His predictions were promptly checked for sound waves by placing the
source or observer on one of the newly developed railroad trains. Over a century
later, the concept was first considered for application in the measurement of flowing
streams.
For the principle to work in a flow meter, it is mandatory that the flowing stream
contain sonically reflective materials, such as solid particles or entrained air bubbles.
Without these reflectors, the Doppler system will not operate. In contrast, the
transit-time ultrasonic flow meter does not depend on the presence of reflectors.
The basic equations of a Doppler flow meter are:

Vf
f = 2fTsin (1)
Vs
by Snell’s Law
sin  T sin 
 (2)
VT Vs

Simultaneously solving eq. 1 & 2

f  VT 
Vf =   = Kf
fT  sin  T 
VT = sonic velocity of transmitter material
T = angle of transmitter sonic beam.
K = calibration factor
VF = flow velocity
F = Doppler frequency change
Vs = Sonic velocity of fluid
fT = transmission velocity
 = angle of fT entry

Doppler-effect flow meters use a transmitter that projects a continuous ultrasonic

beam at about 0.5 MHz through the pipe wall into the flowing stream. Particles in the
stream reflect the ultrasonic radiation which is detected by the receiver. The
frequency of the radiation reaching the receiver is shifted in proportion to the stream
velocity. The frequency difference is a measure of the flow rate. The configuration
shown in Fig. 15 utilizes separated dual transducers mounted on opposite sides of
the pipe. Other possible configurations are shown in Fig. 16. In essence the Doppler-
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effect meter measures the beat frequency of two signals. The beat frequency is the
difference frequency obtained when two different frequencies (transmitted and
reflected) are combined.

Figure 16. Principles of Doppler effect ultrasonic flow meter with separated opposite
side dual tranducers

Figure 16. Configuration of Doppler effect Ultra-sonic flow meter (a) single
transducer,(b) Tadem dual transducer, (c) separate dual transducer installed on the

When the measured fluid contains a large concentration of particles and/or air
bubbles, it is said to be sonically opaque. The more opaque the liquid, the greater
the number of reflections that originate near the pipe wall, a situation exemplified by
heavy slurries. It can be noted from the flow profile of Fig. 15 that these reflectors
are in the low-flow-rate region. In contrast, the preponderance of particle reflectors
will occur in the center of the pipe (where the flow rate is highest) when the fluid is
less sonically opaque. Where there are relatively few reflective particles in a stream,
there is a tendency for the ultrasonic beam to penetrate beyond the centerline of the
pipe and to detect slow moving particles on the opposite side of the pipe. Because
the sonic opacity of the fluid may be difficult to predict in advance, factory calibration
is difficult.

It will be noted from Fig. 15 that the fluid velocity is greatest near the center of the
pipe and lowest near the pipe wall. An average velocity occurs somewhere between
these two extremes. Thus, there are numerous variables, characteristic of a given
fluid and of a specific piping situation, that affect the interactions between the
ultrasonic energy and the flowing stream. Should a measured fluid have a relatively
consistent flow profile and include an ideal concentration
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and distribution of particles, these qualities add to the fundamental precision of

measurement and thus simplify calibration. Various designs are used to minimize
interaction inconsistencies. For example, separation of transmitters and receivers
makes it possible to restrict the zone in the pipe at which the principal concentration
of interaction occurs. This zone usually occurs in the central profile region of the pipe
less affected by variations in sonic opacity than near the pipe wall.

Transit-Time Flow meters :

With this type of meter, air bubbles and particles in the flowing stream are
undesirable because their presence (as reflectors) interferes with the transmission
and receipt of the ultrasonic radiation applied. However, the fluid must be a
reasonable conductor of sonic energy. See Fig. 17. At a given

Figure 17 Principles of the transit time Ultra sonic flow meter. Clamp on type is
shown. Transducers alternately transmit and receive burst of ultra sonic energy

temperature and pressure, ultrasonic energy will travel at a specific velocity through
a given liquid. Since the fluid is flowing at a certain velocity (to be measured), the
sound will travel faster in the direction of flow and slower against the direction of
flow. By measuring the differences in arrival time of pulses traveling in a
downstream direction and pulses traveling in an upstream direction, this AT can
serve as a measure of fluid velocity. Transit-time or T flow meters transmit
alternately upstream and downstream and calculate this time difference. The
operation is illustrated by the following equations.

 TU  TD VS  VS cos  TVS

Vf =   
 sin   d TL sin 
By Snell’s Law
VS V
 C =K
sin  sin 
VF = KT/TL
TU = upstream transit time
TD = Down stream transit time
TL = zero flow transit time
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VS = liquid sonic velocity

d = Pipe inside diameter
VR = liquid flow velocity
 = angle between transducer and pipe wall
VC = transducer sonic velocity

In the clamp-on transit-time flow meter, where the transducers are strapped to the
outside of the pipe, the sonic echo is away from the receiver and thus the device can
retransmit sooner and operate faster. Clamp-on meters are installed on a normal
section of piping, which is particularly attractive for retrofit applications. Other
designs make use of what are called wetted transducers, which are mounted within
the pipe. In both designs, of course, the tranducers are installed diagonally to the
flow, i.e., not directly across from each other. Wetted transducers are usually
installed in a shallow well, but because there are no projections beyond the pipeline
wall, they are still considered non-intrusive. There is no significant disturbance to the
general flow profile. However, slight, localized eddy currents may form in the vicinity
of the wells. To avoid eddy currents, at least one manufacturer puts the transducers
within the wells, forming what is termed an epoxy window. This results in completely
filling the streamside of the well, making is essentially flush with the inner pipe wall.
In another design (dual-path ultrasonic flow meter), two pairs of transducers are
installed in the piping. The upstream and downstream propagation times between
each pair of transducers are integrated in a microprocessor-based electronics
package to determine flow rate.

Open Channels

Ultrasonic flow meters are also applicable to open-channel flow measurement. The
transducer is installed above the channel. Pulses emitted are reflected by the liquid
surface back to the transducer. In a form of sonar, the time required for the pulse to
return from the liquid surface is related to the height of the liquid surface. By
knowing the cross-sectional properties of the open channel, height measurements
can be converted to a measure of flow.

Numerous Variations:

Presently, ultrasonic flow meters are characterized by numerous configurations,

adding to the difficulties of first determining whether an ultrasonic flow meter is
basically suited to an application and then selecting the best possible configuration.
Careful checking with several suppliers is suggested by many experts. The decision
favoring a Doppler effect or a transit-time ultrasonic flow meter has been simplified
by at least one manufacturer who offers an optional plug-in board which enables the
unit to select between differential-time or Doppler techniques. A circuit selects which
technique should be used at any given instant. Thus, the instrument itself decides
how to measure the flow in a given pipe-a decision based on actual conditions in the
pipe. The Doppler sensing circuitry is calibrated by the differential-time circuitry.
Thus, when the Doppler circuitry is being used, it will read the correct flow rate
without a need for operator intervention.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Positive Displacement Flow Meter 28

Advantages:
• Linearity.
• Wide rangeability without an induced pressure drop or disturbance to the
stream.
• Achievable accuracy comparable to that of orifice or venturi meters.
• Bi-directionality.
• Ready attachment to the outside of existing pipes without shutdown.
• Comparable if not overall lower costs-attractive features which can make a
product prone to overselling.

B-4 Positive Displacement Flow Meters:

B-4.1 General Principles of Operation:

In many applications, positive displacement flow meters provide significant

advantages over meters of other classes. They are accurate, precise, have a wide
flow range and are ideal for measuring low rates of flow. In addition, their operation
requires no external power supply and they usually require only simple maintenance.
Positive displacement flow meters operate by trapping a known quantity of fluid, and
transferring the fluid from the inlet to the outlet connections. The measuring
chamber follows a fixed path, and on each revolution the meter is filled at the inlet
and discharged at the outlet Thus, each volume of fluid displaces the previous
volume. No volume of fluid is ever counted twice. Then the number of trapped
volumes that pass through the meter is counted to measure the flow.
Positive displacement flow meters also present serious disadvantages, however.
Usually positive displacement meters are suitable only for clean liquids and gases.
Abrasive particles in fluids can wear the closely machined parts and affect accuracy.
In addition, the flow meters may become plugged by solids. Placing a strainer
upstream of the flow meter can reduce this problem, although in high viscosity
service, the pressure drop across the strainer may significantly affect the meter's
accuracy.
Any gas present in the process liquid will also cause difficulties. Because of the
nature of the operation of this class of flow meter, it will read gas volumes as though
they were liquid. A common means of resolving this problem is to position an air
map upstream of the flow meter.
Types of Positive Displacement Flow Meter:

B-4.2 Nutating Disc Flow meter

Principles of Operation:
One of the earliest and most commonly used types of positive displacement flow
meters is the nutating disc. A typical nutating disc flow meter is shown in Figure 7-1.
The meter consists of a housing containing a disc which is allowed to wobble, or
nutate. As fluid enters the inlet point of the meter, its movement in the chamber
causes the disc to turn or nutate

. As the disc turns, it transfer a fixed quantity of fluid from the inlet to the outlet. A
counter drive pin attached to the disc moves a shaft that is connected to a counter
meter to keep track of the volume of fluid that has passed through the meter. For
each disc nutation, a fixed volume of liquid passes through the meter. The total
number of nutations, or turns, of the disc is a direct measure of the volume of liquid
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that passes through the meter.

Advantages and Limitations:

Advantages:
• Relative low cost.
• Moderate pressure loss.
• Applicable to liquid batch system.
• Several construction materials available.
Limitations
• Limited as to pipe size and capacity.
• Fair accuracy for PD meters  1%
• Fluids should be cleaned.

Application:

Nutating disc flow meters are generally applicable to clean, non-abrasive liquids.
Slippage (leakage) can pose a problem in low viscosity applications. This type of flow
meter is commonly used to meter water for businesses and residences, due to its ability to
measure low viscosity liquids reasonably well and economically.

Figure 7-1 Nutating Dics.

Helical Gear Positive Displacement Flow meter

Principles of Operation:

Figure 7-2 illustrates a helical gear flow meter. In this type of positive displacement
flow meter, two radically-pitched helical gears are used to continually trap liquid as it
passes through the flow meter. As the liquid passes through the meter, it causes the
gears to turn. A sensing system, typically magnetic or optical, senses a pulse each
time a portion of a revolution occurs. Flow through the flow meter is proportional to
the rotational speed of the gears.

Limitation:

Although this design is somewhat tolerant of solids, helical gear flow meters remain
susceptible to overspeed and bearing damage.

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Application:

Helical gear flow meters are often used on extremely viscous liquid service where it
is difficult to apply other flow meters because of Reynolds number constraints.

Figure 7-2 Helical Gear Positive Displacement Flow meter

Oscillating Piston Positive Displacement Flow meters

Principles of Operation:

The oscillating piston flow meter illustrated in Figure 7-3 has a cylindrical
measurement chamber. A partition plate separates the inlet port from the outlet
port. A piston, positioned to fit off center in the chamber, is guided by a control roller
so that it can slide around the inner walls of the chamber. The motion of the piston is
oscillatory; the center of the piston moves around the control roller and the slot of
the piston can only operate in one plane.

When a quantity of fluid enters the chamber it causes the piston to rotate on its shaft
As it does so, a specific volume of fluid is moved through the meter and discharged
at the outlet port. Each revolution of the piston corresponds to the movement of a
fixed volume of fluid through the meter. Thus, the rate of flow is proportional to the
velocity of the piston. The motion of the piston can be transmitted to a magnetic
sensing system. The sensing system can operate a flow indicator, a totalizer, or a
transmitter.

Advantages and Limitation:

Advantages:
• Good accuracy especially at low flow rates.
• Easily applied to liquid batching system.
• Good repeatability.
• Moderate cost.
• Easy to install and maintain.

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Limitations.
• Available only in small sizes, normally two inches or less.
• Limited power for driving accessories.
• Fluids must be clean.

Application:

Oscillating piston flow meters are commonly used on higher viscosity liquid
applications, as slippage can pose a problem with low viscosity liquids, particularly if
there is any wear on machined parts. In most cases, the design of the device further
limits its use to the measurement of fluids with low flow rates, usually not exceeding
200 gallons per minute.

Figure 7-3 Oscillating Piston

Rotary Vane Flow meters

Principles of Operation:

In a rotary vane flow meter, spring- loaded vanes seal discreet quantities of fluid
between the eccentric rotor and the housing of the instrument. These quantities of
fluid are transported from inlet to outlet. A rotary vane flow meter is shown in Figure
7-4.
As fluid enters the meter, the vanes are moved causing the rotor to turn. The vanes
are spring loaded and able to slide freely in the rotor body as it turns. When the fluid
enters the inlet port the vanes extend against the housing wall to enclose the
measuring chamber, they retract at the outlet to discharge the fluid into the system.
Each complete revolution of the rotor moves several fixed volumes of fluid through
the meter from inlet to outlet. Thus, the flow is proportional to the rotational velocity
of the moving rotor.

Advantages and Limitations.

Advantages:
• Low pressure loss.
• Applicable to a wide variety of gas and liquid fluids, including viscous
materials.
• Has relatively high pressure and temperature rating.
• Available in numerous construction materials.
• Good accuracy.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Lobbed Impeller and Oval Gear Flow Meter 33

Limitations:
• Tend to be bulky and heavy in larger sizes.
• Relatively high cost.
• Susceptible to damage from entrained vapor and dirty fluids.
• Accurately decreases at low flow rates; slip fact is high.
•
Application:

Rotary vane meters are commonly used in both liquid and gas applications. Its
widespread use is found in the petroleum industry, primarily for gasoline and crude
oil metering.

Figure 7-4 Rotary Flow Meter

B-5 Lobed Impeller and Oval Gear Flow meters

Principles of Operation:

Lobed impeller and oval gear flow meters operate in a similar fashion. In the lobed
impeller flow meter shown in Figure 7-5, two lobed impellers (rotors) are mounted
on parallel shafts and are gear-synchronized to keep them correctly positioned in
relation to each other. These lobes rotate in opposite directions, so as fluid enters
the meter and causes the impellers to rotate, a measuring chamber is formed.
As with other meters of this class, a fixed volume of fluid is transferred from inlet to
outlet with each revolution. A counter can be attached to one of the impeller shafts,
which counts the number of revolutions of the impellers to give a measurement of
total flow.
The oval gear flow meter is a variation of the lobed impeller flow meter. In this
design, shown in Figure 7-6, the lobed impellers are replaced by a pair of meshed
oval gears. The principle of operation for this type of meter is exactly the same as for
the lobed impeller type. However, instead of being synchronized by an external gear
the rotating gears keep the rotations synchronized. Again, by counting the number of
revolutions made by the gears, an accurate measure of flow can be made.

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Application:

Lobed flow meters are used chiefly for gas service, although they may also be used
for clean liquid applications. Oval gear meters, however, are used only for metering
liquids to ensure that the gears remain wet and lubricated.

Figure 7-5 Lobed Impeller

Figure 7-6 Oval Gear

B-6 Axial Turbine Flow meters

Difference to Positive Displacement type flow meters:

The current-type class differs only slightly in operating principle from positive
displacement type flow meters. In current-type meters, a discrete volume of fluid is
not actually captured and transferred from inlet to outlet to measure flow rate as it is
in a positive displacement meter. Rather, the total quantity of flow is inferred from
the reaction of the turbine caused by the fluid flow.

Principles of Operation:

Axial turbine flow meters (see Figure 7-7) measure flow rate by measuring the
velocity of the fluid flow in a pipe. Most designs incorporate a meter housing with
end fittings for connection to a pipeline. A turbine rotor is mounted in the housing.
Upstream of the rotor in the meter body is a section of straightening vanes which
straighten the fluid flow as it enters the meter to ensure that it is free of swirls.

The fluid entering the meter causes the rotor to turn with velocity that is proportional

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to the fluid's flow velocity, and therefore, the flow rate. The rotor is linked to a
sensing unit. As the rotor turns, either a counter records the number of revolutions
or an electrical pulse is generated in a pick-up coil. This pulse is proportional to the
rotational speed of the rotor and to the flow rate. Characteristically, turbine flow
meters develop a precisely known number of pulses for a given volume measured.
This can be stated as:
cycles / time Cycles Meter
 
volume / time Volume Coefficien t
Rotor Design:

Rotor designs used in axial turbine flow meters vary from one model to another.
Generally the rotor has a hub from which the flow vanes project. The hub rotates on
sealed bearings. In turbine flow meters used for gas service, the central hub is large.
The large hub is used to create a venturi effect by decreasing the area in the pipe
and, therefore, increasing the velocity of the gas. Since the torque driving the rotor
depends on the gas density and the square of the velocity, it is important to increase
velocity to ensure that there is sufficient torque to drive the rotor.

Range:

Operation of this type of flow meter is dependent upon the Reynolds number and, to
some degree, the momentum of the fluid which must be of sufficient velocity to drive
the rotor. Reynolds number constraints will vary with design, but, generally, most
turbine flow meters can operate and produce a linear reading in the turbulent range
above a minimum Reynolds number varying between 4000 and 20,000.

Disadvantage:

Care must be taken not to operate the flow meter at flows greater than those
recommended by the manufacturer. Over spinning the rotor can destroy the
bearings. Sudden surges of liquid flow, such as when a pump is started or a valve
are opened, can also damage the flow meter.

Application:

Turbine flow meters are generally suitable for use with lubricating fluids operating
within Reynolds number constraints. Exceptions include requirements to operate in
gas service where close attention to bearing design is necessary due to the higher
rotor velocities encountered. Current type flow meters used in a pipeline are
specifically designated turbine flow meters. Turbine flow meters are capable of a high
degree of accuracy when calibrated and installed correctly. However, the moving
parts, particularly the rotor bearings, are subject to wear. Normally, ball bearings are
preferred but they can be used only in clean fluid applications. When dirty or
corrosive fluids are metered, sleeve bearings are used.

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Figure 7-7 Axial Turbine Flow Meter

B-7 Rotameters

Rotameters can be used in a variety of applications. They are capable of handling a

wide range of liquids and can be used with slurries and gases.

Principles of Operation and Instrument Accessory Description:

Rotameters are variable area flow meters. As in other flow instruments, flow
measurement is based on the relationship between two known factors. One factor
remains constant, a variation in the other factor indicates a variation in flow rate. In
the rotameter, the variable factor is the area of the flow meter opening, which
changes proportionally with the flow rate. A typical rotameter is illustrated in Figure
7-8.
The rotameter consists of a tapered glass tube, which is incorporated into the piping
system. The tube is positioned so its greatest diameter is uppermost and contains a
float, which moves up and down freely as the flow within the tube changes. Since the
upward and downward forces on the float are in equilibrium, the float assumes a
definite position at a given flow rate.
At a constant flow rate, the speed of the flow depends on the amount of area
between the tube and the float. The only force, which acts downward upon the float
is its weight, which remains constant. One of the forces acting upward is the
buoyancy of the float, which is the weight of the displaced fluid, and varies with fluid
density. A second upward force, the pressure drop across the float, also remains
constant. The viscous drag of the fluid passing the float is the third upward force
acting upon the float.
While the pressure drop is constant, the tube is tapered, and the cross-sectional area
for flow is variable. Increasing flow rates do not, therefore, increase the pressure
drop across the float. Rather, they cause the float to take a higher position in the
tube, thus providing a greater flow area. More simply, when the fluid flow is high, the
float comes to rest near the top of the tube where there is a greater area. When the
flow is low, the float moves down in the tube to a smaller area. The relationship
between the float placement and the fluid flow is linear. A scale attached to the
rotameter allows direct measurement of flow rate. The scale, however, must be
calibrated for each type of fluid, the design of the tube and the weight of the float.

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Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages
• Good rangeability
• Relatively low cost.
• Easily equipped with alarm switches.
• No restriction in regards to inlet and outlet piping requirements (other than a
vertical flow measurement).
• Viscosity immune design available.
• Low pressure drop requirements.
• Can be used in some light slurries services.

Disadvantages:
• Glass tube type subject to breakage.
• Not good in pulsating services.
• Must be mounted vertically.
• Generally limited to small pipe sizes (unless bypass Rotameters are used)
• Limited to relatively low temperatures.
• Fair accuracy.
• Require in-line mounting (except by-pass type).

Accuracy:
Rotameters are widely used for metering purge flows, pump seal fluids and coolants
and lubricants for operating machinery. In these application, flow are relatively
small, and accuracy requirements are not rigid. Accuracy is about  1/2 to  10%.

Application:

Rotameters can be used to measure mass flow rate in processes involving low
viscosity fluids because the action of the float is in part dependent on the density of
the fluid in the system. Small rotameters with ball floats respond to Reynolds
number changes, malting them sensitive to changes in both viscosity and density.
Larger rotameters are less sensitive to these variations.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Mass Flow Meter 38

Figure 7-8 Area flow meter/Rotameter

C Mass Flow Meters

In some industrial processes, accurate measurement of mass flow is required. Mass

is defined as a measure of the quantity of matter in a body. Mass is one of the three
Fundamental quantities, the others being length and time, upon which all physical
measurements are based. Often mass is thought of as weight, but these quantities
are dissimilar. Weight is the measure of the effect of earth's gravity on mass and
varies over the earth's surface.

C-1 Classification of Mass Flow Measurement:

Mass is independent of both the physical properties of matter and the ambient
condition in which the measurement is taken. Thus, mass can be measured in two
ways.
• True mass flow measurement: True mass flow measurement is one that is a
direct measurement of the mass, independent of the properties and the state
of the fluid. A mass flow meter is an instrument in which the reaction of the
sensing element is proportional to the true mass flow rate. In such a device,
mass is determined by measuring force and acceleration. These instruments
are based on the precepts of Newton's second law: an unbalanced system of
forces acting on a body produces an acceleration in the direction of the
unbalanced force that varies in inverse proportion to the mass of the body.

• Inferential mass flow measurement: Inferential mass flow measurement is

dependent on a combination of the independent measurements of density and
velocity. A volumetric flow rate is measured and then converted to mass flow,

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hence, an inferential, rather than direct, measurement of flow is made. If a

variation in density is characteristic of the process, these measurements may
not accurately reflect the true mass of the flow and must be corrected by
calculation.
: It will not be covered for this text.

C-2 Angular Momentum Mass Flow meter

The angular momentum mass flow meter is a true mass flow meter since the
reaction of the primary element is proportional to the momentum of the flow stream.

Principles of Operation:

In this type of device (see Figure 6-1), fluid passes through an impeller and a turbine
mounted in series in a pipeline. The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a small
motor. As it is rotated, it causes the fluid entering the impeller to take on its
rotational velocity. When exiting the impeller, the fluid has an angular velocity equal
to that of the impeller in addition to the normal axial momentum of the stream. The
fluid then enters a turbine that is restrained by a calibrated spring and does not
rotate. The turbine removes the angular momentum from the stream and this
movement is transferred to the turbine. The torque produced by the turbine on the
calibrated spring is directly proportional to the mass flow. Conversely, if the torque
produced by the stream on the turbine is kept constant by varying impeller rotational
speed, the rotational speed is inversely proportional to the mass flow.

Figure 6-1 Angular Momentum Flow Meter

C-3 Coriolis Flow meters

The Coriolis flow meter is a true mass flow meter which operates on the physical
principle of the effects

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Figure 6-2 Coriolis Acceleration

of the earth's rotation on a mass. This effect is referred to as the Coriolis

acceleration and produces a Coriolis force. It is the Coriolis force that makes water in
a vortex swirl clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
southern hemisphere.

C-3.1 Principle Application to Mass Flow Measurement:

An illustration of this principle is shown in Figure 6-2. Consider the person standing
at the center of the rotating platform shown in Figure 6-2A. Since the person is
standing in the same place, his distance from the center of rotation is constant, and
the rotational speed of the turntable is constant, the force exerted on the person in
this plane is zero.
However, as indicated in Figure 6-2B, a person walking radially outward on the
rotating platform would experience the Coriolis force acting in the plane of rotation,
and tangential to that plane as he attempted to move. Thus, he must lean toward, or
direct the mass of his body against the force produced by the Coriolis acceleration.
The Coriolis force is created as a result of the Coriolis acceleration acting on the
person as he changes position in relation to the center of rotation of the turntable.
Since torque is equal to mass multiplied by acceleration, a measurement of the
Coriolis force provides the means for a direct determination of mass flow.

C-3.2 Types Of Coriolis Mass Flow Meter:

1. Vane Type:

Principles of Operation:

One type of Coriolis mass flow meter consists of an impeller with radial vanes. The
meter is positioned so the vanes are in line with the flow (see Figure 6-3). The
impeller, powered by a small motor turns at a constant rate. The vanes direct the
flow in a direction that is radial and perpendicular to the axis of rotation. As in the
case of the person on the revolving platform, this results in a Coriolis acceleration
which then exerts a force on the vanes. Force-sensing devices measure the torque
produced, and, since the amount of torque is directly proportional to the mass flow
rate, the value can be used to calculate the rate directly.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Mass Flow Meter 41

Application:

This device has a quick response time, so it is especially applicable for processes
with rapidly changing flows.

Figure 6-3 Coriolis Mass Flow Meter

2. Vibrating U-Tube:

Principles of Operation:

The vibrating U-tube is another type of mass flow meter that uses the principle of
Coriolis acceleration of a fluid. The flow meter consists of a vibrating U-tube in which
the Coriolis acceleration is created and measured. In operation, process fluid flows
through the tube. As it does, an oscillator vibrates the tube rapidly along the axis
formed between its open ends. An angular motion is created in the tube, which can
be equated to the rotating platform; while the flowing process fluid is equivalent to
the person attempting to walk toward the edge. Thus, a Coriolis acceleration is
induced, but, because the motion is oscillatory, the direction of the acceleration
alternates. Because of this alternation, the fluid in one arm of the tube flows away
from the axis of rotation while in the other half, the same amount of fluid flows
towards the axis of rotation. At any given moment, the fluid in each half of the U-
tube has an associated Coriolis acceleration that acts in opposite directions. These
opposing Coriolis accelerations result in forces in the opposite directions, which
produce a twisting motion in the tube (see Figure 6-5). The amount of motion which
is directly proportional to the mass flow through the U- tube, is detected by a
sensing device.

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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Mass Flow Meter 42

Figure 6-4 Vibrating U-Tube

Figure 5-5 End View-Vibrating U-tube

Application / Advantage:

• The U-tube offers no obstruction to the flow- path allowing it to measure

liquids with varying physical properties.
• This type of flow meter may be used with liquids containing solids. Vibrating
U- tube flow meters are also suitable for measuring corrosive, abrasive and
very viscous materials.
• Can also be used in gas applications where the gas has a density sufficient to
generate the force necessary to produce a measurable deflection in the tube.
• As with other Coriolis mass flow meters, there are no Reynolds number
constraints.

C-4 Hydraulic Wheat-stone Bridges

The hydraulic Wheat-stone bridge mass flow meter is a true mass flow meter which
uses differential pressure to measure the mass flow. In principle, it is the hydraulic
equivalent of the electrical Wheat-stone bridge. A typical configuration utilizing the
Wheat-stone bridge principle is shown in Figure 6-6.
Four identical orifice plates are placed in a wheat-stone bridge arrangement. A
portion of the flow is pumped at a constant rate from one segment of the fluid loop
to another segment of the loop. A differential pressure transmitter is then used to
sense the flow signal. The
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INPM Training Manual Part 1 – Mass Flow Meter 43

differential pressure across the flow meter system is proportional to the mass flow
rate. It is important to note, however, that the fluid density at all points in the
transducer must remain constant, limiting the use of this device to liquid
applications.

Figure 6-5 Wheat-stone Bridge Configuration

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