PISTON ENGINE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PISTON AND JET ENGINES

PISTON ENGINE JET ENGINE

 PISTON ENGINE
 A Stroke is defined as the linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder.

 When the piston is at the top of the stroke it is said to be at Top Dead Centre (T.D.C),

 When at the bottom of the stroke Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C.). The piston is
connected to a crankshaft.

 And as the piston moves from TDC to BDC the crankshaft rotates 180°. The complete
cycle taking 720° (4 x 180) The Stroke is equal to Twice the Crank-throw.

THE OPERATION OF THE PRACTICAL OTTO CYCLE

In practice the theoretical cycle proved to be inefficient and it was necessary to modify
the times of valve openings and closings and ignition.

The Induction Stroke - Opening the inlet valve before T.D.C. ensures that the valve is fully
open early in the induction stroke, there is then no time-lag between the piston moving down
and the mixture flowing into the cylinder.
The closing of the inlet valve is therefore delayed until after B.D.C. when the gas
pressure in the cylinder approximately equals the gas pressure in the induction manifold.

The Compression Stroke

As the piston moves upwards, the inlet valve closes and the gas is compressed. By squeezing
the gas into a smaller space the pressure that it will exert when burnt is proportionally
increased.
The Power Stroke

Before the piston reaches T.D.C. on the compression stroke the gas is ignited by a spark, the
momentum of the moving parts carrying the piston past the T.D.C. whilst the flame is spreading.
If the exhaust valve is opened before B.D.C. the residual pressure will start the first stage of
exhaust scavenging, so that by B.D.C. there will be no back pressure on the piston.

This pressure scavenging does not produce a significant loss of mechanical energy because:-

 There is only a short distance left for downward movement of the piston after the
exhaust valve is opened.

 Relatively little pressure is still being exerted on the piston by the cooled expanded
gases.
The Exhaust Stroke
Finally the piston moves upward forcing the remaining gases out of the cylinder. The exhaust
valve is left open after T.D.C. to permit the gases to scavenge the cylinder as completely as
possible by their momentum.

Valve Lead is when the valve opens before the theoretical opening time. (Inlet valve opens
before T.D.C., exhaust valve opens before B.D.C.).

Valve Lag is when the valve remains open after the theoretical closing time. (Inlet valve
remains opens after B.D.C., exhaust valve remains open after T.D.C.).

Valve Overlap is a period when both valves are partially open together. During this period the
action of the exhaust gases flowing out of the cylinder tends to reduce the gas pressure in the
cylinder below the gas pressure in the induction manifold. The mixture commences to flow into
the area of low pressure and assists in displacing the remaining burnt gases and by doing so
improves the volumetric efficiency of the engine by inducing a greater weight of charge into the
cylinder
  The valve timing for a particular engine is fixed, and does not vary with engine speed.

 Control of power in the piston engine is achieved by varying the quantity of air which
enters the cylinder; this in turn will vary the pressure rise during combustion. The pilot
controls a valve, the Throttle to vary the quantity of air.

 The pilot controls a valve, the Throttle to vary the quantity of air.

INEFFECTIVE CRANK ANGLE

In the right hand illustration, with the crankshaft half way between top bottom dead
centre, but still rotating through an arc of 45 deg, the piston travels much faster.

MANIFOLD PRESSURE

The pilot is not given a display in the cockpit of the IMEP but can be displayed manifold
pressure which is representative of cylinder pressure. This is displayed on the manifold
pressure gauge.

Opening the throttle increases manifold pressure and closing the throttle will reduce it.

IHP is only a theoretical value of power. In moving the piston and turning the crankshaft power
is used. This is called Friction Horse power, (FHP), and must be deducted from the IHP. The
power then left to do useful work (for example driving a propeller) is called Brake Horse Power
(BHP).

IHP = P × L × A × N × E
33,000
P = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (lb/in2)
L = Length of Stroke (ft)
A = Area of cylinder (in2)
N = The number of cylinders
E = Effective working strokes/min (RPM)

IHP = P L A N K
33000ft lb/min

Where,
P = Indicated mean effective pressure
L = Length of stroke
A = Area of piston lead or cross sectional area of cylinder in square inches
N = Number of power strokes per minute
K = Number of cylinders

Power was defined as the rate of doing work. Work is done when a force is moved through a
distance. A force acts on the piston -(lbs) The piston moves through the distance of the stroke -
(ft) It does this so many times a minute. This multiplies out as ft/lbs per minute.

The inventor of the steam engine James Watt calculated that the average horse could move 1 lb
a distance of 33,00ft in 1 minute - (550 ft/lb/second). This is why P L A N E is divided by the
constant of 33,000, and the unit of power referred to as Horse Power.

The SI unit of power is the Watt, and 750Watts is approximately equal to 1 Horse Power.

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC)

The weight of fuel burnt, in lbs, for the power produced BHP in unit time (Hours) is called the
Specific Fuel Consumption.

The term efficiency means simply a comparison of what is got out of a system, with what is put
in to the system. The efficiency of any mechanical device must be less than unity, it is usual to
express it as a ratio.

Efficiency = Output x 100 %

Input
Thus the Mechanical efficiency = BHP x 1 00 %
IHP

The efficiency at which the heat energy released by the combustion of the fuel is converted to
work done in the engine is known as the Thermal Efficiency.
Thermal Efficiency = Heat Converted into Work x 100%
Heat Energy Available within the Fuel

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

The ratio of the weight of mixture induced to that which would feel the cylinder under normal
temperatures and pressures is called Volumetric Efficiency.

Volumetric Efficiency = Weight of Mixture Actually Induced x 100 %

Weight of Mixture which could Fill Cylinder

at normal temperatures and pressures. The volumetric efficiency of the engine is indicative of
how well the engine is breathing.

If the force is the difference in pressure between atmospheric and the cylinder pressure during
induction, the engine is said to be Normally Aspirated.

One way to improve the volumetric efficiency and hence power, is to increase the force pushing
the mixture into the cylinder. This is called Supercharging

COMPRESSION RATIO

The Compression Ratio is the ratio of the total volume enclosed in the cylinder with piston at
B.D.C., to the volume at the end of the compression stroke with the piston at T.D.C..

Compression Ratio = Total Volume

Clearance Volume
The crankshaft and cylinder arrangement will also determine the order in which the cylinders
fire. This is called the Firing Order of the engine.
A typical four cylinder engine could have a firing order of 1-3-4-2. The cylinders do not fire
consecutively as this reduces the load and vibration on the crankshaft.

To ensure that the valves close fully, it is necessary for there to be a Valve (or Tappet)
Clearance. This is a small gap measured between the Rocker Pad; and the Valve Tip.

Excessive valve clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early.

The purpose of crankshaft is to change the reciprocating motion of the piston and connecting
rod into rotary motion for further turning the propeller.

A crankshaft consists of 3 main parts: a journal, a crankpin and a crankweb.

The connecting rod links the piston to the crankshaft and transmits the force of the power stroke
from the piston to the crankshaft.

The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a free floating piston by free floating piston or
gudgeon pin to distribute the wear around the pin and is referred to as the small end.

The crankpin end is referred to as big end.

VALVE CLEARANCE

To ensure that the valves close fully, it is necessary for there to be a Valve (or Tappet)
Clearance. This is a small gap measured between the Rocker Pad; and the Valve Tip.
The valves are continuously heated by combustion and expand at a greater rate than the rest of
the operating mechanism. As the engine heats up, the small gap, or valve clearance allows the
valve to expand at its own rate.

Excessive valve clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early. Too little clearance
will have the opposite effect of causing the valves to open early and close late and may even
prevent the valves closing at all, thereby producing an event called Popping back into the
Carburetor.

Valve Springs - made of special spring steel, to ensure that the valves remain closed except
when operated by the cams. The springs are of the helical coil type, the usual practice being for
two springs to be fitted to each valve, one inside the other.
This provides a Safety Factor and helps to eliminate Valve Bounce.

VALVE OPERATING GEAR

The valve operating gear consists of a Camshaft driven from the crankshaft at Half Crankshaft
Speed regardless of how many cylinders there are, or how they are arranged.
 CARBURETTOR

THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A CARURETTOR

The carburation system must:

 Control the air / fuel ratio in response to throttle setting, at all selected power
outputs from slow-running to full throttle, and during acceleration and
deceleration.

 It must function at all altitudes and temperatures in the operating range.

 It must provide for ease of starting and may incorporate a means of shutting off
the fuel to stop the engine.

THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A CARBURETTOR

The float-chamber carburetor is the cheapest and simplest arrangement and is used on
many light aircraft, however it is very prone to carburetor icing

Fuel Injection Systems

The injection carburetor is a more sophisticated device and meters fuel more precisely,
thus providing a more accurate air / fuel ratio, it is also less affected by flight maneuvers,
and is less prone to icing. Any of these systems may be fitted with a manual mixture
control

PRINCIPLES OF THE SIMPLE FLOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTOR-THE ‘U’ TUBE

PRINCIPLE

One leg of the ‘U’ tube is opened out to form a small tank, a constant level being
maintained by a float and valve mechanism regulating the flow of fuel from a fuel pump
(or pumps) delivering a supply from the main aircraft tanks. If a tube is bent into the
shape of a ‘U’ and then filled with liquid, the level in either leg will be the same, provided
that the pressure acting on the tube is the same. If the pressure difference is created
across the ‘U’ tube it will cause the liquid to flow.
PRINCIPLE OF A SIMPLE FLOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTOR-THE VENTURI PRINCIPLE

The pressure drop at the throat of the Venturi is proportional to the mass airflow, and is
used to make fuel flow from the float chamber being exposed to ambient pressure

In a float-chamber carburetor such as that shown in airflow to the engine is controlled

by a throttle valve, and fuel flow is controlled by metering jets.

As airflow through the Venturi increases so the pressure drop increases, and a higher
pressure differential acts on the fuel to increase its flow in proportion to the airflow. The
size of the main jet in the discharge tube determines the quantity of fuel which is
discharged at any particular pressure differential, and therefore controls the mixture
strength.

Engine suction provides a flow of air from the air intake through a Venturi in the
carburetor to the induction manifold. This air speeds up as it passes through the Venturi,
and a drop in pressure occurs at this point. Within the induction manifold however,
pressure rises as the throttle is opened.

MODIFICATIONS TO THE SIMPLE CARBURETTOR-THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIFFUSER

WELL

As engine speed and airflow through the Venturi increase, the proportion of fuel to air
rises as a result of the different flow characteristics of the two fluids. This causes the
mixture to become richer.
As engine speed is progressively increased above idling, the fuel level in the diffuser
well drops, and progressively uncovers more air holes. These holes allow more air into
the discharge tube, and by reducing the pressure differential prevent enrichment of the
air / fuel mixture. It improves fuel vaporization.

THE PRINCIPLE OF THE AIR BLEED DIFFUSER

A suction applied to a tube immersed in a liquid is sufficient to raise a column of liquid to

a certain height up the tube.

THE AIR BLEED DIFFUSER

If a small hole is made in the tubes, bubbles of air will enter the tube and the liquid will be
diffused with air.

The Pressure Balance Duct

Admitting atmospheric pressure in the float chamber by means of a drilling in the float
chamber cover plate is not a satisfactory method of ensuring equalized pressure across
the carburetor

Equalized pressure conditions can only be obtained by connecting the float chamber
directly to the air intake by a duct which is called the pressure balance duct.

IDLE CUT-OFF VALVE

An idle cut-off valve is used when stopping the engine

Mixture Control

For a given intake velocity, the pressure drop in the Venturi will decrease as ambient
density decreases. However, the fuel flow due to the pressure drop will not decrease by
the same amount and so the mixture will become richer. This progressive richness with
increased altitude is unacceptable for economic operation.
NEEDLE TYPE MIXTURE CONTROL

With a needle type mixture control, such as a cockpit lever is connected to a needle valve
in the float chamber. Movement of the cockpit lever raises or lowers the needle and
varies fuel flow through an orifice to the main jet, thereby controlling the mixture
strength.

AIR BLEED TYPE MIXTURE CONTROL

A valve connected to a cockpit lever controls the flow of air into the float chamber. When
this valve is fully open the air pressure is greatest, and the mixture is fully rich as the
valve is closed the air pressure decreases, decreasing the differential between the
camber and the venture, thus reducing the flow of fuel and weakening the mixture.

THE ACCELERATOR PUMP

If the throttle valve is opened quickly, airflow responds almost immediately and a larger
volume of air flows through the carburetor. The fuel metering system however, responds
less quickly to the changing conditions, and a temporary weakening of the mixture will
occur, known as a flat spot (or at worst causing a ‘weak cut’) before fuel flow again
matches airflow. This condition is overcome by fitting an accelerator pump which is
linked directly to the throttle, and forces fuel into the Venturi whenever the throttle is
opened

PRIMING – THE PRIMING SYSTEM

Engine priming is achieved by use of a priming pump which takes fuel from the filter
housing and delivers it to the inlet manifold. The fuel system is monitored for contents
and pressure and the fuel drains allow any water to be removed before flight.
 MIXURE NOTES

THE CHEMICALLY CORRECT RATIO

Air and gasoline vapour will bum when mixed in proportions ranging between 8:1 (rich)
and 30:1 (weak), complete combustion only occurs with an air/gasoline ratio of 14.7:1 by
weight.

This ratio is termed as STOICHIOMETRIC or the chemically correct ratio, when during
combustion, all of the oxygen in the charge combines with all of the hydrogen and
carbon. For the purposes of this lesson, we will specify 15:1 as the chemically correct
ratio of the air and gasoline.

Note that the chemically correct mixture does not give the best results in a piston engine.

THE PRACTICAL MIXTURE RATIO – SLIGHTLY WEAK MIXTURE

Running the engine on a weak mixture rapidly reduces power, since some of the inspired
oxygen is not being utilized. This power reduction is much greater than that which
results from a slight richness of mixture.

It is quite common to run engines which are fitted with carburetors at somewhat richer
than chemically correct mixtures.

WEAK MIXTURE

A mixture which is weaker than chemically correct ratio, burn at a slower rate than the
chemically correct ratio.

WEAK MIXTURE – DECREASED SFC AN ADVANTAGE OF WEAK MIXTURE

Power output, thus, decreases as the mixture is weakened; but because of the increase
in efficiency which results from eradicating detonation, the fall in power is proportionally
less than the decrease in fuel consumption. Thus, the specific fuel consumption (SFC)
decreases as the mixture strength is weakened below 15:1
SLOW COMBUSTION – A DISADVANTAGE OF WEAK MIXTURES

As the inlet valve opens, the heat of the exhaust gases is still so high that it may ignite
the mixture in the induction system, and ‘popping back’ occurs through the induction
manifold.

MANUAL MIXTURE CONTROL – ENGINE STARTING

The exhaust valve lag takes advantage of the intertia of the gases at normal engine
speeds. As the engine speed reduces to idling speed, there is a tendency for exhaust
gases to be sucked back into the cylinder by the piston before the exhaust valve closes.
This dilution of the induction gases is such that, to maintain smooth running, a rich
mixture is required.

1. Fuel will only burn when it has vaporized and is mixed with air. When starting, the
engine is cold and there is little heat to assist the vaporizing process, therefore
only the lightest fractions of the fuel with vaporize. To make sure that there is
sufficient fuel vapour in the cylinders to support combustion a rich mixture is
required.

MANUAL MIXTURE CONTROL – TAKE OFF POWER

When full power is selected for take-off, the mixture must be further enriched to about
10: 1.
Apart from the cooling effect, the excess fuel is wasted, for there is insufficient oxygen
available for it to burn completely. With very rich mixtures some of the carbon fails to
combine with oxygen at all and is exhausted as black smoke.

ECONOMY CRUISE

During cruising conditions only moderate power is required from the engine, and this
should be produced with the minimum expenditure of fuel to achieve economy, then an
economy cruise setting of approximately 17.4:1 can be used. Fuel consumption will
decrease accordingly.

WHY MIXTURE CONTROL IS NEEDED

However, the fuel flow due to the pressure drop will not decrease by the same amount
and so the mixture will become richer.
MAINTAINING CORRECT MIXTURE – MIXUTURE CONTROL USING ENGINE R.P.M AS A
GUIDE

As the mixture control is moved from fully rich to a weaker setting, the air fuel ratio
approaches the chemically correct value of approximately 15:1. At this ratio all the air
and fuel are consumed and the heat released by combustion is at its maximum. More
heat means more power. RPM will rise if the mixture is weakened even more, the RPM
will drop.
 FUEL NOTES
The fuel is blend of Hydrogen and carbon. Aircraft piston engine use a Gasoline fuel
known are AVGAS.

AVGAS 100LL 100/30 Blue 0.72 Low Head

AVGAS 100 100/30 Green 0.72 High Lead
AVGAS 80/87 Red 0.72 Very Low Lead

CALORIFIC VALUE

 The Calorific Value of a fuel is a measure of the amount of heat that will be
released during combustion, and is measured in kilojoules/kg

 This varies with the chemical composition of the fuel, those with a high hydrogen
content being superior.

 The calorific value is related to specific gravity. The higher the specific gravity the
higher the calorific value.

VOLATILITY

A volatile liquid is one which is capable of changing readily from the liquid to the vapour
state by the application of heat, or by contact with a gas into which it can evaporate.

Fuel is added to the air at the carburetor, the efficiency with which the fuel mixes with the
air is largely determined by the volatility of the fuel.

A liquid boils when its vapour pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure acting
on the surface of the liquid. This means that, as the atmospheric pressure reduces with
altitude, the fuel vaporizes at a lower temperature. This is generally referred to as ‘low
pressure boiling’.

THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

Combustion is a controlled rate of burning it is not an ‘explosion’.

The mixture induced into the cylinders consists of gasoline vapour (84.2% carbon and
15.8% hydrogen by weight) and air (78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other inert gases).

When combustion has been completed, the hydrogen in the fuel will have combined with
the oxygen in the air to form H20 which is water vapour, and the carbon in the fuel will
combine with the oxygen in the air to form CO2 - carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen and other gases play no active part in the combustion process, but they do
form the bulk of the gas that is heated and expanded to create pressure energy. The
nitrogen also slows down the rate of combustion, without nitrogen, combustion would be
an explosion with far too rapid a temperature and pressure rise to be harnessed to do
useful work.

Detonation occurs after ignition and is unstable combustion.

Progressively there is more and more heat concentrated in the flame front, which is
brought to bear on the remaining unburnt portion of the mixture, termed ‘end gas’, and
its temperature is raised.

In addition, the burnt gases have expanded, so that, the end gas is subjected to an
increasing pressure.
Ultimately there is sufficient pressure and heat available to bring all the end gas to the
point of combustion at the same instant, and it explodes.
The flame rate increases to 1,000 feet per second, with a degree of violence which will
depend on the amount of end gas that remains.

DETONATION

As the flame travels through the cylinder, more and more heat is concentrated in the
flame front, which is brought to bear on the end gas, thus raising its temperature. The
end gas is also subject to increased pressure.

EFFECTS OF DETONATION

The explosion of the end gas can cause the piston crown to burn, and eventually to
collapse, over-heating of the combustion chamber can also occur. This may cause the
valves to split and distort and possibly burn the sparking plug electrodes.
There is also a sudden rise in pressure as detonation occurs, which applies a shock
loading to the engine component parts, which may cause mechanical damage.

Power is lost

1. Incorrect mixture strength

The greater the amount of fuel for a given amount of air, the greater the power
obtainable without detonation. If the power output is high, then the mixture must
be rich.

2. High charge temperature

Anything that raises the temperature or the pressure of the charge unduly before
burning, e.g. carburetor heating (at high power), overheated cylinders, high boost
with very low R.P.M.

3. Incorrect ignition timing

If the spark is too far advanced the charge ignites too early, giving higher
temperatures.
 4. Cooling

If the combustion chamber surfaces are coated with carbon, or coke as it is

commonly called, heat from the flame will not dissipate rapidly, resulting in high
cylinder head temperatures.

5. Cylinder head design

The greater the time taken for the flame front to travel through the combustion
chamber, and the higher the charge temperature, the greater the risk of
detonation. Design features which would directly affect these would be for
example: the size of combustion chambers, the positions of the spark plugs and
the valves, the compression ratio and effective cooling.

6. Use of incorrect fuel – that is using low octane fuel

A compact combustion chamber helps in this respect by reducing the distance that the
flame front has to travel, also the time taken to burn the charge can be reduced by
initiating flame fronts from two sparking plugs.

If possible the flame should be started from the vicinity of some hot spot such as the
exhaust valve, so that the end gas is pushed away from the hotter parts of the
combustion chamber, and compressed into a cooler part.

In short, anything which can reduce temperature, pressure or time will be instrumental in
reducing, or at the very best preventing its creation.

THE RECOGNITION OF DETONATION

Detonation is spontaneous combustion, and can be recognized by its metallic knocking

sound or pinking which is caused by the violent vibrating pressure waves striking the
walls of the combustion chamber.

FUEL ADDITIVES

Detonation can be avoided by putting small quantities of additives into the fuel, the
principal one used being Tetra Ethyl-lead (T.E.L.). The action of T.E.L. is to reduce the
formation of peroxides which act as fulminates to explode the end gas.
PRE – IGNITION
Pre-Ignition, (also known as ‘Running-On’) is the ignition of the charge before the spark
occurs at the sparking plug. This is usually caused by a local ‘hot-spot’ in the
combustion chamber, such as incandescent carbon or very hot sparking plug points,
with consequent rough running, running on, and loss of power.

Iso-Octane has very good combustion characteristics and shows little tendency to
detonate when mixed with air and ignited at high temperatures, and is given a rating of
100.

Normal Heptane detonates very readily and has a rating of 0.

If the blend of the reference fuels is 95% iso-octane and 5% normal heptane, then the fuel
under test would be given an octane rating of 95. The octane rating is, therefore, a
measure of the fuel’s Anti-Knock value.

THE ADVANTAGES OF HIGH OCTANE (ANTI-DETONATION) RATINGS

Better quality fuel permits:

 Increased compression ratios with an increase in thermal efficiency, better fuel

consumption, and an increase in engine power.
 Increased induction pressure and greatly increased power from a given engine by
the use of a supercharger.

The power output of an engine is directly proportional to the weight of mixture burned in
unit time, increased induction pressure will increase this weight.
 COOLING SYSTEM NOTES

REASONS FOR COOLING

The thermal efficiency of a piston engine is at best only 25-28%

This means that over 70% of the heat energy released by the fuel is wasted

The exhaust gas is responsible for releasing around 40% of the heat energy

On some aircraft, some of this energy can be recovered by using it to drive a turbo-
charger

REASONS FOR COOLING – OVER HEATING

The remaining 32% of the heat energy released raised the temperature of both the engine
components and the oil. If this temperature increase is not controlled, it could be the
cause of several problems

If the heat energy generated by the combustion in the engine were not controlled, the
following consequences would result

a. Breakdown of the oil’s lubricating ability

b. Possible structural failure of engine components

c. Pre-ignition

d. Detonation

OVER COOLING

1. Low engine temperature reduce the BHP available at the propeller

2. The ability of liquid fuel to change its from a liquid to a vapour is reduced in a cold
engine. (low temp – high vapour pressure)

Bearing with these two factors in mind, for the engine to operate efficiently, it must
operate at the highest temperatures consistent with safe operation.

TWO TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM

The two types of cooling system used in aircraft piston engines are ‘liquid cooling’ and
‘air cooling’

LIQUID COOLING SYSTEMS

The liquid cooling system dissipates the heat from the engine by pumping a mixture of
‘Water and Glycol’ (anti-freeze) through passages built into the cylinder’s and cylinder
head’s. The liquid is then past through an ‘Air Cooled Radiator’ mounted in slip stream of
the propeller.

One such liquid is ethylene glycol, which is a clear, rather viscous fluid. When mixed
with water in a one to three ratio, ethylene glycol raises the boiling point of the coolant,
thereby preventing low pressure boiling at altitude. It also provides good anti – freeze
properties.

The components of the liquid cooling systems consists of:

An engine-driven pump which circulates the liquid through the engine.

A thermostat which controls the coolant temperature.

Pipes, to allow the liquid to flow from the header tank to the engine block

A header tank, which acts as a reservoir of the coolant liquid.

Pipes, to allow the liquid to flow from the header tank of the engine block, and then from
the engine to the radiator, and back to the header tank.

Air flowing through the radiator, then, dissipates the heat from the coolant of the air.

AIR COOLING – COWLING

The engine is surrounded by cowlings, which reduce drag and which control the flow of
air around the engine. The controlled flow ensures that all parts of the engine are equal
cooled.

The air-cooler engine cooling system has few moving parts, and is virtually maintenance
free.

An air cooler engine is also lighter in weight than a liquid cooled engine of similar power.

These are two main reasons why an air type cooling system is preferred on gasoline
powered aircraft piston engines.

Liquid cooling system are most efficient than air cooling systems, because they give
better control of engine temperature and also produce less drag. Compare the frontal
areas of these two similar power engines, one liquid cooled and other air cooled.

THE CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE GAUGE

 The pilot can monitor the temperature of the engine by the use of a Cylinder Head
Temperature Gauge.

 The gauge uses a sensor which is fitted to the engines cylinder head’s. If only one
sensor is fitted it will be fitted to the ‘Hottest Cylinder’.

 This is usually one of the rear most cylinder’s. The sensor is a ‘Thermocouple’.
The principle of operation of a thermocouple is that the sensor produces a
‘Voltage’ which is directly proportional to its temperature.

 The cockpit indication is displayed by a sensitive moving coil meter called a

‘Galvanometer’. The scale reads temperature and not voltage.
The pilot should be aware of the possibility of overheating.
Climbing at best rate of climb speed (Vy) is preferable to prolonged use of best angle of
climb speed (Vx).

Descending can also cause problems. Engine power is reduced and there is less heat
generated in the engine. If the aircraft is placed into a dive this will increases the flow of
air over the engine

The sudden change in temperature could cause what is known as ‘Thermal Shock’.

Air Temperature

The ambient air temperature can vary widely with changes in climatic conditions and
altitude.
Dissipation of the heat will be more rapid as the air temperature decreases.

Speed of the Air Flow

The speed of the airflow passing over the cylinders is governed by the slipstream and
will vary with the speed of the aircraft.

Cooling Fins

The walls of the cylinder are finned to increase the cooling area.

Baffles

Baffles are directional air guides to direct the airflow completely around the cylinder.
Even cross sectional area is maintained, so that the airflow does not slow down and
cause drag.

Cowlings Cowl Flaps and Gills

Cowlings must be close fitting without dents or projections to disturb the airflow. Any
disturbance to the designed flow will not only increase drag but also decrease cooling.
With the cowl flaps or gills open, the airflow over the engine nacelle causes a pressure
drop at the cooling air outlet, thus making it easier for the heated air to flow and maintain
a high speed over the engine.

At high power settings such as Take-Off when the engine is generating a lot of heat, and
at low airspeeds when the cooling-flow is minimal, the cowl flaps should be selected
open to increase flow rate of air and so increase cooling.

In descent the cowl flaps are closed to reduce cooling. In the cruise at altitude the cowl
flaps could be partially closed to maintain the engine temperature, as the cooling air
temperature falls improving its efficiency.
 LUBRICATION SYSTEM NOTES

THE TASK OF THE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Components rubbing together also cause ‘Wear’ which is shown by the partial loss or
destruction of the metal components. Both friction and wear can be reduced by
preventing the moving surfaces with a lubricant.

Piston engine components are subject to high loads, temperatures and speeds.

The friction produced increases as the loads, temperatures and speeds. The friction
produced increases as the loads, temperature and speed imposed on the component
increase.

METHODS OF LUBRICATION – THE PETROIL SYSTEM

1. The petroil system, where lubricating oil is mixed with fuel.

THE PRESSURE SYSTEM

2. The pressure system, which uses a high pressure oil pump to supply oil to
lubricate the major components

THE SPLASH SYSTEM

3. The splash system, where oil is thrown on to the major components by the
rotation of the crankshaft in the oil sump.

THE COMBINATION PRESSURE/SPLASH SYSTEM

4. The combination pressure/splash system supplies the major components with

pressure oil from a pump. The remaining components are supplied by splash
lubrication

THE TYPES OF LUBRICATION

We will be concentrating on the wet sump system and dry sump system

TASK OF LUBRICANT

The primary task of lubrication system is to reduce friction and component wear. The
engine lubrication system also has a number of secondary functions.
TASK OF A LUBRICANT – COOLING

Perhaps the most important of the secondary functions is the task of cooling. The flow of
oil through the engine removes the heat from the components, which can then be
dissipated in a radiator.

CLEANING

The oil also carries away unwanted foreign particles and the by – product of the
combustion process, such as carbon, varnish and sludge.

HYDRAULIC MEDIUM

The oil can act as a hydraulic medium in two ways:

1. Firstly, it can provide the power source for components, such as variable pitch
propellers.

2. Secondly, it acts as hydraulic medium, reducing shock loading and vibration in

the engine.

CONDITION INDICATOR

The lubricant can be used to show the ‘condition’ of the engine, both in terms of its oil
temperature and oil pressure.

Remember that an increase in friction will cause an increase in friction horse power, and
therefore, a reduction in the brake horse power developed by the engine.

The ‘Reduction in Friction and Wear’ by the lubricant is of prime importance, but the
secondary functions of ‘Cooling, cleaning, protection, hydraulic and indicating mediums’
should not be ignored.

WET AND SUMP LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

There are two lubrication systems in commonly used in aircraft piston engines, these are
the ‘Wet Sump’ and ‘Dry Sump’ systems.
Disadvantages of wet sump system

Most light, non-aerobatic aircraft engines use the ‘Wet Sump’ system. In this system the
oil is stored in the bottom or sump of the engine. This simplifies construction but has
number of disadvantages

1. Lubrication difficulties arise during maneuvers. The oil enters the crankcase, is
flung around by the revolving shafts with possible over-oiling and under-oiling of
the engine

2. The temperature of the oil is more difficult to control as it is stored within the hot
engine casing.

3. The oil becomes contaminated and oxidizes more easily because of the continual
contact of the oil with hot engine.

4. The oil supply is limited by the sump capacity.

ADVANTAGES OF THE DRY SUMP SYSTEM

A dry sump system overcomes these problems, by storing oil in the separate tank.

Both systems use the combination pressure/splash method of lubrication. In a dry sump
system, one or more scavenge pumps return the oil to the tank to prevent flooding of the
engine sump.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS – THE OIL TANK

Oil tanks are made of sheet metal, suitably baffled and strengthened internally to prevent
damage due to the oil surging during maneuvers.
The tank is placed wherever possible at a higher level than the engine to give gravity
feed to the pressure pump

THE OIL TANK AIR SPACE

The air space is required to contain oil which:

a. Drains into the sump after the engine shut down.

THE OIL TANK HOT POT

The 'hot pot’ forms a separate compartment within the tank. Its purpose is to reduce the
time taken to raise the temperature of the oil when starting the engine from cold by
restricting the quantity of oil in circulation when the oil is cold and viscous.
The hot pot consists of a cylinder of metal fitted above the oil outlet to the engine, thus
the oil must be inside the hot pot to be able to reach the pressure pump.

THE SUCTION FILTER

A coarse wire mesh filter is fitted between the tank and pressure pump. It is designed to
remove large solid particles from the oil before it enters the pressure pump

THE PRESSURE PUMP

The pump consists of two deep toothed spur gears rotating in a close fitting pump
casing and driven via the accessory housing. Oil is carried either side of the casing in
the space between the gear teeth. A rise in system pressure is generated by the
tolerance fit of the engine components

The actual oil pressure obtained will depend on the ‘Speed of the Pump’, the
‘Temperature of the Oil’ and the ‘Resistance offered by the Components’.

THE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

A pressure relief valve limits the maximum oil pressure in the system. When the oil
reaches a predetermined figure, the valve opens, and sufficient oil is returned to the inlet
side of the pump to control the oil pressure at that figure.

THE CHECK VALVE

The oil tank may be at a higher level than the pressure pump to provide a gravity feed.
When the engine is stopped and the oil is hot and thin, there is sufficient pressure from
the gravity feed to force the oil through the clearances in the pressure pump so that the
oil tank would drain into the crankcase and the engine would be flooded with oil.
A check valve is fitted in the outlet line to the pressure pump, to prevent the engine being
flooded with oil. This will retain the oil in the tank until the engine is started.

THE PRESSURE FILTER

The pressure filter is fitted downstream of the pressure pump before the oil enters the
engine and is designed to remove very small solid particles between 20 to 25 microns. A
spring loaded relief valve is fitted to by-pass the filter element when the oil is cold, or if
the element becomes blocked with dirt.

THE SCAVENGE PUMP

The ‘Scavenge Pump’ returns the oil by pumping it from the sump back to the tank. To
prevent excessive accumulation of oil in the sumo, it is necessary for the scavenge
pump to have a larger volumetric capacity than the pressure pump. In practice the
scavenge pump capacity is 25% - 50% larger than that of the pressure pump.
THE SCAVENGE FILTER

To protect the scavenge pump from debris, which may have passed through the oil
system, a coarse metal gauze ‘scavenge filter’ is installed in the outlet of the sump.

OIL COOLER
If the oil itself gets too hot, it could fail as a lubricant. To prevent its temperature raising
too high a cooler is introduced in to the system.
The oil cooler consists of a matrix or tube block

The oil cooler use what is known as a ‘stacked plate’ form of construction. The oil flows
through the very small spaces formed between the corrugations on the tabular plate and
the conductor plates.
The air flows through the air fins.

Modern oil coolers use what is known as a ‘stacked plate’ form of construction.

THE OIL COOLER SHUTTERS

To prevent a high oil pressure damaging the oil cooler, an anti surge valve is fitted,
which allows the oil to by-pass the matrix when the oil is cold.

The temperature of the oil is affected by three factors:

1. The amount of heat generated in the engine ( power )

2. The temperature of the cooling air

3. The rate at which air flows through the cooler.

The shutters would be closed to start up to allow the engine oil temperature to rise
quickly, and then be opened to maintain the temperature.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM MONITOING INSTRUMENTS – OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE

The temperature of the oil may be measured at the outlet from the oil cooler, or at any
position between the oil tank and the engine Intel. Most aircraft use an electrical sensor
to indicate the temperature on a cockpit instrument

OIL PRESSURE GAUGE

Oil pressure is sensed at the outlet side of the engine driven pressure pump. The sensor
can be either electrical, or a direct – reading mechanical system.

CONTENTS CHECKING

Oil quantity may be displayed. If not displayed there will be a facility for checking the
quantity prior to flight, either by the use of a dip stick or sight glass. Indications outside
of operating limits could be indicative of impending engine failure.

VISCOSITY

Thickness, or viscosity, of the oil is a very important factor.

Viscosity is defined as the measure of a fluids internal friction, or it resistance to flow.

A liquid that flows freely has a low viscosity and one which is sluggish has a high
viscosity. The viscosity of an oil changes with change in temperature. An increase in
temperature will ‘Reduce viscosity’ and vise versa.

The oils viscosity must stay within required limits to do its job, this temperature within
which it can safely do this is termed its ‘Viscosity Index’.

VISCOSITY GRADES

The lower the viscosity number, thinner the oil.

‘Multi Grade Oils’

Some oils have two viscosity values, and may be used to minimize starting problems.
Oils with two viscosity values are known as ‘Multi grade oils’. They maintain low
viscosity at low temperatures and high viscosity at high temperatures.

TYPES OF OIL – STRAIGHT OILS

If the oil contains no additives, it is called a ‘straight oil’

COMPOUND OILS

Oils which contain, such as anti – oxidants, dispersants, and oiliness agents, are called
‘compound’ oils.

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Indications of oil pressure and temperature give the pilot a good idea of the mechanical
integrity of the engine.
HYDRAULICING

On Radial and Inverted engines the pilots knowledge of the lubrication system is
required even
before starting the engines. These engine can suffer from a problem called ‘
Hydraulicing’,

after shutting down radial or inverted engines, oil may accumulate between the piston
and the cylinder head, in the lower cylinders of the engine.

Damage to the engine could occur as the piston moves on the compression stroke.
Prior to starting, these engines should be pulled through the cycle by use of the
propeller, to
ensure no hydraulic lock has occurred

LOW OIL PRESSURE

Alternatively, consideration should be given to either reducing engine power, or lowering

the nose to increase airspeed, or even making the mixture richer.
 INDUCTION ICING SYSTEM

Once the engine stops due to the formation of induction system icing, it is most unlikely
that it can be restarted in time to prevent the accident. The ability to recognize and
correct the problem is therefore vital

ENGINE ICING – IMPACT ICE

Impact ice forms on the air filters and around bends in the induction system

CARURETTOR ICING

Carburetor icing forms mainly in float type carburetors. It results from the sudden
temperature drop, caused by fuel vaporization and pressure reduction in the venture,
combined with the moisture content in the atmosphere.

FUEL ICING

Fuel icing is caused by moisture in the fuel coming out of suspension and being frozen
by the low temperatures in the venture of the carburetor. This ice tends to stick to the
corners of the inlet manifold.

INDICATIONS OF INDUCTION SYSTEM ICING

The indications of icing to the pilot of an aircraft fitted with a carburetor, if he has failed
to anticipate the problem, would be a gradual drop in R.P.M. which may be accompanied
by engine rough running and vibration.

In an aircraft fitted with constant speed propeller, ice formation would be indicated to the
pilot by a drop in manifold pressure.
INDICATIONS OF INDUCTION SYSTEM ICING

The temperature in this area of the carburetor drops as much as 22°C (70°F) below the
temperature of the incoming air. If now the air contains a large amount of moisture this
cooling process may be sufficient to cause ice to form in the area of the throttle
“butterfly”.

It will reduce the area of the induction intake and may prevent operation of the throttle
plate, resulting in the loss of power, and if not corrected the ice may accumulate
sufficiently to block the intake completely and stop the engine.

At the outside temperatures of -10 deg C, 14 deg F) or below, any moisture in the air will
be already frozen and will pass through the carburetor and so heat should not be used.

ACTION TO BE TAKEN IF ENGINE ICING IS SUSPECTED

The carburetor heat control causes heated air from the region of exhaust pipe to be fed
into the induction system, the heated air will then, melt the ice. The ice then passes
through the engine as water.

Under no circumstances should carburetor heat me used during takeoff.

The continuous use of carburetor heat should be avoided due to the change of mixture
and increase of engine temperatures. Heat should be used only for a sufficient period of
time to restore engine power to its original level.

ENGINE CONSIDERATIONS

When using carburetor heat there are a number of factors which should be understood.
The application of hot air reduces the power output by approximately 15% and also
creates a richer mixture which may cause rough running.

(DGCA) Heat should not be applied at power settings greater than 80% as there is a
danger of detonation
and engine damage. It should be remember that induction system icing should not occur
at high power setting.

FUEL INJECTED ENGINES

Generally, fuel injected engines do not suffer from carburetor icing. However, impact ice
on the intake filter, or fuel icing collecting around bends in the system, will give similar
indications of loss of power to those which occur an carburetor fed systems.
PRE – TAKE OFF

A functional check of carburetor heat control should be made before takeoff. Engine
R.P.M will drop approximately 100 R.P.M when carburetor heat is selected to ‘ON’.

DESCENTS

Apply carburetor heating during glide descents or long periods of flight at power (below
1,800 RPM) remembering to warm/ clear the engine every 500 – 1000ft.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES – GROUND OPERATION

Use of heat control on the ground should be kept minimum as the air is not filtered and
may feed dust and dirt into the system.

CLIMB

Do not use carburetor heat during climb, or at power setting above 80%
 IGNITION SYSTEM NOTES
THE DUAL IGNITION SYSTEM

The engine has two spark plugs for each cylinder, and two separate magnetos, each
magneto supplies power to one spark plug per cylinder.

Dual ignition system serves two purposes.

Firstly, they reduce the risk of engine failure due to faulty ignition.

Secondly, they reduce the occurrence of detonation, by igniting the mixture within the
cylinder at two points.

MAGNETOS

Magnetos are self-contained engine-driven electrical generators. They produce a series

of extra high tension (EHT) electrical sparks

The ‘distributer’ directs the voltage to the sparking plugs in the correct firing sequence.

The primary circuit uses the principle of the permanent magnet generator.

MAGNETOS – STEP UP TRANSFORMER

The secondary circuit uses the principle of the step up transformer. The secondary
windings consist of thousands of turns of very thin wire. When the contact breaker
points open, a very high voltage is induced into the secondary windings by the rapid
collapse of the magnetic lines of force.

The induced voltage is taken to a rotary switch called the ‘distributor’ which distributes it
to the sparkling plugs in the correct firing sequence. The cam – operated contact breaker
points and the distributor rotor are geared together so that the spark will appear at the
sparking plug as the contact breaker points just open.

The contact breaker cam and distributor rotor rotate at half engine speed.
DGCA – The distributor passes the high voltage pulses to the spark plugs in the correct
firing sequence.

CAPACITOR (CONDENSER) - The prime function of the capacitor is to prevent burning or

arcing across the contact breaker points, and to assist in creating the extra high voltage
in the secondary coil by causing a rapid change of flux (magnetic field) in the primary
coil. This increases the efficiency of the magneto.

The capacitor is fitted in parallel with the contact breaker points and the magneto control
switch.

IGNITION CONTROL

An ignition switch is fitted in the primary circuit to give control of the magneto

The ignition switch short circuits the contact breaker points, which makes them now
incapable of breaking the current flow in the primary circuit. Thus, no rapid change of
current flow, or magnetic flux, can occur. With the ignition switch in ‘off’ position, the
points are short circuited. The points can, therefore, no longer break the current flow in
the primary circuit.

SPARK ARGUMENTATION

During start, the engine is cranked at about 120 R.P.M at this speed, the magneto is not
capable of producing sparks with sufficient energy to ignite the mixture. Several
methods of spark augmentation can be used.

SPARK AUGMENTATION – HIGH TENSION BOOSTER COIL

The high tension booster coil, which is only selected for engine start, supplies a stream
of high voltage impulses to a training brush on the distributor rotor. This ensures that a
fat retarded spark is generated in the cylinder.

SPARK AUGMENTATION – LOW TENSION BOOSTER COIL

The low tension booster coil supplies the primary coil of magneto with a low voltage
during the start. Once the engine has started it is switched ‘OFF’.

SPARK AUGMENTATION – IMPULSE COUPLING

This is a mechanical device which uses a spring to temporarily increase the speed of
rotation of the magneto, and delay the timing of the spark.

The ‘Dead Cut Check’ is carried out at slow running. This check ensures that the pilot
has control of the ignition before carrying out further ignition checks at higher engine
speeds.

RPM MUST DROP BUT ENGINE MUST NOT STOP WHILE SWITCHING ONE MAGNETO
OFF AT A TIME
 TURBO CHARGER AND SUPERCHARGERS NOTES
THE ATMOSPHERE – TEMPERATURE

Because the heat in the atmosphere is radiated from the surface of the earth, the greater
the altitude, the lower will be the temperature.

ISA OR INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

In order that an engine’s power output can be checked in any ambient conditions
manufacturers specify a set of ‘standard’ maximum power R.P.M figures which are
obtained in sea level ISA conditions.

A reduction in air density results in lower engine power, which directly affects the length
of the take off run, the landing run, and the rate of climb.

Whereas, ‘Pressure Altitude’ is the indicated altitude obtained when an altimeter is to

1013.2 millibars

The local air temperature will also have a direct effect on air density. Of the temperature
of an airfield is higher than the ISA, the density altitude will be higher than the airfield
elevation.

Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing density
would occur

We can either employ a navigation computer to determine the actual density altitude, or
use a simple formula.

The IOAT is +33 deg C, airport elevation is 3350ft, the QNH is 1013 mbs, so the pressure
altitude is also 3350 ft

ISA temperature for 3550ft is +8 deg C, so the ISA deviation is +25 deg C. the density
altitude at airport is therefore, 6500 ft, on this particular day.

Engine performance is associated with the density altitude: the higher the density
altitude, the lower the engine performance.

REASON FOR POWER AUGMENTATION

Obtaining the max power output from a piston engine depends upon getting the
maximum weight of charge into the cylinders during the induction stroke.

Because the density of the air reduces as the a/c climbs, the weight of the fuel in the
mixture has to be reduced to retain the mixture strength at the optimum. This fact, and
the fact that atmospheric pressure is reducing in the climb, means that less air and less
fuel is fed into a normally aspirated engine as the aircraft gains altitude.

‘normally aspirated’ means that the air being induced in altitude can be overcome by the
use of some form of power augmentation device, like a supercharger. This results in the
weight of charge, and thus the power, being increased.

ENGINE POWE OUTPUT – RATED POWER

The maximum continuous power the engine can produce is called rated power. This
power is produced at a specified R.P.M and boost, or manifold absolute pressure. The
aircraft is usually flown in the cruise at a fraction of its power.

RATED ALTITUDE

The maximum altitude at which the engine can maintain rated power, with the throttle
valve full open, is termed ‘RATED ALTITUDE’.

SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS

On a normally aspirated engine the pressure in the induction manifold at full throttle is
slightly less than atmospheric pressure because of intake duct losses, and the manifold
pressure decreases with any increase in altitude.

Power output therefore, decreases with altitude

Ambient pressure decreases with altitude. Now, the ambient pressure, or back pressure,
determines how much energy the piston expends in evacuating the exhaust gases from
the cylinder.

During climb, the atmospheric pressure reduces, and the amount of power wasted on the
exhaust stroke also reduces. This is due to the reducing back pressure with increasing
altitude.

To increase engine power for take-off and initial climb, and / or to maintain engine power
at high altitude, the manifold pressure must be raised artificially, and this is done by
supercharging.

GROUND BOOSTED SUPERCHARGER

Where a supercharger is used to increase sea level power, rather than to maintain normal
power up to a high altitude, the engine will need to be strengthened in order to resist the
higher combustion pressure. This is called a Ground Boosted Supercharger.
ALTITUDE BOOSTED SUPERCHARGER

Superchargers capable of maintaining sea level values of power up to high altitude, a

control system is necessary to prevent excessive pressure being generated within the
engine at low altitude. These are called Altitude Boosted Superchargers.

TYPES OF COMPRESSOR

Both the root type compressor and centrifugal compressor are used as superchargers
on aircraft engines.

Although the compressors may be driven by either internal or external means, in some
installations a combination of both internally and externally driven compressors may be
used.

Externally driven superchargers, known as turbo-superchargers or turbo-chargers, are

driven by a turbine which is rotated by the exhaust gases

Internally driven superchargers are driven by gearing from the engine crankshaft and
compress the mixture.
The methods of operation and control of these two types are quite different, and are dealt
with separately.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressors are used because they are comparatively light, are able to run
at high speed, will handle large quantities of air, and are robust and reliable. A centrifugal
compressor is made up of two components, the impeller which is rotated and accelerates
the air and the Diffuser which collects and directs the air into the manifold.

The proportion of pressure gained in the impeller depends on the impeller’s diameter,
speed of rotation and the shape of the vanes.

The diffuser vanes form divergent passages, which decrease the velocity and increase
the pressure of the air passing through them.

Compressing the air rapidly increases its temperature, and reduces some of the increase
in density which results from the increased pressure, this loss of density may be partially
recovered either by passing the air through a Inter-Cooler or by spraying the fuel into the
eye of the impeller so that vaporization will reduce air temperature.
MANIFOLD PRESSURE

Any engine with a supercharger will also be equipped with a variable pitch propeller
controlled by a constant speed unit. The RPM of the engine is therefore controlled by the
propeller pitch lever. To properly set the power and prevent the engine being Over
boosted the pilot must have an indication of the amount of pressure he/she is allowing
into the cylinder with the throttle.

Manifold Absolute Pressure Gauge

This pressure is the indication manifold pressure, and is indicated to the pilot on either a
boost pressure gauge, or a manifold absolute pressure gauge.

Boost Pressure

If the boost gauge is indicating -3 lb of boost the absolute pressure in the induction
system would be 14.7 lb minus 3 lb which is equal to 11.7 lb

Manifold Absolute Pressure

American practice is to use the term Manifold Absolute Pressure (M.A.P.) for measuring
the pressure in the induction system. The manifold gauge indicates the absolute
pressure in inches of mercury (Hg). When the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lb it will
support a column of Hg 29.92 inches high, therefore, a boost pressure of 0 lb is the
equivalent of manifold pressure of 29.92 inches Hg.

EXTERNALLY DRIVEN SUPERCHARGERS (TURBO – CHARGERS)

Externally driven superchargers are powered by the energy of the engine exhaust gases
and are generally known as turbo -superchargers or turbo-chargers.

The turbine is driven by the exhaust system and the compressor is connected to the
induction manifold system.

The turbocharger can be mounted either on the engine or on the fire – proof bulkhead,
and shielded from combustible fluid lines in the engine bay.

As the more exhaust is passed over the turbine the faster it will go therefore the faster
the impeller will go and the greater will be the pressure ratio of compressor and its
output as the turbine speed increases.

TURBOCHARGED VERSUS NORMALLY ASPIRATED – CRTICAL ALTITUDE

Note that, after critical altitude has reached has been exceeded, the power output of the
turbocharged engine drops off at the same rate as normally aspirated engine.

THE WASTE GATE

For any particular power output the turbo-charger must deliver a constant mass of air to
the engine in a given time, and, since the density of air decreases with altitude, the
impeller rotates faster as the aircraft climbs to compensate for the reduction in density
and maintain a selected manifold pressure.
Some form of control over compressor output must be provided, and this is done by
varying the quantity of exhaust gas passing to the turbine to vary its speed and that of
the compressor.

THE WASTE GATE SYSTEM

A turbine by-pass, in the form of an alternative exhaust duct, is fitted with a valve (known
as a waste gate) which regulates the amount of exhaust gases which passes through the
turbine, and thus controls the speed.

When the waste gate is fully open nearly all exhaust gases pass directly to atmosphere
CRITCAL ALTITUDE

The altitude above which the selected boost or manifold pressure can no longer be
maintained.

THE WASTE GATE – AUTOMATIC WASTE GATE CONTROL

In an automatic control system, the waste gate is mechanically connected to an actuator

piston whose position depends on the opposing forces of a spring and engine oil
pressure.

Spring force tends to open the waste gate, and oil pressure tends to close it.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE CONTROLLER

The APC uses an aneroid capsule sensitive to compressor outlet pressure to control the
oil bleed from the wastegate actuator, thereby controlling wastegate position to maintain
the required compressor outlet pressure. The throttle then controls manifold pressure

Opening the throttle increases engine RPM producing most exhaust gases and
increasing turbine speed and compressor outlet pressure. When controlling outlet
pressure is reached, the APC capsule contracts, bleeding off waste gate, diverting
exhaust gases, reducing turbo – charger RPM and limiting its outlet pressure.

As the aircraft climbs, compressor outlet pressure decreases. The APC capsule expands,
closing the oil pressure bleed valve. The waste gate progressively closes, increasing
exhaust gas to the turbine and turbo – charger output. Thereby maintaining the selected
manifold pressure. When the waste gate is fully closed, the aircraft has reached ‘Critical
altitude’.

THROTTLE SENSITIVITY

The APC will sense a drop in compressor output pressure, and the aneroid capsule will
close the oil bleed valve. The waste gate will close in response. The new waste gate
position diverts more exhaust gas to the turbine, which accelerates. Compressor output
rises in response to the increased turbine speed.
WASTE GATE POSITION

Maintaining a constant pressure at the outlet of the turbo-charger up to critical altitude

depends on being able to keep increasing the speed of the turbine as the aircraft climbs.
This is done by progressively closing the waste gate and diverting an increasing amount
of exhaust gas through the turbine. The position of the waste gate is therefore an
important factor governing the performance of the engine.

WASTE GATE POSITION – IDLE

Immediately after start, there is probably not enough exhaust gas to spin the turbine fast
enough to create the required pressure at the outlet of the compressor. The Aneroid
Capsule will therefore be expanded, closing the Bleed Valve in the Absolute Pressure
Controller (A.P.C.), trapping oil within the waste gate actuator causing its piston to close
the waste gate fully

TAKE – OFF

This increased pressure is sensed in the APC, which releases oil from which the waste
gate actuator, allowing the spring to start opening the waste gate. The waste gate
continues to open as the throttle is opened, until, at full throttle, at sea level ISA
pressure, it is almost fully open.

CLIMB

From the moment of take off, and throughout the climb, the pressure at the compressor
inlet falls, causing its outlet pressure to fall also. This drop in outlet pressure is signalled
to the A.P.C., which closes the bleed valve trapping oil in the Waste Gate Actuator
causing it to progressively close the Waste Gate.

CRITICAL ALTITUDE

Eventually the Waste Gate will be fully shut and no more increase in turbine speed is
possible, this is termed the Critical Altitude.

INTERNALLY DRIVEN SUPERCHARGERS

Internally driven superchargers are generally used on medium and high powered piston
engines
SINGLE STAGE SUPERCHARGERS

This type of supercharger is usually capable of maintaining sea level manifold pressure
up to an altitude of 5,000 to 10,000 feet, at Rated Power Settings, depending on the gear
ratio.

AUTOMATIC BOOST CONTROL

At low altitudes where the air is more dense, the supercharger produces too much
pressure, consequently, to avoid severe detonation and mechanical stresses due to
excessively high combustion pressure, the delivery pressure must be restricted by only
partially opening the throttle valve.
As the aircraft climbs, the throttle valve must be progressively opened further to
maintain a constant boost pressure. To relieve the pilot of the responsibility of
constantly varying the position of the throttle lever during climb or descent, the boost
pressure is kept constant automatically by the Automatic Boost Control unit (A.B.C.)
which is generally attached to the carburetor.

THE ACTION OF THE THROTTLE IN THE SUPERCHARGED ENGINE

The height where the throttle is fully open, and this is known as Full Throttle Height,
above this height power will fall off as with the normally aspirated engine.

Since the effect of the supercharger depends on the speed of rotation of the impeller,
each power setting will have a different full throttle height according to the engine speed
and manifold pressure used, the Full Throttle Height at rated Power setting is known as
Rated Altitude.