1.

ACCOUNTING FUNDAMENTALS

Accounting Defined

Accounting has been defined by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, as
“The art of recording, classifying and summarising in a significant manner and in terms of
money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of a financial character, and
interpreting the results thereof”

Books of Account

Accounting transactions are recorded in a set of books. The following are referred to as the
principal books of account:

1) Journal: The Journal contains details of transactions (other than those relating to receipts
or payments in cash or through bank), recorded in chronological order.

Date Particulars L/F Debit (Rs.) Credit (Rs.)

Journal

2) Ledger: The Ledger contains separate accounts for every type of income, expense, asset,
liability and every person/ organisation with whom any transactions have taken place. An
account is a summary of all transactions taking place under that head.

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars J/F Amount (Rs.) Date Particulars J/F Amount (Rs.)

Ledger

3) Cash and Bank Book: The Cash and Bank Book combines the features of the Journal and
Ledger, and records transactions involving receipts or payments in cash or through bank.

Dr. Cr.
Date Particulars L/F Cash Bank Date Particulars L/F Cash Bank
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)

Cash and Bank Book

General and Subsidiary Ledgers

Most large organisations maintain separate Ledgers and Cash and Bank Books for different
types of transactions. For example, the Ledger may be split into General Ledger, Customers’
Ledger (Accounts Receivable) and Suppliers’ Ledger (Accounts Payable), and separate books
may be maintained for Cash and each Bank Account instead of the Cash and Bank Book.

Subsidiary Books

Generally, a set of subsidiary books is also maintained. Subsidiary books are registers in
which frequently occurring transactions are recorded, such as the Purchase Register, Sales
Register and Petty Cash Book. The totals of transactions recorded in the subsidiary books are
periodically posted to the principal books.

Voucher

Each accounting entry has an underlying document – called ‘Voucher’ in accounting

terminology – in support of its validity. The term ‘Books of Account’ generally includes the
primary and subsidiary books, as well as the vouchers.

Voucher No.:
Date:

Particulars Debit (Rs.) Credit (Rs.)

TOTAL

Prepared by: Authorised by:

Voucher (General Format)

Types of Accounts

Accounts are classified into:

· Personal – relating to an individual or firm

· Nominal – relating to a head of income or expenditure
· Real – relating to an asset or a liability

Chart of Accounts

The Chart of Accounts is a list of all accounts created in the ledger of the entity, arranged
under the following four principal groups:

· Liabilities
· Assets
· Income
 · Expenditure

Each of the groups has several sub-groups and every such sub-group either has accounts or
sub-groups as its sub-units, forming a tree structure.

Debit and Credit

All amounts recorded in the books of account are placed either to the debit or credit of an
account. For any transaction, which account(s) should be debited and which should be credited
is determined by the following rule:

DEBIT what comes in, CREDIT what goes out

DEBIT the receiver, CREDIT the giver
DEBIT all expenses and losses, CREDIT all incomes and gains

The implications of amounts being placed to the debit or credit of an account are as follows:

Type of Account Implication

Debit Credit

a) Personal The individual/ firm has The individual/ firm has given
received some money or other some money or other tangible
tangible benefit benefit
b)Income/ Expenditure An expense or a loss has been An income or a profit has been
incurred earned
c) Asset/ Liability An asset has been acquired or a An asset has been disposed or a
liability has been paid/ reduced liability has been incurred

Accounting Systems

Two systems exist for recording accounting transactions, viz.:

1) Single Entry System

Under this system, only one aspect of each transaction is recorded. This is not a scientific
method of accounting and is prone to error and manipulation.

2) Double Entry System

Under this system, both aspects of each transaction are recorded, ensuring that the sum of
all debits is equal to the sum of all credits. This is the most scientific method of accounting
and reduces the occurrence of errors and scope for manipulation.

In either case, the books of account may be maintained either on cash basis (i.e. transactions
are recorded only when money is actually received or paid) or on accrual basis (i.e.
transactions are recorded when the income or expense accrues, irrespective of the time of actual
receipt or payment of the money).

The Companies Act, 1956 requires all companies to maintain books of account under the
Double Entry System on accrual basis. Partnership firms and individuals have the option to
follow either system.

Capital and Revenue Expenditure

Capital Expenditure is that expenditure which results in the acquisition of an asset (tangible or
intangible) which can later be sold or which results in an increase in the earning capacity of a
 business. Expenditure incurred on acquisition of fixed assets is in the nature of Capital
Expenditure.

Items of expenditure whose benefit expires within the year or expenditure incurred for
maintaining the business or keeping the assets in good working condition are referred to as
Revenue Expenditure. Wages, salaries, electricity, etc. are items of Revenue Expenditure.
However, certain expenses – such as expenses on formation of the company, the cost of issuing
shares and debentures, etc. – although apparently revenue in nature, provide an enduring
benefit. Such expenses are classified as Deferred Revenue Expenses.

The classification of expenditure into capital and revenue expenditure is required in order to
apply the Matching Concept. The general accounting treatment of capital and revenue
expenses is as follows:

Capital Expenditure The expenditure incurred is shown as an asset on the

Balance Sheet. The asset is depreciated over its useful
life, and the amount of depreciation debited to the Profit
and Loss Account

Revenue Expenditure The expenditure is debited to the Profit and Loss Account
in the year it is incurred

Deferred Revenue Expenditure The expenditure is shown as an asset and debited to ythe
Profit and Loss Account in annual instalments over the
period for which it provides a benefit

Financial Statements

At the end of the reporting period – which is generally one year – the accounting transactions
for the entire period are summarised into a few statements. The major Financial Statements
are:

1) Balance Sheet: Statement of Assets and Liabilities as on a particular date, indicating the
financial position of an entity at a given point of time.
2) Profit and Loss Account: Statement of Income and Expenditure for the reporting period,
indicating the financial performance of the entity during the reporting period.

Purpose of Financial Statements

To inform the following persons of the financial performance and position of the entity:

1) Management – for reviewing their performance during the reporting period

2) Shareholders – for assessing the worth of their investments and reviewing the
effectiveness of the Management
3) Investors – for judging the worth of the entity before deciding to invest
4) Suppliers and Lenders – for judging the creditworthiness of the entity before deciding to
extend credit
5) Government – for calculating the amount of tax to be collected

Accounting Concepts

To ensure uniformity in preparation of accounts across entities, the following concepts are
applied when recording accounting transactions:
 1) Business Entity Concept: The business for which accounts are maintained is treated as an
entity distinct from its owners and managers.
2) Money Measurement Concept: All transactions affecting the business are stated in money
terms and recorded in the Books of Account.
3) Dual Aspect Concept: Every transaction has two aspects – a ‘debit’ and a ‘credit’ – and
the sum of all debits will equal the sum of all credits. For example, when an asset is
acquired, one of the following events will also take place:
· another asset is forgone
· a liability (obligation to pay) is undertaken
· a profit has been earned
4) Cost Concept: Transactions are recorded at the actual cost.
5) Going Concern Concept: At the time of recording the transactions, it is assumed that the
entity will continue to remain in business for as long as can be foreseen.
6) Accrual Concept: Income is recorded when goods are supplied or a service is rendered,
even though the money may be received later; expenditure is recorded when goods are
procured or a service is availed, even though the money may be paid later.
7) Realisation Concept: Transactions are recorded only when they occur and not in
anticipation of their occurrence.
8) Matching Concept: Income and expenses for a period are correlated to ensure that the
accounts project an accurate picture. Therefore:
· when an income is recorded, all expenses incurred to earn that income must be
recorded.
· related income and expenditure must be recorded during the same reporting period.

Accounting Conventions

To make the information contained in financial statements clear and meaningful, they are
drawn up according to the following conventions:

1) Consistency: Accounting practices should remain the same from year to year.
2) Full Disclosure: All information which is essential for fully understanding the financial
statements should be disclosed in addition to the information required to be disclosed by
law.
3) Conservatism: Financial statements should be drawn up on a conservative basis – i.e.
anticipated income should not be recorded whereas likely losses should be provided for.
4) Materiality – Items of insignificant material details shall be ignored.

Accounting Process

After each transaction

Transaction
â
Recording in Subsidiary Book
(if applicable)
â
Generation of Voucher
â
Recording in Journal/
Cash and Bank Book
â
Posting into Ledger
At the end of the year

Balancing of Ledger/
Cash and Bank Book
â
Generation of Trial Balance
â
Adjustments and Finalisation
Entries
â
Compilation of Profit & Loss
Account and Balance Sheet

Prepared by – Dr. Sarbesh Mishra

NICMAR’s CISC, NAC Campus
Hyderabad – 500 084. (A.P)
E-mail – [email protected]